UNIT-4
Topic 9- Actor & Processes
Introduction
Electoral System refers to the set of rules and
procedures that determine how votes are cast, counted,
and translated into seats in a legislature or positions in an
executive body.
It defines the relationship between votes and
political power.
According to Andrew Heywood, an electoral system is
“the rules that govern the conduct of elections and
determine how votes are translated into seats.”
Objectives of an Electoral System
To ensure representation of people’s will in the
government.
To maintain political stability and legitimacy of the
regime.
To encourage political participation and
accountability.
To promote fairness, equality, and inclusiveness in
political competition.
To provide periodic renewal of political authority.
Types of Electoral Systems
Electoral systems are generally classified into three broad
categories:
1. Majoritarian (Plurality) Systems
2. Proportional Representation (PR) Systems
3. Mixed Systems (Hybrid Systems)
Classification of Electoral System
Majoritarian (Plurality) Systems
(i) First-Past-The-Post (FPTP) System
Each constituency elects one representative.
The candidate who secures the highest number of
votes wins (not necessarily a majority).
Used in India, UK, USA, Canada etc.
Advantages:
Simple and easy to understand.
Produces stable governments with clear majorities.
Encourages strong link between representatives and
constituencies.
Disadvantages:
May lead to disproportionate results (party with
fewer votes can get more seats).
Neglects minority representation.
Encourages two-party systems (as per Duverger’s
Law).
(ii) Alternative Vote (AV) / Preferential Voting
Voters rank candidates in order of preference (1, 2, 3,
…).
If no candidate gets majority in the first count, lowest
candidates are eliminated and votes redistributed until
one has >50%.
Used in Australia for House of Representatives.
Advantage: Ensures majority support for the winner.
Disadvantage: More complex and time-consuming.
Proportional Representation (PR) Systems
(i) Party List System
Parties present a list of candidates in multi-member
constituencies.
Seats are distributed in proportion to the votes
received by each party.
Variants:
Closed List: Voters choose the party; party decides
candidate order.
Open List: Voters can choose specific candidates.
Examples: Netherlands, Israel, South Africa.
Advantages:
Ensures fair representation for all political opinions.
Encourages multiparty systems and coalition
governments.
Reduces wasted votes.
Disadvantages:
Weakens link between representative and voter.
Leads to political fragmentation and coalition
instability.
(ii) Single Transferable Vote (STV)
Voters rank candidates in multi-member
constituencies.
Candidates must achieve a quota (based on Droop
formula).
Excess and transferred votes are redistributed.
Used in Ireland, Malta.
Advantage: Combines representation with voter
choice.
Disadvantage: Counting is complex.
Mixed Systems (Hybrid Systems)
Combine majoritarian and proportional features to
balance representation and stability.
(i) Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP)
Voters cast two votes: one for a candidate
(constituency) and one for a party (national list).
Party seats are adjusted to reflect total vote share.
Example: Germany, New Zealand.
(ii) Parallel / Mixed-Member Majoritarian (MMM)
Two parallel elections: one under FPTP, one under PR,
but no compensation between the two.
Example: Japan, South Korea.
2. Political party
A political party is an organized group of people who
share common political ideologies and aims, seeking to
attain and maintain political power through elections
in order to implement their policies.
Political parties act as linkages between the government
and the people.
Definitions:
Burke: “A political party is a body of men united for
promoting, by their joint endeavors, the national interest
upon some particular principle in which they are all
agreed.”
Sartori: “Any political group identified by an official label
that presents at elections and is capable of placing
candidates for public office through elections.”
Duverger: Defines political parties as durable
organizations with local branches, aiming to gain control
of government through elections.
Type Features Examples
Single- Only one legal China (CPC), North Korea
party party; opposition
system not allowed
Two-party Power alternates USA (Democrats–Republicans), UK
system between two (Labour–Conservatives)
major parties
Multi-party Several parties India, France, Israel, Italy
system compete;
coalition
governments
likely
Major Political Parties in India
Political Party Year of Election Prominent Leaders
Formation Symbol (Past & Present)
Indian 1885 Hand Mahatma Gandhi,
National Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira
Congress (INC) Gandhi, Sonia Gandhi,
Rahul Gandhi,
Mallikarjun Kharge
Bharatiya 1980 (origin Lotus Atal Bihari Vajpayee,
Janata Party from L.K. Advani, Narendra
(BJP) Bharatiya Modi, Amit Shah, J.P.
Jana Sangh, Nadda
1951)
Bahujan Samaj 1984 Elephant Kanshi Ram (founder),
Party (BSP) Mayawati
Communist 1925 Ears of S.A. Dange, A.B.
Party of India corn and Bardhan, D. Raja
(CPI) sickle
Communist 1964 Hammer, E.M.S. Namboodiripad,
Party of India sickle and Jyoti Basu, Prakash
(Marxist) – star Karat, Sitaram Yechury
CPI(M)
Nationalist 1999 Clock Sharad Pawar, Supriya
Congress Sule, Praful Patel, Ajit
Party (NCP) Pawar
Aam Aadmi 2012 Broom Arvind Kejriwal, Manish
Party (AAP) Sisodia, Bhagwant Mann
Dravida 1949 Rising sun C.N. Annadurai, M.
Munnetra between Karunanidhi, M.K. Stalin
Kazhagam two
(DMK) mountains
All India Anna 1972 Two M.G. Ramachandran
Dravida leaves (MGR), J. Jayalalithaa,
Munnetra Edappadi K. Palaniswami
Kazhagam
(AIADMK)
Trinamool 1998 Flowers Mamata Banerjee,
Congress (TMC and grass Abhishek Banerjee
/ AITC)
Biju Janata Dal 1997 Conch Biju Patnaik
(BJD) (inspiration), Naveen
Patnaik
Janata Dal 2003 Arrow Nitish Kumar, Sharad
(United) – Yadav (founder)
JD(U)
Rashtriya 1997 Lantern Lalu Prasad Yadav,
Janata Dal Tejashwi Yadav
(RJD)
Shiv Sena 1966 (split Flaming Bal Thackeray, Uddhav
(Uddhav 2022) torch Thackeray
Balasaheb (Mashaal)
Thackeray
faction)
Shiv Sena 1966 (split Bow and Eknath Shinde
(Shinde 2022) arrow
faction – now
recognized as
official)
Samajwadi 1992 Bicycle Mulayam Singh Yadav,
Party (SP) Akhilesh Yadav
National 2013 Book Conrad Sangma (current
People’s Party CM, Meghalaya)
(NPP)
Rashtriya Lok 1996 Hand Chaudhary Ajit Singh,
Dal (RLD) pump Jayant Chaudhary
3. Interest Groups
An Interest Group is an organised group of individuals
who share common interests and attempt to influence
public policy without seeking direct control of the
government (unlike political parties).
They function as a link between society and the
government, ensuring that the voices of various sections
are heard in policymaking.
Key Definitions
David B. Truman:“An interest group is any group that,
on the basis of one or more shared attitudes, makes
certain claims upon other groups or institutions in
society.”
Almond and Powell:“Interest groups are organisations
that attempt to influence public policy without seeking to
place their members in formal governmental positions.”
Gabriel Almond:Classified them as part of the “input
functions” of a political system (interest articulation).
Characteristics of Interest Groups
Organised and structured groups of individuals.
Aim to influence decisions, not to capture political
power.
Operate both formally and informally.
Usually have specific goals (economic, professional,
ideological, etc.).
Often work in coordination with political parties and
bureaucracy.
Types / Classification of Interest Groups
Institutional Interest Bureaucracy, Military, Church
Groups
Associational Groups Voluntary, formally organised groups
like trade unions
Anomic Groups Spontaneous groups such as mobs,
riots, sudden protests
Non-associational Kinship, ethnic, or regional ties with
Groups informal organisation
4. Social Movements and New Social
Movements
A social movement is a collective, organized effort
by a group of people to bring about or resist social,
political, or economic change.
It involves sustained collective action, guided by a
shared ideology or goal.
Emerging after the 1960s, New Social Movements
represent a shift from economic/class-based
struggles to identity, environment, gender, and
cultural issues.
They arose mainly in post-industrial societies in
response to issues of recognition, quality of life, and
democracy, rather than material redistribution.
Difference between Traditional Social
Movements and New Social Movements
Basis of Traditional Social New Social
Difference Movements Movements (NSMs)
Period / Emerged mainly during Emerged in the post-
Emergence the 18th–20th 1960s period,
centuries (industrial especially in advanced
era). industrial societies.
Nature Class-based and Post-materialist and
economic in nature identity-based
(workers, peasants). (environment, gender,
peace, human rights).
Core Issues Focus on economic Focus on cultural
redistribution, recognition,
labour rights, environment,
wages, and class gender equality,
struggle. democracy, and
lifestyle.
Ideological Base Rooted in Marxism Rooted in post-
and socialism — Marxist and
emphasising economic postmodern
justice. theories —
emphasising
autonomy, identity,
and participation.
Type of Mostly working class Includes middle
Participants or peasantry. class, students,
intellectuals,
professionals.
Organisational Centralised, Decentralised,
Structure hierarchical, and network-based, and
party-linked. non-hierarchical.
Methods of Strikes, Non-violent,
Protest demonstrations, and symbolic, media-
class-based based campaigns
agitation. and advocacy.
Objective To achieve economic To achieve social,
and political change. cultural, and
ecological
transformation.
Examples Trade union Feminist movement,
movement, peasant environmental
movement, civil rights movement, LGBTQ+
movement, anti- movement, anti-
colonial movement. nuclear movement,
human rights
campaigns.
Role of the The State is seen as The State is one
State the main actor and among many actors;
target for focus is also on civil
redistribution. society and global
issues.
Theoretical Karl Marx, Lenin, Mao, Jürgen Habermas,
Proponents and other classical Alain Touraine, Claus
theorists. Offe, Alberto Melucci.
Area of Focus Economic inequality Cultural identity,
and class relations. environment,
gender, and
democracy.
Key Takeaways
An electoral system refers to the method by which
votes are translated into seats in the process of
electing representatives.
Interest groups are organized groups that seek to
influence public policy and decision-making without
contesting elections.
Social movements are organized collective efforts
by a large group of people to bring about or resist
social, political, or economic change.
India follows First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) for Lok
Sabha and State Assemblies.
India has a multi-party political system, which
reflects its vast social and cultural diversity.
The Proportional Representation (PR) system, used
in the elections for the Rajya Sabha and the
President of India.
The country’s party system evolved from the
Congress-dominant phase (1950–67) to the
fragmented and regionalized phase (1967–89),
followed by an era of coalition politics (1990–2014),
and finally, the BJP-dominant phase after 2014.