ANGLE MODULATION

AM suffers from a major drawback:

• Most naturally occurring noise affects the amplitude of the received signal.
• Since information in AM is carried by amplitude variations, noise directly corrupts
the transmitted information.

To overcome this limitation, Angle Modulation was developed.

In angle modulation:
• The amplitude of the carrier remains constant.
• Information is transmitted by varying the angle of the carrier wave.
• Consequently, angle modulation provides significantly better noise immunity than
AM.

Because the transmitted amplitude is constant, efficient nonlinear power amplifiers (such
as Class C amplifiers) can be used, resulting in higher transmitter efficiency.
Review of a Carrier Wave

A sinusoidal carrier is represented by 𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝝓

𝐴𝑐 = Carrier amplitude, 𝑓𝑐 = Carrier frequency, 𝜙= Initial phase

• The carrier has three independent parameters: Amplitude, Frequency, Phase

• Changing any one of these parameters according to the message signal produces
modulation.

What is Angle?

• Consider the carrier 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕

• The quantity inside the cosine, 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 is called the phase angle.
• Generally, 𝜽 𝒕 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝝓. Where, 𝜽 𝒕 is known as the instantaneous phase.
• In angle modulation, this phase angle is varied according to the message signal.
Definition of Angle Modulation

Angle modulation is the process in which the instantaneous angle (phase) of the carrier
wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the message signal while
keeping the carrier amplitude constant.

Mathematically, 𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒕
Where, 𝐴𝑐 = constant and
𝜃 𝑡 contains the information signal.

Thus,
• Amplitude → Constant
• Frequency → Variable
• Phase → Variable
Types of Angle Modulation

(i) Frequency Modulation (FM)

• Information is transmitted by changing the carrier frequency.
• Carrier amplitude remains constant.
• Carrier phase changes automatically because frequency is changing.

(ii) Phase Modulation (PM)

• Information is transmitted by changing the carrier phase.
• Carrier amplitude remains constant.
• Carrier frequency changes indirectly because frequency is the derivative of phase.
Need for Angle Modulation

(a) Better Noise Immunity

• Noise generated in communication channels generally appears as unwanted
amplitude variations.
• Since FM and PM keep the carrier amplitude constant, amplitude limiters can
remove most of the noise before demodulation.
• Hence,
• Better Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
• Clearer audio
• Less distortion

(b) Higher Transmitter Efficiency

• AM requires linear power amplifiers. These amplifiers have poor efficiency. FM
uses constant envelope signals. Therefore,
• Class C amplifiers can be used.
• Efficiency can exceed 70–80%.
Need for Angle Modulation

(c) Reduced Fading Effects

• Multipath fading mainly affects signal amplitude.
• Since FM receivers respond primarily to frequency changes rather than amplitude
changes, the effects of fading are significantly reduced.

(d) Improved Audio Quality

• Higher fidelity
• Lower distortion
• Better dynamic range
• Hence FM is preferred for music broadcasting.

(e) Capture Effect

• If two FM signals are received simultaneously, the receiver locks onto the stronger
signal. This phenomenon is called the Capture Effect.
• AM receivers cannot exhibit this property.
Mathematical Representation of Angle Modulation

The most general angle-modulated signal is 𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒊 𝒕

𝜽𝒊 𝒕 is called the instantaneous phase given by, 𝜽𝒊 𝒕 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝝓 𝒕

𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 = Carrier phase
𝝓 𝒕 = Phase deviation caused by the message signal

Thus,
𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝝓 𝒕

• This equation is common to both PM and FM.

• The difference lies only in the definition of 𝝓 𝒕 .
Frequency Deviation

• The maximum change in frequency from the carrier frequency is called the
frequency deviation.
𝜟𝒇 = 𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒇𝒄

• Higher frequency deviation implies greater bandwidth but improved noise immunity.

Phase Deviation

• The maximum phase variation from the unmodulated carrier is called the phase
deviation.

𝜟𝝓 = 𝝓𝒎𝒂𝒙
Phase Modulation (PM)

In PM, the instantaneous phase varies directly with the message signal. Hence,

𝝓 𝒕 = 𝒌𝒑 𝒎 𝒕

Where, 𝒌𝒑 is called the phase sensitivity, expressed in rad/V

The PM signal is
𝒔𝑷𝑴 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒌𝒑 𝒎 𝒕
Characteristics:
• Constant amplitude
• Variable phase
• Frequency changes indirectly
Frequency Modulation (PM)

In FM, the instantaneous frequency varies according to the message signal. Hence,

𝒇𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝒎 𝒕
Where, 𝒌𝒇 is the frequency sensitivity.

Since frequency is the derivative of phase,

𝜽𝒊 𝒕 = 𝟐𝝅 න𝒇𝒊 𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Substituting,
𝜽𝒊 𝒕 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 න𝒎 𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Therefore,
𝒔𝑭𝑴 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝒇 න𝒎 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 Feature FM PM
Quantity varied Frequency Phase
Amplitude Constant Constant
Depends on Message amplitude Message amplitude
Directly proportional to
Phase deviation Integral of message
message
Frequency Directly proportional to Proportional to derivative
deviation message of message
Noise immunity Excellent Excellent
Frequency Modulation Analysis

To understand FM, we first consider a simple message signal consisting of a single

sinusoid. Let us consider the message signal

𝒎 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕

𝑨𝒎 = amplitude of message signal and 𝒇𝒎 = message frequency

The carrier signal is

𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕

𝑨𝒄 = carrier amplitude and 𝒇𝒄 = carrier frequency.

Frequency Modulation Analysis

In FM, the instantaneous frequency changes according to the message signal.

The defining equation of FM is 𝒇𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝒎 𝒕

𝒌𝒇 = frequency sensitivity (Hz/Volt).

Substituting the message signal, 𝒇𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝒌𝒇 𝑨𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕

Define 𝜟𝒇 = 𝒌𝒇 𝑨𝒎
Δ𝑓 is called the peak frequency deviation.

Hence, 𝒇𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒇𝒄 + 𝜟𝒇𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕

Interpretation
• The carrier frequency is not fixed.
• Instead, it oscillates around 𝑓𝑐 .
Frequency Modulation Analysis

➢ This is the standard equation of a single-tone FM signal.

𝜟𝒇
𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎 𝒕
𝒇𝒎
𝜟𝒇
The quantity 𝜷=
𝒇
is called the modulation index of FM. It indicates the
𝒎
amount of frequency modulation.

➢ Unlike AM, the FM spectrum contains an infinite number of sidebands. The spectral
components occur at 𝒇𝒄 ± 𝒏𝒇𝒎 where, 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …

Physical Meaning
• Large 𝜷→ large frequency swing → wider bandwidth.
• Small 𝜷→ small frequency swing → narrower bandwidth.

Notice that
• Increasing message amplitude increases 𝜟𝒇, so 𝜷 increases.
• Increasing message frequency decreases 𝜷.
Classification of FM

(a) Narrowband FM (NBFM) (b) Wideband FM (WBFM)

Condition 𝛽<1 Condition 𝛽>1

Characteristics Characteristics
• Small frequency deviation. • Large frequency deviation.
• Small bandwidth. • Many significant sidebands.
• Only the carrier and first pair of • Excellent noise immunity.
sidebands are significant. • High-quality audio.
• Easier mathematical analysis.
Applications:
Typical applications: • FM broadcasting
• Two-way radio • Television sound
• Walkie-talkies • Satellite communication
• Telemetry
Classification of FM

Feature Narrowband FM Wideband FM

Modulation index 𝜷<1 𝜷>1
Frequency deviation Small Large
Bandwidth Small Large
Number of sidebands Few Many
Noise immunity Moderate Excellent
Audio quality Fair Excellent
Generation of Frequency Modulation

Frequency Modulation (FM) is one of the most widely used analog modulation techniques
because of its excellent noise immunity and high fidelity.

However, generating an FM signal with high stability and large frequency deviation is not
straightforward.

Two broad approaches are used for FM generation:

• Direct Method: The direct method varies the oscillator frequency directly.

• Indirect Method (Armstrong Method): The indirect method first generates a phase-
modulated signal and then converts it into FM. This method provides excellent
frequency stability because the carrier is generated using a crystal oscillator.

Each method has its own advantages and limitations.

Indirect FM Generation (Armstrong Method)

Principle

FM can be generated by applying the integral of the message signal to a phase modulator.

Mathematically,

PM signal
𝒔𝑷𝑴 = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒌𝒑 𝒎 𝒕
If
𝒎 𝒕 = න𝒙 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
then
𝒔 = 𝑨𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒄 𝒕 + 𝒌𝒑 න𝒙 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
which is exactly the FM equation.
Indirect FM Generation (Armstrong Method)

Step 1: Crystal Oscillator

• Function: Generates a highly stable carrier signal of frequency 𝑓𝑐 .
• Why required? A crystal oscillator provides excellent frequency stability and
prevents frequency drift, ensuring accurate FM transmission.

Step 2: 90° Phase Shifter

• Function: Shifts the carrier phase by 90𝑜 .
• Why required? The balanced modulator requires a carrier that is in quadrature (90°
phase shifted) with the original carrier to produce a phase-modulated signal.

Step 3: Integrator
• Function: Integrates the message signal 𝒎𝒊 𝒕 = ‫𝒕𝒅 𝒕 𝒎׬‬
• Why required? A phase modulator produces PM. By integrating the message before
phase modulation, the output becomes an FM signal because FM is obtained by
phase modulating the integral of the message signal.
Indirect FM Generation (Armstrong Method)

Step 4: Balanced Modulator (Phase Modulator)

• Function: Combines the integrated message signal with the 90° phase-shifted
carrier to produce a DSB-SC (phase-modulated) signal.
• Why required? This stage introduces the phase variations required for indirect FM
generation.

Step 5: Adder
• Function: Adds the original unshifted carrier to the balanced modulator output.
• Why required? The addition of the carrier converts the DSB-SC phase-modulated
signal into a Narrowband FM (NBFM) signal.
Indirect FM Generation (Armstrong Method)

Step 6: Frequency Multipliers

Function:
• Increase both the carrier frequency and the frequency deviation.
• If the multiplication factor is 𝑁,
𝒇′𝒄 = 𝑵𝒇𝒄
𝚫𝒇′ = 𝑵𝜟𝒇
Why required?
• The Armstrong method initially generates only narrowband FM.
• Frequency multipliers convert it into Wideband FM (WBFM) by proportionally
increasing both the carrier frequency and the frequency deviation.
Indirect FM Generation (Armstrong Method)

Step 7: Mixer
Function:
• Shifts the carrier frequency to the desired transmission frequency using a local
oscillator.
Why required?
• The frequency obtained after multiplication may not be the required transmission
frequency.
• The mixer translates the FM signal to the assigned carrier frequency without
changing its modulation characteristics.

Step 8: Power Amplifier

Function:
• Amplifies the FM signal to the required transmission power.
Why required?
• The generated FM signal has low power. The power amplifier increases its
power so that it can be transmitted over long distances through the antenna.
FM Detection

FM detection (or demodulation) is the process of recovering the original message signal
from the frequency-modulated carrier.

Recall that in FM:

• Information is contained in the frequency variations of the carrier. The amplitude
remains constant.
• Therefore, an FM detector must convert frequency variations into voltage variations
proportional to the original message.

Principle of FM Detection

The detector must perform two operations:

• Convert frequency changes into amplitude changes.
• Extract the amplitude variations using an envelope detector or low-pass filter.

Frequency variation → Amplitude variation → Message signal

FM Detection

Several FM detectors are available.

• Slope Detector
• Balanced Slope Detector
• PLL Detector

Drawback Of Slope Detector:

• The response is not perfectly linear.
• Positive and negative frequency deviations are not converted equally.
• Therefore, the output contains distortion.

Balanced Slope Detector:

• To overcome the limitations of the slope detector, the Balanced Slope Detector uses
two tuned circuits.
• The two tuned circuits are adjusted differently.
• One circuit is tuned slightly above the carrier frequency.
• The other is tuned slightly below the carrier frequency.
Balanced Slope Detector

The Balanced Slope Detector is an improved version of the simple slope detector used for
FM demodulation.

Its primary purpose is to recover the original modulating signal by converting frequency
variations of the FM wave into amplitude variations, which can then be detected using
envelope detectors.

The simple slope detector suffers from:

• Nonlinear output
• High distortion
• Poor noise performance

To overcome these drawbacks, the Balanced Slope Detector uses two tuned circuits and
two diode envelope detectors, providing a more linear response and improved
demodulation accuracy.
Balanced Slope Detector

The detector operates on the principle that the output voltage of a tuned circuit changes
with frequency when operated on the slope of its resonance curve.

Instead of using only one slope as in the simple slope detector, the balanced slope detector
uses:
• One tuned circuit operating on the left slope
• Another tuned circuit operating on the right slope

The outputs of the two circuits are then subtracted. Thus,

• Positive frequency deviations produce positive output voltage.
• Negative frequency deviations produce negative output voltage.

Hence, the original message signal is recovered.

Balanced Slope Detector

1. Transformer
• The incoming FM signal is coupled through a center-tapped transformer.
• Its purpose is
• impedance matching
• signal isolation
• equal distribution of the FM signal to both tuned circuits.

2. Tuned Circuits
• Two LC tuned circuits are employed.
• They are intentionally tuned to slightly different frequencies.

3. Diodes
• Each tuned circuit feeds an envelope detector.
• The diodes rectify the RF signal.
4. RC FiltersThe RC circuits remove the RF [Link] the detected audio voltage
remains.
Balanced Slope Detector

4. RC Filters
• The RC circuits remove the RF component.
• Only the detected audio voltage remains.

5. Differential Output
• Finally, the outputs are subtracted.
• This subtraction produces the recovered message.

Case 1: Carrier Frequency, Suppose 𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 => there is no modulation.

Both tuned circuits produce equal output voltages.

Case 2: Positive Frequency Deviation, Suppose 𝑓𝑖 > 𝑓𝑐 => Positive output voltage is
produced.

Case 3: Negative Frequency Deviation

Balanced Slope Detector

Why is it Called "Balanced"?

Both tuned circuits operate in opposite directions. Any unwanted amplitude variation
appears equally at both outputs and is cancelled when the difference is taken.

It is called balanced because both tuned circuits produce equal outputs at the carrier
frequency.

When the carrier frequency shifts, one output increases while the other decreases by
approximately the same amount. Therefore, the detector is balanced about the carrier
frequency.

• Reduced distortion
• Better linearity
• Better noise rejection
Phase Locked Loop (PLL)

➢ A Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is a closed-loop electronic control system that

automatically synchronizes the phase and frequency of a locally generated
signal with an incoming reference signal.

➢ Unlike ordinary oscillators that operate independently, a PLL continuously compares its
output with the incoming signal and adjusts itself until both signals have the same phase
and frequency.

➢ Because of its 1. excellent accuracy 2. stability 3. noise immunity, the PLL is widely
used in modern communication systems for

➢ FM demodulation, Frequency synthesis, Clock recovery, Carrier recovery, Frequency

multiplication, Satellite communication, Mobile communication, Digital communication
systems
Phase Locked Loop (PLL)

A Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is a feedback control system that continuously compares the phase of
an input signal with the phase of a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO) output and automatically
adjusts the VCO frequency until both signals are synchronized.

The output of the oscillator is continuously fed back to the input for comparison. Hence,

Output
↓
Compared with Input
↓
Correction Produced
↓
Oscillator Adjusted
↓
Output Again

This continuous feedback forms a closed loop, hence the name Phase Locked Loop.
Phase Locked Loop (PLL)

Why "Phase Locked"?

• The objective of the PLL is to make
𝝓𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝝓𝑽𝑪𝑶
• When this condition is achieved, both signals remain synchronized.
• The PLL is then said to be locked.

Major Components of PLL

• A PLL consists of three basic blocks.
• Phase Detector
• Loop Filter
• Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
• These are connected in a closed feedback loop.
Phase Locked Loop (PLL)

Phase Detector
It compares incoming FM signal with VCO output signal.
Let 𝜙𝑖 , 𝜙𝑜 is the Input and output phase.
The phase detector measures 𝝓𝒆 = 𝝓𝒊 − 𝝓𝒐 . 𝝓𝒆 is called the phase error.

The phase detector generates an error voltage (𝑽𝒆 ), which is proportional to the phase
difference.
Mathematically, 𝑽𝒆 = 𝑲𝒅 𝝓𝒊 − 𝝓𝒐 . 𝑲𝒅 is the phase detector gain.

If both phases are equal 𝝓𝒊 = 𝝓𝒐 , then 𝑽𝒆 = 𝟎, No correction is needed.

If input phase increases: Phase detector generates, Positive error voltage.
If input phase decreases: Phase detector generates, Negative error voltage.

Thus, the phase detector acts as a comparator.

Phase Locked Loop (PLL)

Loop Filter

• The output of the phase detector contains

• desired DC component
• unwanted high-frequency components.
• Therefore, it is passed through a low-pass filter.

Functions
• The loop filter
• removes noise
• removes high-frequency ripple
• smooths the control voltage
• stabilizes PLL operation

Without the filter, the VCO would continuously oscillate and become unstable
Phase Locked Loop (PLL)

Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

• The VCO is an oscillator whose output frequency depends upon the input control
voltage. Unlike a crystal oscillator, its frequency is not fixed.

• The frequency is 𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆 + 𝑲𝒗 𝑽𝒄

• 𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 is the free-running frequency
• 𝑉𝑐 is the control voltage, and
• 𝐾𝑣 is the VCO sensitivity.

• If control voltage increases → Frequency increases. If control voltage decreases →

Frequency decreases.

• Thus, the VCO continuously follows the control voltage generated by the phase detector.
Phase Locked Loop (PLL) - Working

Step 1: The incoming FM signal enters the phase detector. Let Carrier frequency 100
MHz.

Step 2: The VCO initially operates at 99.98 MHz. Therefore, its phase differs from the
incoming signal.

Step 3: The phase detector compares both signals. Since, they are different, an error
voltage is produced.

Step 4: The loop filter removes unwanted ripple. Only a smooth DC control voltage
remains.
Phase Locked Loop (PLL) - Working

Step 5: This voltage is applied to the VCO. The VCO frequency increases. Suppose
99.98 MHz
↓
99.99 MHz
↓
100 MHz

Step 6: Finally, 𝒇𝑽𝑪𝑶 = 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

The PLL is now locked.

Locked Condition

• When 𝝓𝒊 = 𝝓𝒐 and 𝒇𝒊 = 𝒇𝒐 , the PLL is said to be locked.

• Once locked, the VCO automatically follows every small frequency variation of the
input FM signal.
NOISE IN FM

• Noise is any unwanted electrical signal that interferes with the desired message signal.
Examples include: Atmospheric noise (lightning), Thermal noise, Industrial noise, Man-
made interference

• Although FM receivers use amplitude limiters to remove most amplitude noise, some
random frequency fluctuations remain after demodulation.

• These fluctuations become more pronounced at higher audio frequencies.

• Consequently: Low-frequency audio suffers less degradation. High-frequency audio

suffers more degradation.

• This leads to reduced clarity in speech and music unless corrective measures are taken.
NOISE IN FM

• Although FM offers much better noise immunity than AM, it is not completely free from
noise.

• One important characteristic of FM receivers is that high-frequency components of the

recovered signal are more affected by noise than low-frequency components.

• To improve the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), two complementary techniques are used:
• Pre-emphasis (performed at the transmitter)
• De-emphasis (performed at the receiver)

• These techniques improve the quality of received audio without changing the
transmitted information.
Need for Pre-emphasis

Since high-frequency components are more affected by noise, we intentionally increase

their amplitude before transmission. This process is called Pre-emphasis.

Pre-emphasis is the process of boosting the amplitude of the high-frequency components of

the modulating signal before FM modulation. The low-frequency components remain
almost unchanged.

Objective
• Improve signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
• Reduce the effect of high-frequency noise
• Improve speech intelligibility
• Improve music quality
Need for De-emphasis

• After transmission, the received signal contains:

• boosted high-frequency components
• high-frequency noise
• Therefore, the receiver applies the opposite process.

• De-emphasis is the process of attenuating the high-frequency components of the

demodulated signal by exactly the same amount that they were boosted at the
transmitter.

Objective
• Restore the original frequency response
• Reduce high-frequency noise
• Improve received audio quality
 Feature AM FM
Quantity varied Amplitude Frequency
Carrier amplitude Varies Constant
Carrier frequency Constant Varies
Noise immunity Poor Excellent
Audio quality Moderate High
Bandwidth Small Large

Higher (constant envelope allows

Power efficiency Lower
efficient amplifiers)

Complexity Simple More complex

Modulation index ≤ 1 (for standard AM) Can be greater than 1
FM broadcasting, TV sound, mobile
Applications AM broadcasting, aviation
radio