468 CHAPTER 14 | Superposition and Standing Waves

SUMMARY |
The principle of superposition states that if two or more trav- The maximum amplitude points (called antinodes) are
eling waves are moving through a medium and combine at separated by a distance /2. Halfway between antinodes are
a given point, the resultant position of the element of the points of zero amplitude (called nodes).
medium at that point is the sum of the positions due to the The phenomenon of beats occurs as a result of the su-
individual waves. perposition of two traveling waves of slightly different fre-
Standing waves are formed from the superposition of two quencies. For sound waves at a given point, one hears an
sinusoidal waves that have the same frequency, amplitude, alternation in sound intensity with time.
and wavelength but are traveling in opposite directions. The Any periodic waveform can be represented by the combi-
resultant standing wave is described by the wave function nation of sinusoidal waves that form a harmonic series. The
process is based on Fourier’s theorem.
y 5 (2A sin kx) cos t 14.2b

Analysis Models for Problem Solving |

Waves in Interference. When two traveling waves having equal frequencies
superimpose, the resultant wave has an amplitude that depends on the phase
angle  between the two waves. Constructive interference occurs when the two
waves are in phase, corresponding to  5 0, 2, 4, . . . rad. Destructive interfer-
ence occurs when the two waves are 1808 out of phase, corresponding to  5 ,
3, 5, . . . rad.

Waves Under Boundary Conditions. When a wave is subject to boundary condi-

tions, only certain natural frequencies are allowed; we say that the frequencies are
quantized.
For waves on a string fixed at both ends, the natural frequencies are
n T
fn 5 n 5 1, 2, 3, . . . 14.7b
2L 
where T is the tension in the string and  is its linear mass density.
For sound waves with speed v in an air column of length L open at both ends,
the natural frequencies are
v
fn 5 n n 5 1, 2, 3, . . . 14.9b
2L
If an air column is open at one end and closed at the other, only odd harmonics
are present and the natural frequencies are
v
fn 5 n n 5 1, 3, 5, . . . 14.10b
4L

denotes answer available in Student

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS | Solutions Manual/Study Guide

1. A flute has a length of 58.0 cm. If the speed of sound in air is what is the effect on the fundamental frequency? (a) It be-
343 m/s, what is the fundamental frequency of the flute, as- comes two times larger. (b) It becomes "2 times larger.
suming it is a tube closed at one end and open at the other? (c) It is unchanged. (d) It becomes 1/"2 times as large.
(a) 148 Hz (b) 296 Hz (c) 444 Hz (d) 591 Hz (e) none of (e) It becomes one-half as large. (ii) If the mass per unit
those answers length is doubled, with all other factors held constant, what
2. A string of length L, mass per unit length , and tension T is the effect on the fundamental frequency? Choose from
is vibrating at its fundamental frequency. (i) If the length of the same possibilities as in part (i). (iii) If the tension is dou-
the string is doubled, with all other factors held constant, bled, with all other factors held constant, what is the effect
 | Conceptual Questions 469

on the fundamental frequency? Choose from the same pos- 6. When two tuning forks are sounded at the same time, a beat
sibilities as in part (i). frequency of 5 Hz occurs. If one of the tuning forks has a
frequency of 245 Hz, what is the frequency of the other tun-
3. In Figure OQ14.3, a sound
ing fork? (a) 240 Hz (b) 242.5 Hz (c) 247.5 Hz (d) 250 Hz
wave of wavelength 0.8 m
(e) More than one answer could be correct.
divides into two equal
parts that recombine to 7. As oppositely moving pulses of the same shape (one upward,
interfere constructively, one downward) on a string pass through each other, at one
with the original differ- particular instant the string shows no displacement from
ence between their path the equilibrium position at any point. What has happened
lengths being |r2 2 r1| 5 to the energy carried by the pulses at this instant of time?
0.8 m. Rank the following (a) It was used up in producing the previous motion. (b) It
situations according to the is all potential energy. (c) It is all internal energy. (d) It is all
intensity of sound at the kinetic energy. (e) The positive energy of one pulse adds to
receiver from the high- zero with the negative energy of the other pulse.
est to the lowest. Assume Figure OQ14.3 8. Assume two identical sinusoidal waves are moving through
the tube walls absorb no the same medium in the same direction. Under what condi-
sound energy. Give equal ranks to situations in which the tion will the amplitude of the resultant wave be greater than
intensity is equal. (a) From its original position, the sliding either of the two original waves? (a) in all cases (b) only if the
section is moved out by 0.1 m. (b) Next it slides out an addi- waves have no difference in phase (c) only if the phase dif-
tional 0.1 m. (c) It slides out still another 0.1 m. (d) It slides ference is less than 908 (d) only if the phase difference is less
out 0.1 m more. than 1208 (e) only if the phase difference is less than 1808
4. A series of pulses, each of amplitude 0.1 m, is sent down a 9. An archer shoots an arrow horizontally from the center of
string that is attached to a post at one end. The pulses are the string of a bow held vertically. After the arrow leaves it,
reflected at the post and travel back along the string with- the string of the bow will vibrate as a superposition of what
out loss of amplitude. (i) What is the net displacement at a standing-wave harmonics? (a) It vibrates only in harmonic
point on the string where two pulses are crossing? Assume number 1, the fundamental. (b) It vibrates only in the second
the string is rigidly attached to the post. (a) 0.4 m (b) 0.3 m harmonic. (c) It vibrates only in the odd-numbered harmon-
(c) 0.2 m (d) 0.1 m (e) 0 (ii) Next assume the end at which ics 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . . (d) It vibrates only in the even-numbered
reflection occurs is free to slide up and down. Now what harmonics 2, 4, 6, 8, . . . . (e) It vibrates in all harmonics.
is the net displacement at a point on the string where two
10. A tuning fork is known to vibrate with frequency 262 Hz.
pulses are crossing? Choose your answer from the same pos-
When it is sounded along with a mandolin string, four
sibilities as in part (i).
beats are heard every second. Next, a bit of tape is put onto
5. Suppose all six equal-length strings of an acoustic guitar are each tine of the tuning fork, and the tuning fork now pro-
played without fingering, that is, without being pressed down duces five beats per second with the same mandolin string.
at any frets. What quantities are the same for all six strings? What is the frequency of the string? (a) 257 Hz (b) 258 Hz
Choose all correct answers. (a) the fundamental frequency (c) 262 Hz (d) 266 Hz (e) 267 Hz
(b) the fundamental wavelength of the string wave (c) the 11. A standing wave having three nodes is set up in a string fixed at
fundamental wavelength of the sound emitted (d) the speed both ends. If the frequency of the wave is doubled, how many
of the string wave (e) the speed of the sound emitted antinodes will there be? (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5 (e) 6

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CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS | Solutions Manual/Study Guide

1. A crude model of the human throat is that of a pipe open are running. What could be causing this variation from loud
at both ends with a vibrating source to introduce the sound to soft?
into the pipe at one end. Assuming the vibrating source pro-
7. A soft-drink bottle resonates as air is blown across its top.
duces a range of frequencies, discuss the effect of changing
What happens to the resonance frequency as the level of
the pipe’s length.
fluid in the bottle decreases?
2. When two waves interfere constructively or destructively, is
there any gain or loss in energy in the system of the waves? 8. A tuning fork by itself produces a faint sound. Explain
Explain. how each of the following methods can be used to obtain
a louder sound from it. Explain also any effect on the time
3. Explain how a musical instrument such as a piano may be interval for which the fork vibrates audibly. (a) holding the
tuned by using the phenomenon of beats. edge of a sheet of paper against one vibrating tine (b) press-
4. Does the phenomenon of wave interference apply only to ing the handle of the tuning fork against a chalkboard or a
sinusoidal waves? tabletop (c) holding the tuning fork above a column of air
of properly chosen length as in Example 14.5 (d) holding
5. What limits the amplitude of motion of a real vibrating sys- the tuning fork close to an open slot cut in a sheet of foam
tem that is driven at one of its resonant frequencies? plastic or cardboard (with the slot similar in size and shape
6. An airplane mechanic notices that the sound from a twin- to one tine of the fork and the motion of the tines perpen-
engine aircraft rapidly varies in loudness when both engines dicular to the sheet)
470 CHAPTER 14 | Superposition and Standing Waves

PROBLEMS |

The problems found in this chapter may be assigned denotes Master It tutorial available in Enhanced
online in Enhanced WebAssign. WebAssign
1. denotes straightforward problem; 2. denotes intermediate denotes asking for quantitative and conceptual reasoning
problem; 3. denotes challenging problem denotes symbolic reasoning problem
1. denotes full solution available in the Student Solutions Manual/ denotes “paired problems” that develop reasoning with
Study Guide symbols and numerical values
1. denotes problems most often assigned in Enhanced denotes Watch It video solution available in Enhanced
WebAssign. WebAssign
denotes biomedical problem
denotes guided problem

second wave originates from the same point as the first, but
Note: Unless otherwise specified, assume that the speed of
at a later time. The amplitude of the resultant wave is the
sound in air is 343 m/s, its value at an air temperature at
same as that of each of the two initial waves. Determine the
208C. At any other Celsius temperature TC , the speed of
minimum possible time interval between the starting mo-
sound in air is described by
ments of the two waves.
TC 5. Two waves on one string are described by the wave
v 5 331 11
273 functions
where v is in m/s and TC is in 8C. y1 5 3.0 cos (4.0x 2 1.6t) y2 5 4.0 sin (5.0x 2 2.0t)
where x and y are in centimeters and t is in seconds. Find
Section 14.1 Analysis Model: Waves in Interference the superposition of the waves y1 1 y2 at the points
1. Two waves are traveling in the same direction along a (a) x 5 1.00, t 5 1.00; (b) x 5 1.00, t 5 0.500; and
stretched string. The waves are 90.08 out of phase. Each (c) x 5 0.500, t 5 0 Note: Remember that the arguments of
wave has an amplitude of 4.00 cm. Find the amplitude of the trigonometric functions are in radians.
the resultant wave. 6. Two speakers are driven
2. Two wave pulses A and B are moving in opposite directions, by the same oscillator of
each with a speed v 5 2.00 cm/s. The amplitude of A is twice frequency f. They are lo-
the amplitude of B. The pulses are shown in Figure P14.2 at cated a distance d from
t 5 0. Sketch the resultant wave at t 5 1.00 s, 1.50 s, 2.00 s, each other on a verti-
2.50 s, and 3.00 s. cal pole. A man walks
straight toward the lower
speaker in a direction
perpendicular to the pole
as shown in Figure P14.6.
(a) How many times will
he hear a minimum in Figure P14.6
sound intensity? (b) How
far is he from the pole at these moments? Let v represent
the speed of sound and assume that the ground does not
reflect sound.
Figure P14.2
7. Two pulses traveling on the same string are described by
3. Two sinusoidal waves in a string are defined by the wave
functions 5 25
y1 5 y2 5
y1 5 2.00 sin (20.0x 2 32.0t) y2 5 2.00 sin (25.0x 2 40.0t) (3x 2 4t)2 1 2 (3x 1 4t 2 6)2 1 2

where x, y1, and y2 are in centimeters and t is in seconds. (a) In which direction does each pulse travel? (b) At what
(a) What is the phase difference between these two waves at instant do the two cancel everywhere? (c) At what point do
the point x 5 5.00 cm at t 5 2.00 s? (b) What is the positive the two pulses always cancel?
x value closest to the origin for which the two phases differ
8. Why is the following situation impossible? Two identical loud-
by 6 at t 5 2.00 s? (At that location, the two waves add to
speakers are driven by the same oscillator at frequency
zero.)
200 Hz. They are located on the ground a distance d 5 4.00 m
4. Two identical sinusoidal waves with wavelengths of 3.00 m from each other. Starting far from the speakers, a man
travel in the same direction at a speed of 2.00 m/s. The walks straight toward the right-hand speaker as shown in
 | Problems 471

Figure P14.8. After pass- where x, y1, and y2 are in centimeters and t is in seconds.
ing through three minima Determine the maximum transverse position of an element
in sound intensity, he of the medium at (a) x 5 0.250 cm, (b) x 5 0.500 cm, and
walks to the next maxi- (c) x 5 1.50 cm. (d) Find the three smallest values of x cor-
mum and stops. Ignore responding to antinodes.
any sound reflection from
14. Two waves simultaneously present on a long string
the ground.
have a phase difference  between them so that a standing
9. Two traveling sinusoi- wave formed from their combination is described by
dal waves are described by  
the wave functions y(x, t) 5 2A sin kx 1 cos t 2
2 2
Figure P14.8
(a) Despite the presence of the phase angle , is it still
y1 5 5.00 sin [(4.00x 2 1 200t)]
true that the nodes are one-half wavelength apart? Explain.
y2 5 5.00 sin [(4.00x 2 1 200t 2 0.250)] (b) Are the nodes different in any way from the way they
would be if  were zero? Explain.
where x, y1, and y2 are in meters and t is in seconds. (a) What
is the amplitude of the resultant wave function y1 1 y2? 15. Two sinusoidal waves traveling in opposite directions in-
(b) What is the frequency of the resultant wave function? terfere to produce a standing wave with the wave function

10. Two identical loudspeakers are placed on a wall 2.00 m y 5 1.50 sin (0.400x) cos (200t)
apart. A listener stands 3.00 m from the wall directly in
where x and y are in meters and t is in seconds. Determine
front of one of the speakers. A single oscillator is driving
(a) the wavelength, (b) the frequency, and (c) the speed of
the speakers at a frequency of 300 Hz. (a) What is the phase
the interfering waves.
difference in radians between the waves from the speakers
when they reach the observer? (b) What If? What is the 16. Verify by direct substitution that the wave function for a
frequency closest to 300 Hz to which the oscillator may be standing wave given in Equation 14.2,
adjusted such that the observer hears minimal sound?
y 5 (2A sin kx) cos t
11. A tuning fork generates sound waves with a frequency of
is a solution of the general linear wave equation, Equation
246 Hz. The waves travel in opposite directions along a hall-
13.20:
way, are reflected by end walls, and return. The hallway is
02y 1 02y
47.0 m long and the tuning fork is located 14.0 m from one 5 2 2
end. What is the phase difference between the reflected 0x 2 v 0t
waves when they meet at the tuning fork? The speed of 17. Two identical loudspeakers are driven in phase by a
sound in air is 343 m/s. common oscillator at 800 Hz and face each other at a dis-
tance of 1.25 m. Locate the points along the line joining
12. Two identical loudspeakers 10.0 m apart are driven by the
the two speakers where relative minima of sound pressure
same oscillator with a frequency of f 5 21.5 Hz (Fig. P14.12)
amplitude would be expected.
in an area where the speed of sound is 344 m/s. (a) Show
that a receiver at point A records a minimum in sound inten-
sity from the two speakers. (b) If the receiver is moved in the
Section 14.3 Analysis Model: Waves Under Boundary
plane of the speakers, show that the path it should take so
Conditions
that the intensity remains at a minimum is along the hyper- 18. In the arrangement shown in Figure P14.18, an object
bola 9x 2 2 16y 2 5 144 (shown in red-brown in Fig. P14.12). can be hung from a string (with linear mass density  5
(c) Can the receiver remain at a minimum and move very far 0.002 00 kg/m) that passes over a light pulley. The string
away from the two sources? If so, determine the limiting form is connected to a vibrator (of constant frequency f ), and
of the path it must take. If not, explain how far it can go. the length of the string between point P and the pulley is
L 5 2.00 m. When the mass m of the object is either 16.0 kg
or 25.0 kg, standing waves are observed; no standing waves
are observed with any mass between these values, however.
(a) What is the frequency of the vibrator? Note: The greater
the tension in the string, the smaller the number of nodes
in the standing wave. (b) What is the largest object mass for
which standing waves could be observed?

Figure P14.12

Section 14.2 Standing Waves

13. Two transverse sinusoidal waves combining in a medium
are described by the wave functions
y1 5 3.00 sin (x 1 0.600t) y2 5 3.00 sin (x 2 0.600t) Figure P14.18
472 CHAPTER 14 | Superposition and Standing Waves

19. A string that is 30.0 cm long and has a mass per unit length 27. The A string on a cello vibrates in its first normal mode
of 9.00 3 1023 kg/m is stretched to a tension of 20.0 N. Find with a frequency of 220 Hz. The vibrating segment is 70.0 cm
(a) the fundamental frequency and (b) the next three frequen- long and has a mass of 1.20 g. (a) Find the tension in the
cies that could cause standing-wave patterns on the string. string. (b) Determine the frequency of vibration when the
string vibrates in three segments.
20. A violin string has a length of 0.350 m and is tuned to con-
cert G, with fG 5 392 Hz. (a) How far from the end of the 28. A standing-wave pattern is observed in a thin wire with a
string must the violinist place her finger to play concert A, length of 3.00 m. The wave function is
with fA 5 440 Hz? (b) If this position is to remain correct to
y 5 0.002 00 sin (x) cos (100t)
one-half the width of a finger (that is, to within 0.600 cm),
what is the maximum allowable percentage change in the where x and y are in meters and t is in seconds. (a) How
string tension? many loops does this pattern exhibit? (b) What is the fun-
damental frequency of vibration of the wire? (c) What If? If
21. A string with a mass m 5 8.00 g and
the original frequency is held constant and the tension in
a length L 5 5.00 m has one end
the wire is increased by a factor of 9, how many loops are
attached to a wall; the other end is
present in the new pattern?
draped over a small, fixed pulley a
distance d 5 4.00 m from the wall
and attached to a hanging object Section 14.4 Standing Waves in Air Columns
with a mass M 5 4.00 kg as in Fig-
Figure P14.21
29. Calculate the length of a pipe that has a fundamental fre-
ure P14.21. If the horizontal part
quency of 240 Hz assuming the pipe is (a) closed at one end
of the string is plucked, what is the
and (b) open at both ends.
fundamental frequency of its vibration?
30. A tunnel under a river is 2.00 km long. (a) At what
22. A standing wave is established in a 120-cm-long string fixed
frequencies can the air in the tunnel resonate? (b) Explain
at both ends. The string vibrates in four segments when
whether it would be good to make a rule against blowing
driven at 120 Hz. (a) Determine the wavelength. (b) What
your car horn when you are in the tunnel.
is the fundamental frequency of the string?
31. The windpipe of one typical whooping crane is
23. A string of length L, mass per unit length , and tension T
5.00 feet long. What is the fundamental resonant frequency
is vibrating at its fundamental frequency. What effect will
of the bird’s trachea, modeled as a narrow pipe closed at
the following have on the fundamental frequency? (a) The
one end? Assume a temperature of 378C.
length of the string is doubled, with all other factors held
constant. (b) The mass per unit length is doubled, with all 32. The overall length of a piccolo is 32.0 cm. The resonat-
other factors held constant. (c) The tension is doubled, ing air column is open at both ends. (a) Find the frequency
with all other factors held constant. of the lowest note a piccolo can sound. (b) Opening holes
in the side of a piccolo effectively shortens the length of the
24. The 64.0-cm-long string of a guitar has a fundamental fre-
resonant column. Assume the highest note a piccolo can
quency of 330 Hz when it vibrates freely along its entire
sound is 4 000 Hz. Find the distance between adjacent anti-
length. A fret is provided for limiting vibration to just the
nodes for this mode of vibration.
lower two-thirds of the string. (a) If the string is pressed
down at this fret and plucked, what is the new fundamental 33. The fundamental frequency of an open organ pipe corre-
frequency? (b) What If? The guitarist can play a “natural sponds to middle C (261.6 Hz on the chromatic musical
harmonic” by gently touching the string at the location of scale). The third resonance of a closed organ pipe has the
this fret and plucking the string at about one-sixth of the same frequency. What is the length of (a) the open pipe and
way along its length from the other end. What frequency (b) the closed pipe?
will be heard then?
34. A shower stall has dimensions 86.0 cm 3 86.0 cm 3 210 cm.
25. Review. A sphere of mass M 5 Assume the stall acts as a pipe closed at both ends, with
1.00 kg is supported by a string nodes at opposite sides. Assume singing voices range from
that passes over a pulley at the end 130 Hz to 2 000 Hz and let the speed of sound in the
of a horizontal rod of length L 5 hot air be 355 m/s. For someone singing in this shower,
0.300 m (Fig. P14.25). The string which frequencies would sound the richest (because of
makes an angle  5 35.08 with the resonance)?
rod. The fundamental frequency
35. Two adjacent natural frequencies of an organ pipe are
of standing waves in the portion of
determined to be 550 Hz and 650 Hz. Calculate (a) the fun-
the string above the rod is f 5 60.0 Figure P14.25
Problems 25 and 26. damental frequency and (b) the length of this pipe.
Hz. Find the mass of the portion
of the string above the rod. 36. Do not stick anything into your ear! Estimate the
length of your ear canal, from its opening at the exter-
26. Review. A sphere of mass M is supported by a string that
nal ear to the eardrum. If you regard the canal as a nar-
passes over a pulley at the end of a horizontal rod of length
row tube that is open at one end and closed at the other,
L (Fig. P14.25). The string makes an angle  with the rod.
at approximately what fundamental frequency would
The fundamental frequency of standing waves in the por-
you expect your hearing to be most sensitive? Explain
tion of the string above the rod is f. Find the mass of the
why you can hear especially soft sounds just around this
portion of the string above the rod.
frequency.
 | Problems 473

37. As shown in Figure P14.37, water is 3.00 beats/s. What is the frequency of the string now? (c) By
pumped into a tall, vertical cylinder what percentage should the piano tuner now change the
at a volume flow rate R 5 1.00 L/min. tension in the string to bring it into tune?
The radius of the cylinder is r 5 5.00
45. In certain ranges of a piano keyboard, more than one
cm, and at the open top of the cylin-
string is tuned to the same note to provide extra loudness.
der a tuning fork is vibrating with a
For example, the note at 110 Hz has two strings at this fre-
frequency f 5 512 Hz. As the water
quency. If one string slips from its normal tension of 600 N
rises, what time interval elapses be-
to 540 N, what beat frequency is heard when the hammer
tween successive resonances?
strikes the two strings simultaneously?
38. As shown in Figure P14.37,
46. Review. A student holds a tuning fork oscillating
water is pumped into a tall, verti-
at 256 Hz. He walks toward a wall at a constant speed of
cal cylinder at a volume flow rate Figure P14.37
1.33 m/s. (a) What beat frequency does he observe between
R. The radius of the cylinder is r, Problems 37 and 38.
the tuning fork and its echo? (b) How fast must he walk
and at the open top of the cylin-
away from the wall to observe a beat frequency of 5.00 Hz?
der a tuning fork is vibrating with a frequency f. As the
water rises, what time interval elapses between successive
resonances? Section 14.6 Nonsinusoidal Wave Patterns
39. A glass tube (open at both ends) of length L is positioned 47. An A-major chord consists of the notes called A, C#, and E. It
near an audio speaker of frequency f 5 680 Hz. For what can be played on a piano by simultaneously striking strings
values of L will the tube resonate with the speaker? with fundamental frequencies of 440.00 Hz, 554.37 Hz,
and 659.26 Hz. The rich consonance of the chord is associ-
40. A tuning fork with a frequency of f
ated with near equality of the frequencies of some of the
5 512 Hz is placed near the top of
higher harmonics of the three tones. Consider the first five
the tube shown in Figure P14.40.
harmonics of each string and determine which harmonics
The water level is lowered so that
show near equality.
the length L slowly increases from
an initial value of 20.0 cm. Deter- 48. Suppose a flutist plays a 523-Hz C note with first harmonic
mine the next two values of L that displacement amplitude A1 5 100 nm. From Figure 14.14b
correspond to resonant modes. read, by proportion, the displacement amplitudes of har-
monics 2 through 7. Take these as the values A2 through
41. With a particular fingering, a flute
A7 in the Fourier analysis of the sound and assume B1 5
produces a note with frequency
B2 5 . . . 5 B7 5 0. Construct a graph of the waveform of
880 Hz at 20.08C. The flute is open
the sound. Your waveform will not look exactly like the flute
at both ends. (a) Find the air col-
waveform in Figure 14.13b because you simplify by ignoring
umn length. (b) At the beginning
cosine terms; nevertheless, it produces the same sensation
of the halftime performance at a
Figure P14.40 to human hearing.
late-season football game, the am-
bient temperature is 25.008C and
the flutist has not had a chance to warm up her instru- Section 14.7 The Ear and Theories of Pitch Perception
ment. Find the frequency the flute produces under these
conditions. 49. Some studies suggest that the upper frequency limit
of hearing is determined by the diameter of the eardrum.
42. Why is the following situation impossible? A student is listening The wavelength of the sound wave and the diameter of the
to the sounds from an air column that is 0.730 m long. He eardrum are approximately equal at this upper limit. If the
doesn’t know if the column is open at both ends or open at relationship holds exactly, what is the diameter of the ear-
only one end. He hears resonance from the air column at drum of a person capable of hearing 20 000 Hz? (Assume a
frequencies 235 Hz and 587 Hz. body temperature of 37.08C.)
43. An air column in a glass tube is open at one end and closed 50. If a human ear canal can be thought of as resembling
at the other by a movable piston. The air in the tube is an organ pipe, closed at one end, that resonates at a fun-
warmed above room temperature, and a 384-Hz tuning fork damental frequency of 3 000 Hz, what is the length of the
is held at the open end. Resonance is heard when the piston canal? Use a normal body temperature of 378C for your de-
is at a distance d1 5 22.8 cm from the open end and again termination of the speed of sound in the canal.
when it is at a distance d2 5 68.3 cm from the open end.
(a) What speed of sound is implied by these data? (b) How
far from the open end will the piston be when the next reso- Section 14.8 Context Connection: Building on Antinodes
nance is heard? 51. An earthquake can produce a seiche in a lake in which the
water sloshes back and forth from end to end with remark-
ably large amplitude and long period. Consider a seiche
Section 14.5 Beats: Interference in Time
produced in a farm pond. Suppose the pond is 9.15 m long
44. While attempting to tune the note C at 523 Hz, a piano and assume it has a uniform width and depth. You measure
tuner hears 2.00 beats/s between a reference oscillator and that a pulse produced at one end reaches the other end in
the string. (a) What are the possible frequencies of the 2.50 s. (a) What is the wave speed? (b) What should be the
string? (b) When she tightens the string slightly, she hears frequency of the ground motion during the earthquake to
474 CHAPTER 14 | Superposition and Standing Waves

produce a seiche that is a standing wave with antinodes at wheels move (Fig. P14.56). The wheels
each end of the pond and one node at the center? have a mass that is negligible compared
with that of the string, and they roll
52. The Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, has the highest tides
without friction on the track so that the
in the world. Assume in midocean and at the mouth of the
upper end of the string is essentially free.
bay the Moon’s gravity gradient and the Earth’s rotation
At equilibrium, the string is vertical and
make the water surface oscillate with an amplitude of a few
motionless. When it is carrying a small-
centimeters and a period of 12 h 24 min. At the head of the
amplitude wave, you may assume the
bay, the amplitude is several meters. Assume the bay has a
string is always under uniform tension
length of 210 km and a uniform depth of 36.1 m. The speed
1.30 N. (a) Find the speed of transverse
of long-wavelength water waves is given by v 5"gd, where
waves on the string. (b) The string’s vibra- Figure P14.56
d is the water’s depth. Argue for or against the proposition
tion possibilities are a set of standing-wave
that the tide is magnified by standing-wave resonance.
states, each with a node at the fixed bottom end and an anti-
node at the free top end. Find the node–antinode distances
Additional Problems for each of the three simplest states. (c) Find the frequency of
53. On a marimba (Fig. P14.53), the wooden bar that sounds a each of these states.
tone when struck vibrates in a transverse standing wave hav-
ing three antinodes and two nodes. The lowest-frequency 57. Review. Two train whistles have identical frequencies of
note is 87.0 Hz, produced by a bar 40.0 cm long. (a) Find 180 Hz. When one train is at rest in the station and the other
the speed of transverse waves on the bar. (b) A resonant pipe is moving nearby, a commuter standing on the station plat-
suspended vertically below the center of the bar enhances form hears beats with a frequency of 2.00 beats/s when the
the loudness of the emitted sound. If the pipe is open at the whistles operate together. What are the two possible speeds
top end only, what length of the pipe is required to resonate and directions the moving train can have?
with the bar in part (a)? 58. Review. A loudspeaker at the front of a room and an identi-
cal loudspeaker at the rear of the room are being driven
© ArenaPal/Topham/The Image Works. Reproduced by permission.

by the same oscillator at 456 Hz. A student walks at a uni-

form rate of 1.50 m/s along the length of the room. She
hears a single tone repeatedly becoming louder and softer.
(a) Model these variations as beats between the Doppler-
shifted sounds the student receives. Calculate the number
of beats the student hears each second. (b) Model the
two speakers as producing a standing wave in the room
and the student as walking between antinodes. Calculate
the number of intensity maxima the student hears each
second.
59. Two wires are welded together end to end. The wires are
made of the same material, but the diameter of one is twice
that of the other. They are subjected to a tension of 4.60 N.
Figure P14.53
The thin wire has a length of 40.0 cm and a linear mass den-
54. High-frequency sound can be sity of 2.00 g/m. The combination is fixed at both ends and
used to produce standing-wave vibrated in such a way that two antinodes are present, with
vibrations in a wine glass. A stand- the node between them being right at the weld. (a) What
Steve Bronstein/Stone/Getty Images

ing-wave vibration in a wine glass is the frequency of vibration? (b) What is the length of the
is observed to have four nodes thick wire?
and four antinodes equally spaced
60. Review. For the arrangement
around the 20.0-cm circumfer-
shown in Figure P14.60, the in-
ence of the rim of the glass. If
clined plane and the small pul-
transverse waves move around the
ley are frictionless; the string
glass at 900 m/s, an opera singer
supports the object of mass M at
would have to produce a high Figure P14.54 the bottom of the plane; and the
harmonic with what frequency
string has mass m. The system is
to shatter the glass with a resonant vibration as shown in
in equilibrium, and the vertical
Figure P14.54? Figure P14.60
part of the string has a length
55. A student uses an audio oscillator of adjustable frequency h. We wish to study standing
to measure the depth of a water well. The student reports waves set up in the vertical section of the string. (a) What
hearing two successive resonances at 51.87 Hz and 59.85 Hz. analysis model describes the object of mass M ? (b) What
(a) How deep is the well? (b) How many antinodes are in analysis model describes the waves on the vertical part of
the standing wave at 51.87 Hz? the string? (c) Find the tension in the string. (d) Model
the shape of the string as one leg and the hypotenuse
56. A nylon string has mass 5.50 g and length L 5 86.0 cm. The of a right triangle. Find the whole length of the string.
lower end is tied to the floor, and the upper end is tied to (e) Find the mass per unit length of the string. (f ) Find
a small set of wheels through a slot in a track on which the the speed of waves on the string. (g) Find the lowest
 | Problems 475

frequency for a standing wave on the vertical section of 65. A quartz watch contains a crystal oscillator in the form
the string. (h) Evaluate this result for M 5 1.50 kg, m 5 of a block of quartz that vibrates by contracting and ex-
0.750 g, h 5 0.500 m, and  5 30.08. (i) Find the numeri- panding. An electric circuit feeds in energy to maintain
cal value for the lowest frequency for a standing wave on the oscillation and also counts the voltage pulses to keep
the sloped section of the string. time. Two opposite faces of the block, 7.05 mm apart, are
antinodes, moving alternately toward each other and away
61. A 0.010 0-kg wire, 2.00 m long, is fixed at both ends and
from each other. The plane halfway between these two
vibrates in its simplest mode under a tension of 200 N.
faces is a node of the vibration. The speed of sound in
When a vibrating tuning fork is placed near the wire, a beat
quartz is equal to 3.70 3 103 m/s. Find the frequency of
frequency of 5.00 Hz is heard. (a) What could be the fre-
the vibration.
quency of the tuning fork? (b) What should the tension in
the wire be if the beats are to disappear? 66. Two waves are described by the wave functions
62. A standing wave is set up in a string of variable length y1(x, t) 5 5.00 sin (2.00x 2 10.0t)
and tension by a vibrator of variable frequency. Both ends
of the string are fixed. When the vibrator has a frequency f , y2(x, t) 5 10.0 cos (2.00x 2 10.0t)
in a string of length L and under tension T, n antinodes where x, y1, and y2 are in meters and t is in seconds. (a) Show
are set up in the string. (a) If the length of the string is that the wave resulting from their superposition can be ex-
doubled, by what factor should the frequency be changed pressed as a single sine function. (b) Determine the ampli-
so that the same number of antinodes is produced? (b) If tude and phase angle for this sinusoidal wave.
the frequency and length are held constant, what tension
will produce n 1 1 antinodes? (c) If the frequency is tripled 67. A string is 0.400 m long and has a mass per unit length of
and the length of the string is halved, by what factor should 9.00 3 1023 kg/m. What must be the tension in the string if
the tension be changed so that twice as many antinodes are its second harmonic has the same frequency as the second
produced? resonance mode of a 1.75-m-long pipe open at one end?

63. Review. A 12.0-kg object hangs in equilibrium from a string 68. Review. Consider
with a total length of L 5 5.00 m and a linear mass density the apparatus shown
of  5 0.001 00 kg/m. The string is wrapped around two in Figure P14.68a,
light, frictionless pulleys that are separated by a distance of where the hanging
d 5 2.00 m (Fig. P14.63a). (a) Determine the tension in the object has mass M
string. (b) At what frequency must the string between the and the string is vi-
pulleys vibrate to form the standing-wave pattern shown in brating in its second
Figure P14.63b? harmonic. The vibrat- S
ing blade at the left
maintains a constant
frequency. The wind
begins to blow to the Figure P14.68
right, applying a con-
S :
g stant horizontal force F on the hanging object. What is
the magnitude of the force the wind must apply to the
hanging object so that the string vibrates in its first har-
monic as shown in Figure 14.68b?
69. A string fixed at both ends and having a mass of 4.80 g,
Figure P14.63 Problems 63 and 64.
a length of 2.00 m, and a tension of 48.0 N vibrates in its
64. Review. An object of mass m hangs in equilibrium from a second (n 5 2) normal mode. (a) Is the wavelength in air
string with a total length L and a linear mass density . The of the sound emitted by this vibrating string larger or smaller
string is wrapped around two light, frictionless pulleys that than the wavelength of the wave on the string? (b) What
are separated by a distance d (Fig. P14.63a). (a) Determine is the ratio of the wavelength in air of the sound emitted by
the tension in the string. (b) At what frequency must the this vibrating string and the wavelength of the wave on the
string between the pulleys vibrate to form the standing-wave string?
pattern shown in Figure P14.63b?
 Context 3 CONCLUS I O N

Minimizing the Risk

W e have explored the physics of vibrations and waves. Let us now return to our
central question for this Earthquakes Context:

How can we choose locations and build structures to minimize the risk of
damage in an earthquake?

To answer this question, we shall use the physical principles that we now understand
more clearly and apply them to our choices of locations and structural design.
In our discussion of simple harmonic oscillation, we learned about resonance.
Resonance is one of the most important considerations in designing buildings with
regard to earthquake safety. Designers of structures in earthquake-prone areas need
to pay careful attention to resonance vibrations from shaking of the ground. The
design features to be considered include ensuring that the resonance frequencies
of the building do not match typical earthquake frequencies. In addition, the struc-
tural details should include sufficient damping to ensure that the amplitude of reso-
nance vibration does not destroy the structure.
Resonance is a prime consideration for the design of a structure; what about, as
suggested by our central question, the location of the structure? In Chapter 13, we
discussed the role of the medium in the propagation of a wave. For seismic waves
© Lloyd Cluff/CORBIS

Figure 1 Portions of the double-decked Nimitz Freeway in Oakland, California, collapsed during
the Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989.
476