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AP European History Review Sheet

*As a note, this review sheet should be used as a SUPPLEMENTARY review guide to your
review book or notes from the year. This review sheet is not *that* specific or in-depth,
however, it provides a good outline and summary of key events to know. Happy studying and
good luck!*

1: Renaissance and Exploration​ (1450-1648)

1.1: (Contextualizing) Renaissance and Discovery

● Occurred first in Italy and lasted until 1527
○ Renaissance spread around Northern Europe until 1450
● Renaissance culture applied almost exclusively to the upper classes
○ Had the luxury of learning the classics
■ Patronage
○ Peasantry: largely illiterate and no impact on common people
● Working classes and small merchants were far too preoccupied with the concerns of
daily life
● Aristocracy also funded foreign voyages -> Age of Discovery
○ Nations will increase land holdings and wealth by a lot
○ However, some Nations, like Spain, will lose their wealth through
mismanagement
■ Ie. Silver value dropping due to King Philip
● Overall, the Renaissance and Age of Discovery will allow Europe to regain a holding
after the Plague and jumpstart the power of these nations.

1.2: Italian Renaissance

● Began after the fall of Constantinople
○ Scholars from Constantinople fled to Italy
■ Brought with them Ancient Greco-Roman texts
● Francesco Petrarch, father of the Renaissance
○ Rediscovered letters of philosopher Cicero
○ Coined the term “Dark Ages”
● Shift from scholasticism to ​humanism
● Humanism
○ Placed an emphasis on Classical studies
■ Grammar, rhetoric, art, etc.
○ Believed education and knowledge will lead to the greater good
○ Renaissance Man
■ Someone who is skilled in many areas
● New view of human beings - individual ability
○ Example - Leonardo da Vinci - ideal Renaissance man
■ painter, sculptor, inventor and mathematician
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○ This is also evident in art as in the Dark Ages, pictures were mainly of religious
figures/events.
■ In the Renaissance, you see more portraits of the common person
(although these portraits were mainly of the elite), and a desire to create
a more realistic portrayal of the subject.
● The Italian renaissance can be divided into two periods, the early and high renaissance.
○ The Early Renaissance served as a transition period from the Middle Ages to the
more humanistic characteristics of the Renaissance
○ The High Renaissance is a focus on perfecting humanism in art and education,
that were developed in the Early Renaissance

1.3: Northern Renaissance

● Northern humanists, called Christinan humanists, combined classical and Christian
cultures
○ Use of reason, not acceptance of tradition, believed in human intellect
● Sir Thomas More, wrote U ​ topia​, described an ideal socialistic community
● Desiderius Erasmus, wrote lots of stuff about education and the importance of Christ in
Christianity
● Started in 16th century
● Artists strongly attached to God and nature, depicted lifestyle of people, natural
paintings
○ Vibrant oil paints were used, in contrast to the warm tempura used in the Italian
Renaissance
○ The Northern art was also more angular whereas the Italian art was more
blended
● Contrasts in this way with the Southern Renaissance, less about Greek and Roman ideals
and more about the normal person depicted in a realistic way and God

1.4: Printing
● Printing press invented in mid-15th century by Johannes Gutenberg
○ First book printed was the ​Bible
○ Printing during this time was still a bit complicated… The press was huge and
had a lot of small “stamps” that would be compiled to print stuff.
● Allowed for the rapid spread of information across Europe
○ This is one of the main reasons why Martin Luther was able to spread his
Protestant ideas so rapidly
● Contributed to the rise of the Reformation
● Allowed for increased literacy amongst the masses
○ Was in line with Renaissance ideals for education
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1.5: New monarchies
● Consolidated power and created the foundation for Europe’s first modern nation-states
○ France, England and Spain
● Began to make use of Roman Law and declared themselves “sovereign”
● Monarchies had grown weaker in Eastern Europe during the Middle Ages
○ Eastern Europe still relied on the manor system/serfdom, and will continue well
into history
● Reduced the power of the nobility
○ Taxation
○ Confiscation of lands (from uncooperative nobles)
○ Hiring mercenary armies or the creation of standing armies
● Reduced the political power of the clergy
○ This is an important theme throughout European history as you will see the
aristocracy and church in constant conflict over power
○ The clergy at this time had a more direct control over the people as the people
were deeply religious
■ The clergy can insert their own ideas into the people through sermons
and such
■ Also, as seen in Period 2, the sale of indulgences was corrupt and was
more of a trick/manipulation of the Church to the people.
● Increased the political influence of the bourgeoisie (at the expense of the nobility)
○ Some of the bourgeoisie was better educated than the nobility

1.6: Technological Advances of the Age of Exploration

● Ship building
○ Caravels
■ Impacted the most fundamental part of explorations which is the
transportation of actually arriving at the destination.
■ Made long distance
● Sea travel was easier, more accessible, and more efficient.
■ Used as fishermen boats, warships, and pirate ships.
● They were small and highly manoeuvrable sailing ships.
○ Carrack and Flyut
■ Carracks are a large European sailing vessel of the 14th and 17th century
similar to a caravel but square rigged on the foremast and had 3 to 4
masts.
■ Fluyts are a type of Dutch merchant ship that was originally designed by
the shipwrights of Hoorn as a cargo vessel.

● To add on another aspect of development in the European exploration involved

navigating and finding one’s way in the sea
○ Magnetic compass
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■ Showed which way North was so that the sailors needed to rely less upon
the stars.
○ Cartography
■ Developed from the wide use of paper and the printing press.
○ Others include the astrolabe, which was improved by Muslims and could
determine how far north or south they were.
○ The lateen sail which was a triangle sail that improved sailing from the fact that it
could catch winds from both sides.

1.7: Rivals on the World Stage

● Europeans established overseas empires and trade networks through both coercion and
negotiation
○ Spain​ colonized the Americas and the Pacific
○ Portugal​ established trading posts in Africa, South America, and Asia
○ France, England, Netherlands ​established colonies and trade networks to
compete with Portuguese and Spanish dominance
● Competition for trade led to conflicts and rivalries between European powers during
the 17​th​ and 18​th​ Centuries
○ War of the Spanish Succession
○ Seven Years War
○ Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)
■ Line of Demarcation
● Solidified Spain’s American land holdings to be West of the line
and Portugal’s to be West (mainly got Brazil and that’s it)

1.8: Colonial Expansion and Columbian Exchange

● Columbus’ discovery of the New World was the primary cause of the Columbian
Exchange.
○ Once this new territory was discovered, an immediate transfer of ideas, diseases,
crops, and inventions were made.
● Before the Columbian Exchange, both hemispheres were completely isolated, entirely
unexposed to each other’s cultures and societies.
○ The indigenous populations of the Americas possessed no immunity to the
diseases of the Europeans.
■ One of the most popular diseases was ​smallpox
■ This deadly disease was responsible for the majority of deaths of the
indigenous peoples
■ Rapid decline of the Native American population in the Americas
● The idea of ​cash crops​, or crops grown for export rather than personal consumption,
arose from this network of exchange
○ Cultivated on ​plantations​, plots of land dedicated to the cultivation of a single
crop.
○ The most popular cash crops were sugar, tobacco, and coffee.
● Humans were also transported to the Americas for labor purposes.
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○ The forced migration of Africans to the Americas is the ultimate reason for the
presence of racial discrimination in the Americas.
○ Africans were forced into ​chattel slavery​ to serve their “owners” as they were
exploited for economic purposes
■ Many years later, an example of this would be the Triangular trade
between West Africa, the Caribbean colonies and American colonies,
and Britain
○ Although Africans were stripped from their homelands to the New World, they
syncretized their culture into the culture Europeans
■ creole languages, gumbo and other African-originated food, and jazz
and gospel music were created to develop a sense of fellowship.

1.9: The Slave Trade

● Spanish settlers introduced sugar cane into the West Indies in the early 1500s.
○ By 1600, Brazilian plantations using African slave labor were the Atlantic world’s
largest sugar producers.
○ In the 1600s, France and Britain established Carribean colonies and set up
tobacco plantations and charter companies paid an annual fee to France and
Britain to have a monopoly over trade.
○ The charter companies also developed the colonies and brought over
indentured servants to work on plantations which led to the French and British
populations in the West Indies to explode.

○ By the late 1600s, they couldn’t compete with Virginia’s tobacco plantations so
they switched to sugar cane and from indentured servants to African slaves.
● By 1700, the Carribeans surpassed Brazil in sugar production.
○ Eventually, since almost all of the natives died of from diesease, infection, and
overwork​, the plantations needed a new labor source and the Atlantic slave
trade began.
○ This led to two million slaves in Brazil, almost four million in the West Indies,
700,000 to Central America, 500,000 to North America, and 50,000 in Europe.
○ The native West Indies were decimated and their islands were repopulated by
Africans, Europeans, and South Asians.
● Mercantilism​ became Europe’s government’s policy.
● West Indies society
○ The top were very few rich white planters who owned most of the slaves and the
land, they dominated the economy and society.
○ Then there were the small white middle class of estate managers, government
officials, artisans,and small farmers.
○ Below them were the freed blacks who farmed or worked in the cities.
○ Below them were the slaves who made up the 90% of the islands’ population.

1.10: The Commercial Revolution

● Overseas expansion had an effect on both western Europe and the rest of the world
○ Caused increased imports, shifted economic power, and introduced
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Mercantilism
○ Western Europe: imported many commodities from the New World and the far
East (potatoes, tomatoes, cane sugar, etc.)
■ Availability helped western Europe living standards improve
○ Large quantities of gold and silver received from New World mines substantially
affected western Europe’s economy
■ Consumers had more money to spend for goods since metals served as
currency
■ With large quantities, though, can come inflation and a decrease in value
of the metals
● Shifted economic power
○ Major trade routes shifted from the Mediterranean and Baltic to the Atlantic
■ European nations, bordering the Atlantic, increased their commerce,
wealth and power
■ No longer was a monopoly of goods by Italy from the East a big problem
● Portugal, for example, will find an all water route down the coast
of Africa to Asia
○ Western Europe’s population increased, in part due to the availability of
additional food supplies
■ Cites also held promises of greater social mobility, richer cultural
existences and a wider variety of life-styles
○ Middle class (merchants, bankers, capitalists) grew in number and achieved
greater economic power
■ Lacked social status and political power
■ There was still a focus on family and blood
● Adopted Mercantilism
○ Added Mercantilism to secure more funds for royal treasuries
○ A mother country’s colonies provided raw materials for the mother country to
produce goods
■ Mother country always have an available market in the colony

1.11: Causation in the Renaissance and Age of Discovery

● Renaissance Key Concepts

○ The rediscovery of works from ancient Greece/Rome and observation of the
natural world changed Europeans view of their world
■ Revival of classical texts led to new values in both society and religion
■ Visual arts incorporated new ideas of the Renaissance and were used to
promote personal, political, and religious goals
● Exploration Key Concepts
○ Europeans explored and settled overseas territories, encountering and
interacting with indigenous populations
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■ European nations were driven by commercial and religious motives to
explore overseas territories and establish colonies
■ European exploration had far-reaching consequences
● Societal Impact Key Concepts
○ European society and the experiences of everyday life were increasingly shaped
by commercial and agricultural capitalism
■ However, the existence of medieval social and economic structures
persisted
■ Economic change produced new social patterns, while traditions of
hierarchy and status continued
■ Most Europeans derived their livelihood from agriculture and oriented
their lives around the seasons, the village, or the manor, although some
economic changes began to alter rural production and power
● An increase in trade allowed for some Europeans to have access
to “foreign” goods, like spices (more reserved for the wealthy)
● Political Impact Key Concepts
○ The struggle for sovereignty within and among states resulted in varying
degrees of political centralization
■ The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law
played a central role in the creation of new political institutions
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2: Age of Reformation​ (1450-1648)

2.1: (Contextualizing) 16th and 17th Century Challenges and Developments

● Protestant Reformation​ - result in the split in Christendom, which dethroned the pope
as the single religious authority in Europe
○ Humanism​ had led individuals to question certain practices like efficacy of
religious relics and the value to one’s salvation
○ Printing press​ produce bibles in ever greater number -> more educated people
● Catholic Reformation​ - response to the Protestant Reformation
○ Taken steps to counteract some of the successes of the Protestant Reformation
○ Papal Inquisitio​n -> heretics put to death due to their religious beliefs
● State religious reforms
○ Henry VIII wanted to marry Anne Boleyn -> pass law for Henry to take control
over the ​Church of England
○ Originally, the Pope did not grant Henry VIII a divorce from Catherine of Aragon
● Huguenots​ challenged monarchy
○ Half of the french nobles were huguenots
● Habsburgs restored Catholicism to fight off Ottomans
● Religious pluralism = peace (Poland, Dutch)

2.2 Luther and the Protestant Reformation

● The ​Protestant Reformation was the schism​ between Catholicism and a newly formed
branch of Christianity that have divergent ideologies in Europe.
● Martin Luther, appalled by the selling of indulgences by the Church, writes the ​95
Theses​ and displays them at the Castle Church in Wittenberg (1517). Printed versions of
the Theses were distributed across the various German speaking states, leading to
Luther’s movement gaining followers.
○ Some of ​Luther’s key beliefs​ were salvation based on faith alone, belief through
scripture alone, the priesthood of all believers, and the equal merit of all
vocations
○ He condemned the sale of indulgences, especially by Johan Tetzel
○ Martin Luther’s efforts lit the spark that plunged Europe into a religious war.
■ Many northern states like England, Norway, Sweden, and A large chunk
of German Confederation states were fighting a war against the Catholic
states like Italy and many others.
■ This gave some states the opportunity to form new branches of religion,
and to alter their political and religious beliefs.
■ This reformation also led to Christianity being spread to other places, as
people brought their political and religious beliefs along with them when
going to other countries, or creating missionary expeditions.
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● After being excommunicated from the Church, Luther presented his ideas at the ​Diet of
Worms​ to Emperor Charles V.
○ He was then placed under imperial ban.
○ However, due to the help of Frederick of Saxony, a German prince, he was able
to plan the Reformation in Wittenberg.
● The Reformation gained the favor of German princes and peasants.​ These princes,
recognizing the political and economic benefits that could be had by removing the
Catholic Church, enacted new religious reforms
○ They wanted greater power and more land
● German peasants staged a rebellion in 1524-1525, which was suppressed by the
nobility and condemned by Luther
○ Luther did not want violence
● The Catholics liberally tried to reform their efforts in response to the Protestant
complaints, and this is known as the ​counter-reformation​.
○ Among some of these reforms were the creation of ​Jesuits, or Catholic
missionaries​ that were sent around the world to encourage the spread of
Catholicism.

2.3 Protestant Reform Continues

● In 1524, ​German Peasants Revolt​ (South-eastern Germany) demand serfdom end
○ Luther favor social order and political authority -> kill the rebels -> homeless and
murder
● John Calvin​ (priest + lawyer) affect the Swiss Reformation (1481-1531) -> break from
Catholic
○ Predestination​ - idea that God determine who would gain salvation
○ 1541, set up a theocracy (government run by church leaders) in Geneva
■ Stress hardwork, discipline, tariff, honesty, modesty (model community)
■ Prosecution for fights, swearing, laugh, dance
○ Late 1500s, it taken root in Germany, France, Netherlands, England and
Scotland
○ Influence economic -> “help promote capitalism and calvinists were successful
in business”
● Anabaptist sought radical social change and abolish private property
○ Reject infant baptism
○ Call for religious toleration and separation
■ Influence protestant thinking
○ Baptists, mennonites + amish = branches
● Anglicanism - Henry VIII was in love with Anne Boleyn (servant of Queen)
○ Seeks annul from the pope -> no because Holy Roman Emperor is Catherine’s
(Q) nephew
○ Parliament pass laws -> took church under Henry’s rule
■ Appoint Thomas Caranmer as archbishop
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○ In 1534, Parliament pass Supremacy Act -> Henry = Supreme Head of the
Church of England
○ Kept most of Catholci doctrines and reject Protestant doctrines
● Jesuits were founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1540
○ Include spiritual + moral discipline, religious training and obedience
○ Crusade to defend and spread faith worldwide
○ Become advisors, spies and teachers

2.4 Wars of Religion

● The 89 years between the commencement of the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559
and the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648 were marred by true holy wars.
● The last truly dynastic war of the 1500s, the ​Habsburg-Valois Wars​, ended in 1559 and
made way for a series of conflicts fought in a large part over religion.
● From 1560 through 1648, a multitude of European powers initiated wars on purely
religious bases.
○ The qualifier “purely religious bases” is necessary here because subsequent
wars would also be considered religious conflicts, though they are not
considered directly related to the Wars of Religion.
○ However, many of these subsequent wars were religious, as well as apparently
political.
● Several separate conflicts took place throughout this time period.
○ Spain attempted to combat Protestantism in Europe and Islam in the
Mediterranean.
○ French Catholics began something of a civil war against the French Calvinists,
the Huguenots.
○ The Holy Roman Empire wanted to re-impose Catholicism in Germany.
○ The Calvinist Netherlands wanted out from under Spanish rule.
○ The English Puritans and Anglicans fought a civil war.
The Spanish Crusades
● Spain’s Philip II made central to his reign for the re-imposition of Catholicism in Western
Europe.
○ Under Philip:
■ Spain dominated Europe
■ Spain entered its Golden Age.
● Spain was involved in a few international conflicts.
● First, Spain fought the Turks in the Mediterranean.
○ The Ottoman-Venetian Wars were fought specifically to provide security
for Christians in the region.
○ In essence, this conflict ceased in 1571 at the Battle of Lepanto.
○ The Turks suffered massive losses.
○ Spain stopped the spread of Islam in the Mediterranean.
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● Next, William I, known as William of Orange, fought against the Spanish
Inquisition and for tolerance of the Calvinists.
○ In 1581, the Dutch Republic was formed from the 17 northern provinces
of Netherlands, while the 10 southern provinces remained Spanish and
became modern-day Belgium.
○ Spain and Philip failed to maintain Catholicism throughout the empire.
○ England’s Queen Elizabeth, after the death of Queen Mary Tudor, who
was Philip’s wife, had provided aid to the Protestant Netherlands in their
successful bid for independence from Spain.
■ Queen Mary practically reversed all religious policies of her
father’s Henry VIII by supporting Catholicism instead of
Anglicanism
○ Philip not only wished to bring Catholicism back to England, he wanted
revenge for English support of the Dutch.
○ In 1588, the Spanish Armada failed in its mission to invade due to
weather and was decisively bested by the British Navy.
The French Civil Wars
● Between 1562 and 1598, there were at least ​nine wars​ that can be considered part of
the French Civil Wars.
● The conflict between Catholics and Calvinists began in 1562, after the death of Henry II
in 1559.
○ Three families vied for the throne. (Precursor to War of Three Henrys)
● From 1559 to 1589, Catholics remained in control in France.
○ However, roughly half of all nobles in France became Calvinists (Huguenots),
many of whom were of Bourbon decent.
● On August 24, 1572, Margaret of the Valois family (Moderate Catholics) was to be wed
to Henry of Navarre, a Huguenot.
○ The Guise family (Extreme Catholics) ordered the murder of a Huguenot leader
the night before the ceremony (​St. Bartholomew Day Massacre​), causing riots
and the subsequent order by the ruling Valois family to massacre 20,000
Huguenots by October of that year.
● This massacre started the ​War of the Three Henrys: Valois, Guise, and Bourbons​.
○ When Henry IV (Navarre; Bourbon) rose to power in France, it ended the civil
wars.
○ He devised a solution to the religion problem in France
■ He converted to Catholicism and granted religious toleration to the
Huguenots in the 1598 ​Edict of Nantes​.
The Thirty Years’ War
● The Thirty Years’ War is considered the most important war of the 17th century.
○ There were ​four phases
● In 1618, the ​Peace of Augsburg​ failed and the Holy Roman Empire began a massive
conflict.
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● The Thirty Years’ War began with the elimination of Protestantism in Bohemia
(​Bohemian Phase​)
● The ​Danish phase​ of the conflict is earmarked by the 1629 ​Edict of Restitution​, whereby
the Catholic Church reclaimed all secularized territory lost since 1552.
● In the ​Swedish phase​, Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, pushed the Catholics back
to Germany, effectively negating the gains from its Danish phase.
○ This phase was backed financially by France
■ Cardinal Richelieu (France) hated the Habsburgs and sided with the
Protestants despite being Catholic
● France was surrounded by the Habsburgs
● IIn the French phase, the French took over the Swedes job as being the fighters and the
Swedes became the financial supporters
○ Bloodiest and failed to produce a “true” winner
● The commencement of the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 marks the end of the Thirty
Years’ War.
○ Ended the Catholic activity in Germany
○ Kept Germany divided
○ Renewed the Peace of Augsburg
○ Provided toleration of Calvinism
The English Civil War​ (More in Section 3.2)
● In 1642, civil war broke out in England between the Calvinists and Anglicans.
● Oliver Cromwell, a Puritan military leader, led his New Model Army to victory in 1649,
after a rift between the Puritans and Anglicans, when Charles I was beheaded.
● Cromwell denied toleration to Anglicans and Catholics, yet allowed Jews back into the
country for the first time since 1290.
● He subdued the Irish and conquered the Scottish during his reign until 1658 when he
died and he was succeeded by his son, Richard, who failed to maintain power.
● Charles II regained the throne in 1660.
The Bottom Line—The Wars of Religion
● The bottom line on the Wars of Religion is that this period of 89 years was decisive in
the development of modern European powers.
● During your AP European History review, study the key points laid out in this crash
course on the Wars of Religion.
● Remember that the AP European History exam is undergoing a redesign for the
upcoming test year. Knowing these four categories of conflicts within the Wars of
Religion can serve you better than studying the entire breadth of information out there
for this time period. Reviewing this AP European History crash course on the Wars of
Religion is a great way to get started studying this decisive time period for Europe.
○ As someone who has taken the exam, you only would have to know the specific
details for multiple choice. With a DBQ, it’s more important you are able to
explain a topic (in a broader sense) and provide connections to it in history and
the perspectives of those writing the documents and of the time period.
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2.5 The Catholic Reformation
● Response by the Catholic Church to original Reformation and Martin Luther
○ Responded through a drive of internal reform and external movement
● Also known as Counter-Reformation
● Council of Trent​ laid basis for new reform
○ absenteeism, pluralism, etc were becoming reformed
● New religious orders were being founded
○ Jesuits (Ignatius of Loyola)
■ Led the Inquisition, were ruthless

2.6 16th-Century Society and Politics

● Continued ​Social Hierarchies
○ Established hierarchies of class, religion, and gender continued to define social
status and perceptions
■ Land owners continued to hold more power/control over
non-landowners
■ Wealthy aristocratic members often received privileges regarding
taxation and legal services
■ Women were still largely excluded from the political process
● The ​Role of the Household and Women
○ Rural and urban households worked as a unit, with men and women engaging in
separate, but complementary tasks
○ The Renaissance and Reformation had raised debate about female education
and women’s roles in the family, church, and society
■ La querelle des femmes​ (​ the woman question)
● Renaissance era debate about the nature and status of women
■ Protestants valued and preached the importance of women as mothers
who would educate their children
■ Catholics sent women to schools to study religious topics
○ After 1650, social conversation between men and women began to be accepted
in society
● Regulating ​Public Morality
○ Social dislocation from conflict combined with the constantly shifting authority of
religious institutions during the Reformation left city governments with the task
of regulating public morality
■ City governments would pass secular laws regulating private lives of
citizens
● Governments issued ​stricter codes​ on crimes like prostitution and
begging
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● Many governments abolished (or significantly restricted)
celebrations like ​Carnivals
● Everyday Life in the 16th Century
○ Leisure activities continued to be organized around the religious calendar and
agricultural cycle
■ Leisure activities remained communal in nature
○ Local and Religious authorities continued to enforce communal norms through
justice rituals of public humiliation

2.7 Art of the 16th Century: Mannerism and Baroque Art

● The Grand Manner - Mannerism
○ The High Renaissance Era is sometimes called the ​Grand Manner
○ Characteristics of Mannerist Art/Architecture
■ Large, ambitious, complex, sometimes bizarre works
■ Renaissance artists needed to be creative to keep their art “new”
■ Exaggerated drama and a sense of restlessness in tune with uncertainties
of the Renaissance
■ Emotionalism, mysticism, and illusionism won out of classicism
■ Mannerism was largely replaced by Baroque Art
● Baroque Art/Architecture
○ Designed to create dramatic works of art that would reestablish faith in the
Catholic Church
○ Characteristics
■ Dramatic use of light/dark (tenebrism)
■ Dramatic moments and intense emotion
■ Portrayals of common people
■ Buildings were grandiose with ornate decorations

2.8 Causation in the Age of Reformation and the Wars of Religion

● Reformation
○ The Reformation began in modern day Germany; caused by church corruption,
like indulgences
■ Spearheaded by Martin Luther
○ Spread as a result of the development of the printing press, support by German
princes, increasing discontentment with the Church
■ Peasant revolts caused by the Reformation and desire for equality and
the end of oppression by their landowners and other nobles
○ Counter-reformation began because of the Protestant Reformation and
problems within the Church
■ Jesuits formed because of counter-reformation and Ignatius Loyola
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○ England separated from the Church because Henry VIII wanted to get a divorce
from Catherine of Aragon, but was unable to due to the Pope
■ Episode of power struggle between sovereignty and religion
● Wars of Religion
○ Wars began because the Roman Catholic Guise family did not want Calvinist
toleration in France
■ Calvinists had been granted limited rights by Catherine de Medici, which
angered the Guises
■ Civil war further provoked by St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, which was
caused by a congregation of Huguenots at Vassy
○ War of Three Henrys occurred because the Calvinist Henry of Navarre was to be
the heir to the French throne, this was not desired by Henry III of France or
Henry I the Duke of Guise
■ War ended when Henry of Navarre (now Henry IV) was appointed king
and converted to Roman Catholicism (“Paris is worth a mass”)
○ Huguenots gained rights because Henry passed the ​Edict of Nantes​ (1598)
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3: Absolutism and Constitutionalism​ (1648-1815)

3.2: The English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution

● English Civil War
○ Causes
■ In 1628, the ​Petition of Rights​ was when the Parliament will give Charles
funds if he follows it, but instead, he didn’t listen.
■ In August 1642, Charles I raised an army to deal with a rebellion in
Ireland against the order of Parliament.
■ Puritans resisted Willliam Laud, who attempted to bring the Catholics
into Anglicanism.
■ Laud pushed to adopt a new version of the ​Prayer Book of the Anglican
Church​ and people were refused.
○ Consequences
■ In 1649, the Execution of Charles I and the establishment of the English
Republic.
■ Interregnum Period
● Interregnum
○ Causes
■ The New Model Army defect Charles’ forces and got control of the
government.
● Led by Oliver Cromwell
○ During this period, Britain will be “not fun”
■ Have rules on moral behavior and such
○ Consequences
■ In 1660, Parliament invites Charles II.
■ Charles II accept Parliament’s ​Bill of Rights
● Parliament had greater power than the king
■ Restoration Period
■ Test Act of 1673​ excludes other religious sects, besides the Church of
England, from government positions.
● Glorious Revolution
○ Causes
■ James II practiced Catholic Faith and appointed Catholics to high
government positions.
■ In 1668, Parliament asked Mary and William of Orange to become rulers
of England.
■ In 1668, Mary and William had an army and James II fled to France.
○ Consequences
■ The late 1600s, Tories and Whigs Parties emerged.
■ The ​English Bill of Rights​ was created to ensure the superiority of
Parliament which forces the monarchy to regularly summon Parliament.
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3.3: Continuities and Changes to Economic Practice and Development
● Commercial Revolution Causes
○ Agricultural Revolution​: raised productivity and increased the supply of food and
other agricultural products
○ Importation of agricultural products from the Americas contributed to an
increase in the food supply in Europe
■ New Oceanic Trade Routes increased overseas investment in colonies
■ Population growth in Europe also increased demand for imported goods
from the colonies
● New Economic Practices
○ New trading locations open opportunities for economic leadership
○ Merchants and bankers emerge as influential and successful entrepreneurs
● New Industries
○ Printing Press created a market for books
○ Oceanic trade routes created a rise in shipbuilding
○ Larger militaries supported development of cannons and muskets
● Domestic (​Putting-Out​) System
○ Putting-Out System (​cottage industry​) expanded during this era
■ Past Guild regulation programs stifled productions
● To avoid these regulations, entrepreneurs provided cloth, looms,
and other equipment to rural families
■ Led to an increase in production of cloth and other goods
● Commercial Revolution Consequences
○ Decline of Early Economic Centers
■ Hanseatic League (northern Baltic towns) declined
■ Italian city-states lost monopoly on trade with India
○ Rise of ​Capitalism
■ Capital (wealth) is invested to produce more capital
■ Privatization of land, materials, equipment
■ Motivated by a desire to gain profits Early modern Europe developed a
market economy that provided the foundation for its global role
○ Rise of the Bourgeoisie (Middle-Class Entrepreneurs)
■ Capitalism expanded and increased Bourgeoisie power and influence

3.4: Economic Development and Mercantilism (1648 - 1815)

● Mercantilism​ = measured in gold + silver = export ↑ = import ↓
○ British’s commercial leadership (1700s) has its origins in mercantilism
● Putting-out system​ (1600s) participants are merchant capitalists and rural workers
○ Merchants loan raw materials to workers who creates finishing products
○ England’s cottage industry rely on the putting-out system
● Navigation Acts​ (1651) - Oliver Cromwell
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○ A form of economic warfare against the Dutch businesses
○ Requires most goods import from Europe into Great Britain be carried on
British-owned ships with British crew on those ships
○ Gave merchants and shipowners a monopoly on trade with British colonies
○ Colonists were required to ship their products on British ships and buy goods
from Britain
■ Eliminate competition -> develop shipping industry -> Royal Navy
● Left France as England’s most serious rival -> 1701-1783, two countries fought a series
of wars seeking to become the leading maritime power and claim the profits of
overseas expansion
● After 1700, Britain became leader in shipping slaves -> govern + ship -> commerce
○ Adopt trading method -> less expensive > trading posts
● Adam Smith​ (1723-1790) develop idea of freedom of enterprise -> ​Economic Liberalism
○ CAPITALISM BABY
○ Free trade and competition -> protect consumers and gave citizens rights
■ “Invisible hand” (consumer) guided the market
○ Pursuit of self-interest in competitive market ↑ living conditions
○ Provide defense against foreign invasion
○ Should maintain civil order with courts and police protection
○ Should sponsor certain public works and institutions that could never profit
private investors
○ Lead to economic deregulation and attempts to end economic monopolies
● Triangle Trade​ - Africa, New World and Europe
○ Europe = guns and textiles -> Africa
○ Enslaved Africans sent to colonies in the New World
○ Raw materials and goods from the colonies sent back to Europe
○ London become the wealthiest city in the West
● 1807, Parliament abolish British slave trade

3.5: The Dutch Golden Age

● Each province of the Dutch Republic (DR) had a regent who oversaw provincial affairs
○ As a group, they participated in the ​States-Genera​l, a council of representatives
from each province - Chose a single executive = ​stadholder
○ They had many differences in fundamental matters (war or peace) that prevent
the kind of focused central government that England built and what the Dutch
needed
■ Conflicting ideas on government, economy, and military basically
○ States-General had greater unity in economic policy - a strategy for backing
trade
● People of the DR were among the ​most diverse​ in Europe at the time => contributed to
the prosperity
● Attract artisans and business people
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● Center of printing for people whose thoughts had been censored elsewhere
○ Ex. Barch Spinoza denied the immortality of the soul and no god
● Alliances with local leaders and military might = imperialist powers
● Merchants bring plants and things = innovation
● Geographic positioning​ enable its ships to access north-south and east-west trade
routes
● Middle of the 17th century, the center of economic activity in Europe was in the Dutch
Republic
● Took advantage of their independence and reduced war expenses by
○ Expanding their ship capacity
○ Building a network of canals connecting 400 miles of major cities
■ Improve communication and trade regionally
○ Land reclamation and civil engineering advanced as cities grew
○ Jan Van der Heden​ invent long-burning wick = nighttime illumination and
reduction in crime + Portable pumping devices = reduction of fires

3.6: Balances of Power

● The ​Nation-State System
○ The competitive state system that developed after the Treaty of Westphalia led
to new patterns of diplomacy and warfare
■ Religion was no longer the primary cause of conflict between states
■ The concept of a “balance” of power became important in diplomatic
and military objectives
○ France emerged as the foremost military power​ after the Thirty Years War
■ Other European nations aligned themselves to offset the power of
France
■ The ​decline​ of the Holy Roman Empire, Poland, and the Ottoman Empire
created opportunity for other nations to expand
● Wars of King Louis XIV​ (France)
○ Louis XIV wanted to ​expand France​ to it’s “natural borders” of the Rhine River in
the North and Switzerland in the southeast
■ Desired to take over Spanish Habsburg possessions in both the New
World and Europe
○ Dutch War​ – Spain ceded territory in the Spanish Netherlands to France
■ William of Orange created the anti-French coalition
○ Nine Years War​ – Louis retained Alsace, but lost Lorraine
■ Louis also forced to accept William of Orange as the rightful King of
England
● War of the Spanish Succession​ (1701-1713)
○ The War of the Spanish Succession begins when Charles II of Spain dies without
an heir
■ Left Spanish throne to Louis XIV’s (France) grandson, Philip of Anjou
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■ European nations feared Louis XIV would ​merge​ the French/Spanish
thrones and create a more powerful monarchy
■ England formed the ​Grand Alliance​ to stop this (Holland, Austria,
Brandenburg, and Italian duchy of Savoy)
● Tr​eaty of Utrecht​ (1713)
○ The Peace of Utrecht ended the War of the Spanish Succession and preserved
peace for thirty years
○ Louis XIV’s grandson (Philip V) could be King of Spain
■ However, ​Spanish and French thrones could never unite
○ England gained the slave trade from Spain and French Colonies in Canada
○ Austria gained control of the Spanish Netherlands (Belgium)
■ Becomes the Austrian Netherlands
■ Austria also gained Naples, Milan, and Sardinia
○ Duke of Savoy gained Sicily and title of King
■ In 1720 Sicily was ceded to Austria for Sardinia
○ The Elector of Brandenburg became the King of Prussia

3.7: Absolutist Approaches to Power

● Absolutism: ​Key Trends
○ Monarch represented the sovereignty of country
○ Monarch was not subordinate to a national assembly
○ Monarch controlled nobility
○ Monarch controlled Roman Catholic Church
○ Monarch commanded a large army
○ Although this wasn’t always true, abolutism went in hand with enforcing a
“Divine Right” to rule
■ Louis XIV (Sun King) in France
● Absolutist ​Foundations​: Henry IV (1589-1610)
○ Henry IV​ (Navarre) of Bourbon (a p ​ olitique​)
■ Passed Edict of Nantes – 1598
○ Granted religious toleration to French Huguenots
○ Made Duke De Sully Chief Minister
■ Nobles were exempt from paying taxes, taxes went mostly to peasants
■ Sully made tax system more efficient
● Reduced national debt, built new roads/canals, revived
industry/agriculture
● Absolutist Foundations: ​Nobility of the Robe
○ Nobles were the greatest check on royal power
■ Nobles had “nobility of the sword,” which were privileges based on
military service
○ Henry IV and Sully raised money by selling offices of “nobility”
■ Those who bought offices were called “robe nobles”
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3.8: Comparison in the Age of Absolutism and Constitutionalism

● Political Key Concepts
○ The struggle for sovereignty within and among states resulted in varying
degrees of political centralization
■ The concept of the sovereign state and secular legal system played a key
role in the creation of new political institutions
■ Competition​ for power between monarchs, nobles, and various groups
produced different distributions of governmental authority in European
states
● Nobles challenged monarchs desire for power as the nobles
wished to retain traditional forms of shared governance and
regional autonomy
● Minority local and regional identities based on language and
culture led to resistance against the dominant national group
○ Different methods of political sovereignty affected the relationship among states
and between states and individuals
■ In much of Europe, absolute monarchy was established over the course
of the 17​th​ and 18​th​ centuries
■ Challenges to absolutism resulted in alternative political systems, such as
Constitutionalism
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4: Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments​ (1648-1815)

4.1: (Contextualizing) the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment

● Scientific thought was based on ancient and medieval ideas
● Most important discipline was natural philosophy, focused on questions about nature,
universe how it functions
● European notions if the universe were based on Aristotle:
○ Brough Aristotle’s philosophy into harmony w/ Christian documents
○ Believed the earth was the center and motionless
● Enlightenment​: Intellectuals began to apply many of the principles of the Scientific
Revolution to society and human institutions
○ John Locke and Thomas Hobbes laid groundwork with natural law and social
contract
● Thomas Hobbes​ was negative about the nature of man and believed humans would
compete violently for power, wanted an absolute monarch
● John Locke​ disagreed, believed that man is basically rational, needs natural rights of life
○ Believed in ​tabula rasa​: man is born with a blank slate

4.2: The Scientific Revolution

● Copernicus​: idea of heliocentric theory, sun was the center
○ Conflicted Aristotle and church ideas
○ Published “On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres,” also believed heaven and
Earth were separate
● Brahe​: confirmed Copernicus’ hypothesis with data from Denmark
○ Believed all planets except Earth revolved around the sun
● Kepler​: developed the revolutionary ideas of planetary motion from Brahe’s ideas, came
up with the idea of elliptical orbits
● Galielo​: challenged aristotle’s ideas
○ Heavenly spheres not perfect
○ “Starry Messenger”
● Bacon​: Founder of Scientific Method
○ Use Experimentation
● Descartes​: Another founder of the Scientific Method
○ Use Assumption more than empirical study and induction
● Catholic Church typically condemned all of these findings as it was in direct conflict with
the writings of the Bible

4.3: The Enlightenment

● The Enlightenment arose out of the late 17th century works like ​Newton’s ​Principia
Mathematica​ and ​Locke’s E
​ ssay Concerning Human Understanding​.
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○ These two works provided the toolkit for a new conception of the universe,
focused primarily on reason, concrete evidence, and the agency of the human
spirit.
● Later, these ideals were expanded into more complex realms, such as ​liberty​, ​equality​,
constitutional government​, and the ​separation of church and state​.
○ Every one of these ideas were extraordinarily dangerous for established
monarchies in Europe and the Americas, because most monarchies derived their
legitimacy out of a concept of ​Divine Right​.
● When these ideas started swirling around about the ​right to revolution​ or how ​power
ultimately came from the ​people​, that posed an existential threat to existing political
structures.
● Ideologically, the Enlightenment’s spread can be characterized as a circle centered on
Paris​ that reached London, Northern Italy, and even Berlin.
○ There are a few exceptions, notably Benjamin Franklin in what were then the 13
English North American colonies, but nearly all the work of the Enlightenment
came out of there, with the center - Paris - having the most activity.
● Enlightenment ideas were the basis to many ​religious reforms​, a good example of this is
the protestant reformation in Christianity.
○ The ​Protestant Reformation​ was the 16th-century religious, political, intellectual
and cultural upheaval that splintered Catholic Europe, setting in place the
structures and beliefs that would define the continent in the modern era.
○ The reformation was begun by ​Martin Luther​ and was looked up to by other
enlightenment thinkers such as ​John Calvin​ who also contributed to the
reformation.
○ These religious reform movements were mostly caused by the range of ideas
centered on the ​sovereignty of reason​ and the evidence of the senses as the
primary sources of knowledge and advanced ideals such as ​liberty​, ​progress​,
toleration​, ​fraternity​, ​constitutional government​ and ​separation of church and
state​.

● This new wave of thinking did not stop its influence at religion, it heavily contributed to
reform movements in other aspects of society such as the ​expansion of rights​.
● Enlightenment thinkers heavily valued what are called natural rights - ​life​, ​liberty​, and
property​, originally proposed by John Locke.
● As the founder of individualism and rationality, the enlightenment era also influenced
women’s rights​ and made women question their roles in society.
○ Prolific enlightenment women philosophers and historians included Mary
Wollstonecraft, Olympe de Gouges, Catherine Macaulay, Mary Astell, Mary
Chudleigh, and Louise d’Epinay.
○ Macaulay’s T ​ he Letters on Education​ ​ (1790) advocated for the education of
women.
○ Wollstonecraft’s A ​ Vindication of the Rights of Woman​ (1792) used similar
arguments, stating that women require an education to help their position in
society.
○ De Gouges​ published the ​Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female
Citizen​ (1791) as a testament to the political inequality of women and to
challenge male authority in society.
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● Enlightenment thinkers argued that ​liberty was a natural human right​ and that reason
and scientific knowledge (not the state or the church) were responsible for human
progress.
● Some enlightened thinkers such as Thomas Paine supported the concept of the
Enlightenment being an advocate or driving force in favor of the ​anti-slavery movement
due to the deep emphasis on equality and freedom.
● Other Enlightenment figures, such as French philosophers ​Jean-Jacques Rousseau​ and
Montesquieu​, expressed their disapproval of the Atlantic slave system.
● It was clear that this new form of thinking had an impact on the abolition of slavery,
although it was not immediate.

4.4: 18th-Century Society and Demographics

● Urbanization
○ With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, more people began ​moving to
urban centers​ from rural areas
○ Families produced less children because of a lowered infant mortality rate
■ These children were comparatively better treated than their predecessors
○ A large poor working class increased crime and prostitution in cities
■ Enlightenment ideas of government reform appealed to the working
class. They were discontent with their living and working conditions
● The ​Agricultural Revolution​ allowed for a larger population
● The average lifespan increased
● The aristocracy were at the top of the social hierarchy
○ Landowners

4.5: 18th-Century Culture and Arts

● Rococo Art and Neoclassicism
○ *Take a look at some of artwork from this time period*
○ Rococo is refered to as “late baroque”
■ It’s just as pompous as borqoue and “flowey”
○ Neoclassicism is not as pompous and more simplistic
■ Focused on the antiquity
● These philosophical ideas along with the associated new respect for empiricism, science
and nature (human, organic and inanimate)
○ Found expression in a dramatic new emphasis on secular subject matter in art
and in new departures in the planning of domestic space in architecture.
● Antoine Watteau’s R ​ eturn From Cythera​ (famous art piece)
● Jacques-Louis David’s “ ​ Oath of the Horatii”​ (famous art piece)
● Age of Mozart
● Not as artistic as other time periods due to newfound intellect
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4.6: Enlightened and Other Approaches to Powe​r
● Frederick II of Prussia
○ Openly praised Voltaire’s works and invite several French
○ Reduce the use of torture
○ Allow free press
○ Reorganized civil services and simplify laws
○ Tolerate religious differences
● Joseph II of Austria
○ Support equal rights for Protestants and Jews
○ Allow free press
○ Attempt to control of the Church
○ Abolish serfdom
● Catherine the Great of Russia
○ Exchange ideas and letters with Voltaire and Diderot
○ Believe in equality and liberty
○ Abolish torture
○ Establish religious tolerance
○ Grant Nobles charter of rights
○ Criticize selfdom
● Mainly, these rulers tried to change their society to be more innovative and “new”
○ Placed more of an emphasis on helping the people (of course with some extent)

4.7: Causation in the Age of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment
● Causes for the Scientific Revolution:
○ Greek Thinkers​ - express ideas (​scientific​)
■ Aristotle - idea that people should observe the world carefully
■ Draw ​logical conclusions​ about what they see
○ Renaissance encourage ​curiosity​, i​ nvestigation​, ​discovery​ and ​modern day
knowledge
■ Caused people to question old beliefs
■ Humanism​ - people study the natural world
● Causes for the ​Enlightenment
○ Scientific Revolution​ - use reason
■ Attempt to apply the principles of reason and the scientific method to all
aspects of society
○ Thirty Years’ War​ - compel German writers (Hugo Grotius and John Comenius)
to pen criticisms regarding the ideas of nationalism and warfare
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5: Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century​ (1648-1815)

5.1: (Contextualizing) 18th-Century States

● On the eve of the French Revolution in 1789, the great powers of Europe were the
British, French, Prussians, Austrians and Russians.
● Older powers such as Poland, the Holy Roman Empire, and Spain could not keep pace
with political developments in those great powers, and they steadily lost military power
and prestige
● Due to Poland’s weaknesses, Austria, Prussia, and Russia were able to carve up Poland
and partition it thrice in 1772, 1793, and 1795. This military buildup in the east kept all
three powers distracted for the early phases of the French Revolution.
● France was at risk of falling into the same downward spiral as Poland in 1788, for
reasons discussed in 5.4.
● The primary concern of many European statesmen at this time was maintaining the
“Stately Quadrille” - a stable balance of power that would not lead to chaos
● To this end, the ​Diplomatic Revolution of 1756​ reversed the long-standing
Britain-Austria-Russia / France-Prussia battle lines following the 1748 War of Austrian
Succession into a Britain-Prussia/France-Austria-Russia line
● The​ ​Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)​ was the first war after this reversal - major British win,
crushing French defeat
○ War costs would cripple Britain and France, the later fatally so

5.2: The Rise of Global Markets

● Commercial rivalries in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans accelerated ​political tensions​ in
Europe
● Founding of ​Dutch East India/British East India Companies​ became points of prestige
● Expansion of European commerce accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic
network and the growth of trade encourage economic development and military
conflict in the Atlantic
● Britain's commercial leadership had origins in mercantilism and the ​Navigation Acts
○ Gave merchants and shipowners a monopoly on trade with colonies
○ Navigation Acts were warfare against the Dutch Republic was falling behind
England in shipping, trade and colonies
○ Leaving France was the rival with ongoing wars like Seven Years’ War and
American Revolution

5.3: Britain’s Ascendency

● Britain managed to overtake France in terms of overall prestige after the ​Seven Years’
War​, with British colonies and commercial interests proving a critical element of British
prestige
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○ By 1756, France, Austria, Russia vs. Prussia and Britain
○ British reduce French outposts in the trading compeition
○ Treaty of Paris​, France lost all claims to Canada
■ Louisiana to Spain
■ Florida to British
■ France actually has nothing in Northern America
■ Held resentment towards the British
● American Revolution
○ 1776, Second Continental Army vote to declare Independence from Britain
○ France provide support for the colonies
○ Britain = big boi
○ Treaty of Paris end the war in 1783
○ Lead to British supremacy:
■ France didn’t become geo-polticial equal to Britain
■ Spain didn’t win Gibraltar
■ Dutch economy falls apart
■ Turn the US into a major partner and central component in its commerce
empire

5.4: The French Revolution

● The ​immediate cause​ of the French Revolution was a ​massive fiscal crisis​ where the
monarchy found itself unable to raise the money to finance its crushing debt
○ King Louis XVI was forced to call the ​Estates-General​ and bring the people into
government, whereupon they took events in unexpected directions
○ Tennis Court Oath​ - The Third Estate vowed “not to separate and to reassemble
wherever circumstances require, until the constitution of the kingdom is
established”
● Long-term, the French monarchy’s ​regressive tax scheme​, where nobles paid few taxes
and merchants could buy themselves the noble titles for tax exemptions, meant that
taxes fell hardest on those who were least likely to be able to pay
● In a few broad strokes, the buildup to and end of the revolution can be summed up in
three phases: a phase of ​Increasing Radicalization​ (1786-1794), the ​Thermidorian Period
(1794-1804), and the ​Napoleonic Empire​ (1804-1815).
○ The monarchy declared imminent bankruptcy in 1786, and from there a series of
political demands for reform by the nobility and bankers ended in the calling of
the ​Estates General in 1789
○ Storming of the Bastille​ on July 14, 1789 = Traditional start date for Revolution
○ A series of bad political moves by the king led to a terminal ​loss of trust ​in Louis
XVI and war with Austria (a French ally!) in 1792 - monarchy abolished in 1792 to
form the​ ​National Convention​, Louis XVI executed soon after
○ Radicalization in Paris leads to conservative (royalist and religious) backlash in
the ​Vendee Uprising​, as well as some Federalist Revolts in Lyon and Marseilles
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○ The Convention responds to internal and external crisis through emergency
measures - the ​Levee en Masse​, Price Maximums on food, issuing of paper
currency called ​assignants​, and aggressive a
​ nti-clerical measures
■ Reign of Terror by Robespierre
■ More important to protect the Revolution than to preserve the rights of
property and life
■ De-Christianization
■ The Committee of Public Correspondence
● A group of radical republicans and Sans Culottes who were the
executive branch of the government
○ Eventually, a group of politicians became nervous that they’d be the next in line
to be purged, leading them to arrest and guillotine ​Robespierre​ in 1794. This
would be the first time France took a step ​towards order, not liberty​.
○ A politically moderate ​Directory​ replaced the Convention, but it was unstable
because it was really supported only by the army and had to fend off attacks
against both leftist insurrectionaries and royalist reactionaries
○ A successful general by the name of ​Napoleon Bonaparte​ led the Coup of 18
Brumaire against the Directory to form the ​Consulate​ - discussed in 5.6

5.5: The French Revolution Effects

● Interpretations of the French Revolution differ dramatically, and how someone
interpreted the Revolution remained a political litmus test for a century to come
● Revolutionary armies ​spread nationalist, republican ideas across Europe​, laying the
foundation for ​political liberalization​ and the ​Revolutions of 1848
● The ​Levee en Masse​ made war a much larger, bloodier affair - war was no longer a
game of chess with small professional armies, but a ​huge undertaking​ that mobilized
the entire state (Synthesis to WWI and Total War!)
● The French Revolution provided the great ​turning poin​t for Europe to transition into the
modern era, in terms of political theory, social change, and the balance of power
○ Revolutionary political reforms significantly improved the French state’s health
○ The “freeing” of the French peasantry prompted social upheaval elsewhere
○ Inclusion of people in government​ led to more stable, competent states
○ French armies finally broke the Holy Roman Empire, never to be seen again
● Brought the ideologies of ​republicanism​, ​socialism​, and ​liberalism​ into European
politics

5.6: Napoleon’s Rise, Dominance, and Defeat

● Napoleon was the most successful of the revolutionary generals, and assisted by
elements within the Directory, he led the ​Coup of 18 Brumaire​ against the Directory on
November 9, 1799, and founded the ​Consulate
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● Napoleon undertook multiple far-reaching, enduring ​reforms​ that were very popular
among the French people, even if at the ​expense of some liberty and rights
○ Healed the breach with the Pope that had led to the Vendee Uprising with the
Concordat of 1801
○ Finally balanced the budget and stabilized the economy, removing most unrest
○ Centralized an efficient, ​merit-based bureaucracy​ that had broad control
○ Created the ​Napoleonic Code
■ A code of law that eliminated arbitrary imprisonment and sentencing
○ Pardoned all emigre noble families, eliminating a source of foreign opposition
○ Made ​education​ universal, free, meritocratic, secular, and nationalistic
○ Finally ​secured general European peace​ for the first time in a decade in 1802
● On a wave of public support, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the ​First French
Empire​ in December 1804
○ There’s that famous painting that goes with this!
● Napoleon resumed war in 1803 after the Year of Peace, beginning the ​Napoleonic Wars
○ Initial conquests stalled by the guerilla ​Peninsular War​ in Spain, which would
bleed money, troops, and attention in what was dubbed as “The Spanish Ulcer”
○ Protests by students in the German states were curtailed with a secret police
○ He attempted to break the British economy with a mass European embargo
known as the ​Continental System​, which backfired and led to unrest
○ Ultimately, the Russian withdrawal from the Continental System led to the
French Invasion of Russia in 1812, a disaster that ended the French Empire
■ A good way to think about it is a pendulum - it was a tide bringing the
peoples of Europe against Russia, and a tide that brought those peoples
against France
● Napoleon was eventually deposed by the French Senate in 1814 after Allied armies
closed in on Paris (sent to the island of Elba), and after a brief ​Hundred Days Campaign
in a last ditch attempt to regain power, Napoleon was exiled to ​St. Helena​.
○ He would die sick, depressed, and homesick in 1821 on St. Helena.

5.7: The Congress of Vienna

Purpose​ of The Congress of Vienna:
● UNDO everything Napoleon did
○ Reduce France to old boundaries (1790)
○ Wanted to restore as many of the old monarchies as possible that lost their
thrones during the Napoleonic era
■ Rejected any hint of republican and democratic policies in these regions
● Some key principles of the meet:
○ Create a balance of power in Europe
■ Increase the strength of countries surrounding France
■ Coalition forces had to stay in France for a few years
○ Have legitimacy for past monarchies
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○ Compensation for events in the past
■ France had to pay 700 million francs
● Concert of Europe
○ The agreement was put in place to uphold the balance of power set up by the
congress of vienna and lasted until 1848
Representatives from nations
● The ​Quadruple Alliance​ - Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, and Russia
○ Sought to preserve the settlement of the Treaty of Chaumont
■ Become main players at this meeting
● The ​Holy Alliance​ - Initiated by Russia to support Christian values
● Russia: Tzar Alexander I
● Prussia: King Frederick William III
● Austria: Prince Klemens von Metternich (Host and main leader)
● France: Charles Maurice de Talleyrand
● Britain: Viscount Castlereagh

5.8: Romanticism
● The romantic movement was in part a revolt ​against classicism and the Enlightenment
● Romantics:
○ Tremendous ​emotional intensity​ and were bohemian
○ Driven by yearning for the unattained, unknown, and unknowable
● View of nature is different from Classicism
○ Romantics were fascinated and saw nature as a source of ​spiritual inspiration
○ Saw the growth of industry as harming their beloved natures and migrated to
“unsoiled” lands
● Fascinated by ​color and diversity​, the romantic imagination turned toward the study of
history with a passion
○ History​ was beautiful in its own right
○ Believed to be the ​art of change over time
○ Historical studies supported the development of national aspirations and
encourage entire peoples to seek in the past their special destinies (European
Thought)
● Britain was the main nation influenced by Romanticism in Literature
○ Distinctive voice in ​Poetry
○ William Wordsworth was the leader of this movement in Britain
■ Lyrical Ballads
○ In art, Turner
■ Depicted nature’s power and terror
● The strength of classicism in France inhibited the growth of romanticism there at first
but between 1820 and 1850 the romantic impulse broke through in poetry and prose
○ Victor Hugo!
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○ In art, Eugene Delacroix
■ Liberty Leading the People​ celebrated the nobility of popular revolution
in general and revolution
■ Painted very dramatically, ​STIRRED EMOTIONS
● In central and eastern Europe, ​literary romanticism and early nationalism​ often
reinforced each other and romantics plumbed their own histories and cultures
● Romantics transformed the classical orchestra and gave ​range and intensity to music
○ Achieved the most ecstatic effect and realized endless yearning of the soul
○ Beethoven!

5.9: Continuity and Change in the 18th-Century States

● The French Revolution and Napoleon’s reign challenged the different types of political
sovereignty in 18th-Century States. As Napoleon took control of much of the European
continent, the rest of Europe was provoked to take a nationalistic response. Although
political sovereignty and government changed in France more than once during the
18th-century, eventually the Congress of Vienna restored the Bourbons to the French
throne.
● The expansion of European commerce accelerated the growth of a worldwide
economic network. Commercial rivalries influenced diplomacy and warfare among
European states in the early modern era.
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6: Industrialization and Its Effects​ (1815-1914)

6.1: (Contextualizing) Industrialization and Its Origins and Effects

● Origins were Britain
○ Vibrant scientific and enlightenment culture including the British Society of Arts
and sponsorship of prizes for innovations made revolution increase
○ Trade in Atlantic was also benefiting Britain
○ English farmers were continually adopting new methods of farming and
increasing productivity
■ Brought lots of capital into Britain
● Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment fostered new worldviews embracing progress
and the role of research as well as experimentation

6.2: The Spread of Industry Throughout Europe

● Origins
● Agricultural rev - new tech = more food produced by less people → surplus
laborers
● Entrepreneurs wanted to invest $$$
● Britain had coal & iron ore → transport
●
Invention Inventor Significance

Spinning jenny Hargreave Allowed spinners to produce yarn in greater amounts

Water frame Arkwright Used to power machines using water → need to be by rivers

mule Crompton Combined water frame and spinning jenny

Power loom Cartwright Faster weaving of cloth to catch up to the yarn production

Steam engine James 3x faster than water frame; ↑ coal industry and no need to be
Watt by rivers

Wrought iron Cort Burn impurities in pig iron → made wrought iron = high quality

Cotton Gin Eli Whitney Separate seeds from the cotton = ↑ cotton output on
(American) plantations in US

Seed Drill Jethro Tull Sowed seeds in neat rows so birds/wind couldn’t get them
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4-Year Crop Townshend Rotate type of produce each part of field used, so there was no
Rotation need for fallow fields → year-round production

Breeding Robert Better breeding methods such as Inbreeding, allowing them to

Changes Bakewell control traits → Better meat

● Britain’s Great Exhibition

● They showed off w/ the crystal palace (glass & iron) + had lots of inventions
● Growth of People and Cities
● 1st census - took data on births, deaths, and marriages; show ↑ pop growth bc
lower famine, war, and disease
● Irish Potato Famine​ - Irish relied on potatoes (monoculture) & blight = famine →
emigration of 2+ mil to Europe & US
● Urbanization​ - organized in rings, middle class/artisans/industrial workers → live
in tenements at city center
● Charles ​Dickens​ - British realist, wrote about poor conditions in O​ liver Twist
● Poor Law Commission​ - investigate, Chadwick wrote ​Report on the Condition of
the Labouring Population of Great Britain
● People are scared of cholera → support public health reforms
● New Social Classes
● Bourgeoisie​ - new middle class
■ Wealthy people that owned land, from shopkeepers to businessmen
■ New industrial entrepreneurs - people who invest in factories
● Working class - Mixture of people
■ Artisans still majority in cities & organized into guilds; against
industrialization
■ Industrial proletariat → poor working hours and conditions
■ Working conditions: hot and crowded factories & dangerous and
cramped mines
■ Systematic exploitation of child labor - they had small hands and were
only paid ⅙ of the normal wage; yet, they accounted for 29% of the
workforce
● Factory Act of 1833​ (Britain)
■ Decrease in child labor, but those positions were taken by women (only
paid ½ wage)
● Poor Law Act of 1834​ (Britain)
■ Established workhouses → jobless ppl forced to live and get job
assignments
■ But bad conditions & separated families
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6.3: Second Wave Industrialization and Its effects
● Responses to the Industrial Revolution
● Trade unions​ → Skilled workers who want to limit people on their job & get
benefits from employers
● Luddites​ - Attacked the machines! But failed & seen as naive
● Chartism​ - Reform the government & achieve political democracy, use ideas
from ​The People’s Charter:
■ Demanded universal male suffrage, pay Parliament ppl, anyone can be in
the Parliament, annual sessions for Parliament, and a secret ballot (wow!)
● Anti-corn law league​ - against corn laws (tariff on grain imports), was successful
■ Goals: Sell in more places, cheaper bread, more employment, better
agriculture (bc of competition), expand trade = peace
● Iron Law of Wages​ (David Ricardo) - ↑ wages = ↑ kids = ↑ workers = ↓ wages
= ↓ kids = ↓ workers = ↑ wages
● Malthus - Food growth slower than pop growth → need natural population

6.4: Social Effects of Industrialization

● Utilitarianism
● Bentham & John Stuart Mill
● “We should always act always so as to produce the ​greatest good​ for the
greatest number of people​”
● Rule Utilitarianism invented so people follow rules to do the above rather than
do anything, like Act Utilitarianism
● Socialism
● Utopians​ (Robert Owens) → Workers own the means of production, but Marx
said that the fact that it was optional = won’t work
● Marxism​ (Communism) - Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote the ​Communist
Manifesto
■ Bourgeoisie is bad and proletariat (industrial working class) needs to
seize the means of production
■ Marx was also part of the International Workingmen’s Association
(Radical socialists → spread ideas, but fell apart later)
● Anarchists​ - less industrialized countries, believe no control = true freedom
■ Bakunin - Russian anarchist who used assassination and terror, lead to the
Russian Revolution

6.5: The Concert of Europe and European Conservatism

● The goals of the conservative movement:
○ Want to restore royal families to thrones
○ Believe that natural rights and constitutional government -> chaos
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● Conservatives​ = monarchs, officials, nobles and church leaders
● Concert of Europe​ = Britain, Prussia, Austria and France
○ Prince Klemens von Metternich, Viscount Castlereagh, Tsar Alexander I, Prince
Karl von Hardenberg and Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand
○ Agree to work together as Concert of Europe to support a political and social
order
○ Support social hierarchies​ through lower-class respect and obey their superiors
○ Approve Catholic, Protestant and E. Orthodox
○ Exchange territories and people
● Challenges that they face:
○ Liberals​ who spoke against conservative ideas (divine-right, aristocracy,
churches) -> liberty, equality, property
○ Groups who share ​common heritage​ went for independence

6.6: Reactions and Revolutions

● Revolutions in the 1820s:
○ Greece​ - done with the Ottoman Empire and wanted their independence
■ Britain, France, and Russia force Ottomans to grant independence
■ Pressure the Greeks to accept German King
○ Italy​ - wanted independence from Austria
■ Organize secret patriotic societies and focus efforts on expelling Austrian
forces from N. Italy
■ Austria sent troops => failed
● Revolutions in the 1830s:
○ France​ - Charles X with strict censorship and death penalties -> harbinger to
Absolutism
■ Liberals and Radicals responds -> throw up barricades across streets and
attack soldiers
■ In the end, they control Paris and Charles X fled to England
● Install Louis Phillippe as a constitutional monarch
○ Poland​ - wanted to gain Independence -> stage uprising -> failed
● Revolutions in 1848:
○ France​ - radicals wanted to end private ownership of property
■ Factories shut down and people lost their jobs
■ Press blame the government
■ Louis Napoleon took control
○ Germany​ - demand national unity and liberal reforms
■ University Students protest
■ King Frederick William IV agree to a constitution
○ Italy​ - want to end Hapsburgs dominance and set up government
■ Expel the pope from Rome
■ Install nationalists government
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○ Austria​ - independent government, end selfdom, constitution to protect natural
rights -> Failed
● Russian Revolution​ in 1905
○ Causes: Russian defeat from the Russo-Japanese War, Constitution, Government
Reform
○ How: Strikes multiple, workers took over local governments, peasants demand
land, called for autonomy from Russia, terrorists target officials
○ Effects: ​October Manifesto​ and Summon Duma regularly
■ October Manifesto - promise freedom of person, consonance, speech,
assembly, union

6.7: Ideologies of Change and Reform Movements

● Conservatism
○ Social Classes: Aristocracy/Landed Gentrys
○ Tradition, Institution, Privileges
○ Inherited rights - connection with the past
○ Yes: Romanticism (sometimes), Liberalism (vs. Socialism)
○ No: Liberalism, Socialism, Nationalism
○ Edmund Burke - R ​ eflections on the Revolution in France
○ Metternich
● Liberalism
○ Social Classes: Bourgeoisie (Professional Class)
○ Laissez-faire, Natural Rights, Reform, Individualism
○ Natural Rights - God-given
○ Yes: Nationalism (Self-Determination)
○ No: Conservatism, Socialism, Romanticism
○ Adam Smith - W ​ ealth of Nations
■ Defend free-market economy and stated the three laws of economy
○ John Stuart Mill - O ​ n Liberty
■ Creator of Utilitarianism
■ The government was there to secure the greatest happiness for the
greatest number
● Socialism
○ Social Class: Working Class
○ Justice, Equality, Fairness
○ No: Conservatism, Liberalism
○ Louis Blanc - Organization of Work
○ Karl Marx
● Romanticism
○ Social Classes: Artists, Authors, and Poets
○ Beauty, Nature, Nostalgia, ​Enlightenment
○ Yes: Conservatism, Nationalism
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○ No: Liberalism
○ William Blake - Frankstein
○ Eugene Delacroix
● Nationalism
○ Social Classes: All
○ Spirit, Freedom, Independence
○ Yes: Liberalism, Romanticism
○ No: Conservatism
○ Mazzini - The Duties of Man
■ Duty for God, family, country
○ Hegel
● Feminism
○ Social Class: Women
○ Gender Equality, Natural Rights
○ Yes: Liberalism, Socialism (not always)
○ No: Conservatism, Jacobins in France
○ Mary Wollstonecraft
○ John Stuart MIll

6.8: 19th-Century Social Reform

● Mass-Based Political Parties
○ Emerged as refined vehicles for social, economic and political reform
○ Examples:
■ Conservatives and Liberals in Great Britain
■ Conservatives and Socialists in France
■ Social Democratic Party in Germany
● Labor Unions
○ Demand better working conditions wages income or benefits
○ Strikes or work stoppages
● Feminists
○ Role of women was controversial - work at tedious jobs for low wages
○ Press for legal, economic and political rights for women as well as a improved
working conditions
○ Examples:
■ Flora Tristan
■ British Women’s Social and Political Union
■ Pankhurst family
■ Barbara Smith Bodichon
● Nongovernmental Movements
○ Assist the poor and worked to end serfdom and slavery
○ Example:
■ Sunday School Movement
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■ Temperance Movement
■ British Abolitionist Movement
■ Josephine Butler

6.9: Institutional Responses and Reform

● Responses to Industrialization
○ Liberalism shifted from ​laissez-faire​ to i​ nterventionist​ economic and social
policies
■ Shift is largely attributed to the challenges of industrialization
○ Reforms​ transformed unhealthy, overcrowded cities through modern
infrastructure, public health programs, prison reform, and establishing modern
police systems
■ Reforms were largely motivated by ​public opinion​, prominent individuals,
and charity organizations
○ Reforms promoted compulsory public education to advance the goals of public
order, nationalism, and economic growth
● Urban Reformation
○ Social reformers like ​Edwin Chadwick​ ​and G ​ eorges Haussmann​ ​called for major
reforms in urban sanitation and public health
○ Establishment of modern sewage/water systems
○ Urban redesign​ t​ o address issues of u ​ rbanization
■ Public housing
■ Public lighting
■ Public transportation
■ Parks

6.10: Causation in the Age of Industrialization

● Industrial Revolution​ Key Concepts
○ The Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to the continent, where the
state played a greater role in promoting industry
■ Great Britain became dominant through the mechanization of the ​textile​,
iron and steel, and transportation industries within a favorable political
climate
○ As Industrialization spread throughout continental Europe it generally followed
the British example
■ Sometimes industrialization saw a greater level of ​state sponsorship​ in
other places around Europe
● Impact​ of Industrialization Key Concepts
○ Industrialization shaped the experiences of everyday life depending on the level
of industrial development in that location
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■ Industrialization promoted the development of ​new social classes​ around
Europe
■ Industrialization facilitated population growth and urbanization
throughout Europe
■ Urbanization and population growth led to social dislocation for many
people
■ Industrialization ​altered the family structure​ and relationships for
bourgeois and working-class families
● Industrialization ​Response​ Key Concepts
○ Political Revolutions and the complications of industrialization triggered a variety
of ideological, governmental, and collective responses
■ Ideologies developed and took hold throughout society as a response to
industrial and political revolutions
■ Governments responded to problems created or exacerbated by
industrialization
● Governments sometimes pressured to ​act by political or social
organizations of the era
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7: 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments​ (1815-1914)

7.1: (Contextualizing) 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments

● New ideologies surfaced and old ones endured
○ Political
■ Nationalism
■ Liberalism
■ Conservatism
○ Religious
■ Zionism
○ Scientific
■ Positivism
■ Relativism
○ Social
■ Social Darwinism
○ Philosophical/Artistic
■ Modernism
● New ​Imperialism
○ Colonies established in Asia and Africa
■ India
■ China
■ Indochina
■ Africa
■ Pacific Islands
○ The new colonies were exploited for their ​natural resources
○ Slavery was now illegal - however, used indentured workers instead
● Nations
○ Unification of Germany
■ Otto von Bismarck
■ Prussia
■ Various wars
○ Unification of Italy
■ Count Camillo Benso di Cavour
■ Giuseppe Garibaldi
○ Mass politics

7.2: Nationalism
● Nationalist beliefs
○ Common language, common culture, common interests
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○ Although nationalists initially allied with liberals, they soon found that their
interests clashed
■ Liberals aimed for reform and limited government whereas nationalists
desired a strong national government
● Effects of nationalism
○ Unity​ amongst people of a nation
○ Often pitted people of a nation against one group in order to unify
■ Most notably anti-Semetism
● Spawned ​Zionism
○ a movement for (originally) the re-establishment and (now)
the development and protection of a Jewish nation in
what is now Israel. It was established as a political
organization in 1897 under Theodor Herzl, and was later
led by Chaim Weizmann.
● Nationalist movements
○ Italy
■ Carbonari
● Organized revolutionary movements; crushed by Austrian troops
■ Young Italy movement, Giuseppe ​Mazzini
● Organised ​risorgimento​; idealistic movement by intellectuals and
university students. Briefly established Roman Republic before
being put down.
■ Garibaldi​ garnered the support of southern Italian nationalists
■ Cavour​ wanted to unify Italy under Piedmont
○ Germany
■ German nationalists wanted leadership and unification from either
Prussia or Austria-Hungary
■ Nationalism continued to grow under ​Otto von Bismarck​’s guidance
■ Bismarck gained nationalist support through ​war
○ Austria-Hungary
■ Compromise of 1867​; Franz Joseph was the ruler of both Austria and
Hungary, which allied against other ethnic groups
○ France
■ Louis Napoleon​, later crowned Napoleon III, after being denied a second
term, stages a coup d’etat in 1851 and establishes the Second Republic
● Strongly supported by the people because of universal male
suffrage and public works projects
● Symbolized nationalism
● Expanded the empire, increasing nationalist sentiments
■ Napoleon III gradually lost support during loss of ​Franco-Prussian wa​r
○ Russia
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■ Alexander II​ suppressed nationalist uprisings by repressing Poles and
other ethnic minorities
■ Enforced a ​police state

7.3: National Unification and Diplomatic Tensions

● Italy
Count Camillo di ​Cavour​, King Victor Emmanuel II’s chief minister, was the main
○
architect of Italian Unification
■ Cavour was ​more practical​ than previous leaders of unification
movements, and did not romanticize unification
■ Advocated for a ​constitutional monarchy
■ Realpolitik
● A system of politics or principles based on practical rather than
moral or ideological considerations.
○ Cavour’s actions
■ Cavour allied with France and Britain in the ​Crimean War​, which earned
him the support of Napoleon III
■ Napoleon III agreed to help Cavour defend Piedmont against Austrians if
they attacked
■ Cavour then provoked the Austrians in Lombardy to fight. With the
support of the French troops, the Piedmontese successfully expelled
Austrians from Italian land. Napoleon did not continue to aid Cavour
because Prussia threatened to interfere.
■ The victory inspired various ​rebellions against Austrian power​, and
resulted in Tuscany, Parma, and Modena joining the Piedmontese
○ Giuseppe ​Garibaldi​ gains control of southern Italy
■ Garibaldi is more charismatic than Cavour and romanticizes the idea of a
unified Italy
■ Gained control of southern Italy​ through revolts of the masses
■ Encouraged by Cavour to invade the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, which he
succeeded in; wanted to invade Rome next
○ Conclusion of unification
■ Cavour invades the Papal States with permission from Napoleon III to
prevent an invasion by Garibaldi
■ Cavour soon controlled the Papal States, except Rome
■ Garibaldi cedes his lands to King Victor Emmanuel II
■ Victor Emmanuel is proclaimed King of Italy
● Germany
○ Otto von Bismarck​ appointed prime minister of Prussia by William I
■ Realpolitik
■ Conservative
○ First Step
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■ Bismarck decided that in order to unify Germany, a ​war with Austria
needed to take place​.
■ First allied with Austria against Denmark in order to recapture the
territories of Schleswig and Holstein
■ Before provoking Austria to war, Bismarck ​allied with Italy​ and ensured
the ​neutrality of Russia and France
○ Second Step
■ Started the ​Seven Weeks War​ (1866), in which the Prussians swiftly
defeated the Austrians
■ Austria subsequently expelled from German Confederation, Prussia
forms North German Confederation
■ Bismarck concludes that a ​war with France is necessary to unify with the
southern German states
○ Third Step
■ Bismarck modifies a telegram sent from William I to Napoleon III,
referred to as the “​Ems dispatch​,” which leads Napoleon III to declare
war against Prussia
■ France is thoroughly defeated​ by combined northern and southern
German states; Napoleon III is captured and Paris is taken
■ William I is declared the German emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at
Versailles in 1871, adding insult to injury to the French

7.4: Darwinism, Social Darwinism

● Darwinism
○ Charles Darwin pioneered the idea of ​natural selection​ after visiting the
Galapagos Islands and observing the various species there
■ Darwin published his book “​The Origin of Species​” in 1859
■ Later published “The Descent of Man,” which applied his ideas of natural
selection and survival of the fittest to human evolution; was met with
backlash from Christians who believed in creation
● Social Darwinism
○ Social Darwinism was the idea of natural selection applied to ​human societies
and relationships
■ Initially used by Herbert Spencer to argue for ​little to no government
intervention in social issues
■ Contributed to the creation of ​eugenics
■ Later used to ​justify imperialism
● Gave rise to the idea that ​Europeans​ were ​superior​ to other races

7.5: The Age of Progress and Modernity

● Positivism Challenged
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○ Positivism: emphasized the rational and scientific analysis of human and human
affairs
● 19th Century: new ​relativism​ in values and loss of confidence led to modernism
○ Philosophy moved from rational interpretations of nature and society toward an
emphasis on irrationality and impulse
○ Modernist emphasis on impulse contributed to the belief that conflict and
struggle led to progress
● Freudian Psychology
○ emphasized the power of the irrational in human nature and highlighted the
struggle between the conscious and unconscious
■ Ego, Ed, Super-Ego
○ offered a new account of the ​human psyche
● Philosophy
○ Friedrich Nietzsche​: argued that conventional ideas of good and evil are only
relevant to an ordinary person
○ Georges Sorel’s ‘​National Myth​’ questioned the importance of nationalism
○ Henri Bergson​: a​ rgues that direct experience and intuition are more significant
than abstract rationalism for understanding reality

7.6: New Imperialism: Motivations and Methods

● 1870: European nations began to increase economic and political control over colonies
in Africa and Asia
○ European powers aimed to ​directly rule​ regions of the world rather than just
trade with them
● Imperialist powers took over regions like German East Africa and French Indo-China
○ Established protectorates and established ​spheres of influence​ in areas like
China
● Motives of the New Imperialism
○ Industrialists needed ​new sources of raw materials​ and n ​ ew markets​ to sell
goods
○ Militarists and Nationalists sought power and prestige
○ Social Darwinists​ believed strong nations had a natural right to control weaker
nations
○ Missionaries and Apologists​ believed Europeans had a duty to bring Christianity
and advanced technology to less fortunate people
● Tools of New Imperialism
○ The development of advanced weaponry ensured the ​military advantage​ of
Europeans over their subjects
■ The ​Minie ball​ was basically the first rifled bullet and was more accurate
than the old musket ball
■ The ​breech-loading rifle​ was quicker to reload
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■ The development of the ​machine gun​ combined accuracy and rapid
loading techniques
○ Communication and Transportation technologies facilitated the expansion of
European empires
■ Steamships​, the ​telegraph​, and ​photograph​ all made the spread of
imperialism easier

7.7: Imperialism’s Global Effects

● Imperialism: ​Diplomatic Tensions
○ Imperialism created diplomatic tensions among European states that strained
existing alliance systems
■ Berlin Conference (1884-1885)
● The ”​Scramble for Africa​” by European powers led to many
confrontations between empires on the African continent
● The Berlin Conference was called by ​Bismarck​ to establish ground
rules for the division of the African continent by European powers
■ Fashoda Crisis (1898)
● France and Britain nearly went to war over a territorial dispute in
the Nile River basin
■ Moroccan Crises (1905, 1911)
● Two crises concerning French control over Morocco and
Germany’s desire to spread imperial influence at the expense of
the French
● Indigenous Resistance
○ Non-Europeans challenged European imperialism through nationalist
movements and by modernizing their local economies and societies
■ Indian Congress Party​ – Political Party created with the aim of generating
a greater share in government for the Indians
■ Zulu Resistance​ – Zulu’s in Africa attempted to resist British control of
their territory
■ Indian Sepoy Mutiny​ – An 1857 unsuccessful rebellion against the British
East India Company in India
■ Chinese Boxer Rebellion​ – Chinese “Boxers” repeatedly attacked foreign
diplomatic missions in Beijing in 1900
■ Japanese Meiji Restoration​ – Leaders aimed to restore imperial rule to
strengthen Japan against threat of colonial powers
● Consequences of ​New Imperialism
○ Damaged and destroyed native cultures
○ Created the global economy we have today
○ Intensified rivalries between major European powers
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7.8: 19th-Century Culture and Art
● Realism
○ Realist​ and ​Materialist​ themes and attitudes began to replace ​Romanticism
■ Realist painters and writers depicted the ​lives of ordinary people
■ Realism drew attention to social problems
○ Realist Artists and Authors:
■ Honore de Balzac
■ Honore Daumier
■ Charles Dickens
■ George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans)
■ Gustave Courbet
■ Fyodor Dostoevsky
■ Leo Tolstoy
■ Emile Zola
■ Thomas Hardy
● Modernism
○ Modern art​ moved beyond the representational to the subjective, ​abstract​, and
expressive
■ Provoked audiences that believed art should reflect idealized values
including beauty and patriotism
■ Included ​impressionism​, p ​ ost-impressionism​, and ​cubism
○ Modern Artists:
■ Claude Monet
■ Paul Cezanne
■ Henri Matisse
■ Vincent Van Gogh
■ Pablo Picasso

7.9: Causation in 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments

● Diplomatic​ Key Concepts
○ European states struggled to ​maintain international stability​ in an age of
nationalism and revolutions
■ The breakdown of the Concert of Europe opened the door for Italian and
German Unification and liberal reforms elsewhere
■ German and Italian Unification ​challenged the balance of power​ and led
efforts to construct a new diplomatic order
● Cultural Key Concepts
○ A variety of motives and methods led to the ​intensification of European global
control​ and increased tensions among the Great Powers
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■ Industrial and technological developments through the Second Industrial
Revolution facilitated European control of global empires
○ European ideas and culture expressed a massive cultural tension
● Science and realism vs subjectivity and individual expression
● After the Revolutions of 1848, Europe turned toward a more
realist and materialistic worldview
○ Impacted international diplomacy and imperialism
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8: The Perfect DBQ
The Rubric
● Note the changes! This year, the Euro DBQ has not 7 points up for grabs, but
10!

Intro Paragraph (Recommended 4-6 sentences)

● Contextualization​ : Situates your argument by explaining the broader, larger
picture of historical events, developments, or processes that are relevant to the
time period mentioned in the prompt.
- Ensure that within your contextualization you avoid mentioning concepts
verbatim to what is stated in the prompt--save that for your thesis!
- Should be 2-3 sentences of valid information ​RELEVANT TO THE PERIOD​.

● Thesis ​: Establishes YOUR position regarding the argument stated in the

prompt. Typically within a DBQ, there are documents referring to major/minor
events or negative/positive situations: take this into consideration when you are
organizing the flow of your thesis statement!
*Employ a 3 sentence structure to ensure that the reader clearly understands the
entirety of your position
- 1st sentence​: Counterargument / Lesser-argument.
- 2nd sentence​: Primary argument / Strongest Point .
- 3rd sentence​: Overview, or “road-map” that answers the question asked by the
prompt.
● Drives the prompt home by clearly establishing your position regarding
P.E.E.C.S (Political, Economic, Environmental, Cultural, Social) factors.
● I highly recommend that you split up your documents by category and
use those categories in your third sentence

Prompt​: To what extent did Columbus’ discovery of the New World change the
Native American way of life?
Ex: ​On one hand, the initial contact between Europeans and Native Americans helped
produce an exchange between Europe and the Americans that had previously not
existed​. ​On the other hand, Europeans, like the Spanish conquistadors, were quick to
take advantage of their superior weapons and diseases to conquer and disseminate the
Native Americans​. ​Overall, Columbus’ discovery of the New World produced
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significant changes in the lives of Native Americans as can be seen through the
economic, religious, and social changes that occured in the New World​.

Body Paragraphs (Recommended 8-10 sentences; 2 paragraphs)

● Topic Sentence​ : Depending on the context of your argument, your intro to
each body paragraph should be an assertion backing up your thesis statement.
- This does ​not ​include document information--only broad, general
statements and facts regarding historical evidence.

● Document Analysis​ : Document analysis is considered to be the meat of your

essay. This year, it is responsible for a solid 8 out of 10 points in the DBQ.
Provide 2-3 documents per body paragraph, and be sure to “chunk” them
based on the categories described in Sentence 3 of your intro. You must use 4
documents in order to get three of the five evidence points.
- Start by stating the document you happen to be explaining, and explain
why the evidence supports the assertion you made in your topic sentence
- Then, discuss how either the Situation, Audience, Point of View, or
Purpose (SAPP) either strengthen or weaken the message of the
document (for example, first-hand accounts are strengthened because
they were written with direct contact to the ​situation​, news headlines
might be weakened because they were written with the ​purpose​ of selling
papers, etc.)
- You must discuss how SAPP of a source is relevant to your argument at
least twice in order to get 2 of the 3 Analysis points
* Be sure to employ several valid examples of Evidence Beyond the Documents
throughout your analysis process relevant to your argument to get the two additional
points underneath evidence.

● Bias / P.O.V​. : In order to receive one of the two needed points under the
Analysis and Reasoning column of the grading rubric, it is important to
demonstrate a complex understanding regarding your argument. This can be
done by evaluating the perspectives or biases presented by each author of a
document (state what the author’s view upon the topics in their documents,
whether it may be positive, negative, informative, declarative, a call-to-action,
etc.)
 StudyResources AP Euro Review Sheet. ​[Link]

AP European History Review Sheet

- In order to receive a point for bias, you must include at least one solid
example of bias / P.O.V. within BOTH of your body paragraphs. It is okay
to explain the author’s bias for each document you include to be safe.

*At the end of each paragraph, make sure to restate your position (the last sentence of
your thesis) to ensure you receive credit for historical reasoning by tying your argument
together.​ ((REMEMBER, YOU NEED TWO BODY PARAGRAPHS :p))
Synthesis Paragraph (Recommended 4-6 sentences)
● Restate Thesis​ : In other words, take 2 sentences to restate the main ideas of
your thesis regarding the argument of your DBQ. This should be brief and not
take very long to do, it is a concluding paragraph where you tie everything
together.

● Synthesis​ : A synthesis paragraph is more commonly recognized as a method of

periodization for your essay. Periodization works to analyze comparisons
between historical arguments within several periods of European History.
- Depending on the time period of your DBQ, synthesis involves
broadening your current argument to encompass either future or prior
events related to the context of your writing.
*For example, you may synthesize ideas of socialism in the revolutions of 1848 with the
later socialist developments of the Soviet Union
- The synthesis may seem tricky at first glance, but it only takes outside
knowledge to generalize exterior connections to the prompt. It is valid as
receiving one of your Analysis and Reasoning points (alongside bias)
- It is recommended that the synthesis portion of the essay should be 4
sentences in length, but may vary based on your taste.
- A good template might be “this situation is similar to the development of
an industrial economy in the 1930’s USSR because X. Just like in Britain,
the USSR developed through the use of Y and Z. However,
industrialization differed from the USSR because A and B.
- In short, you must “Explain relevant and insightful connections within and
across periods”