1.

3 Nanomaterial Classification 7

1.2.7 Effect of Surface Coating

Surface coating may influence the pharmacokinetics, dispersion, deposition, and

toxicity of nanoparticles. It is known that the presence of oxygen, ozone, oxygen
radicals, and transition metals at nanoparticle surface lead toward production of reac-
tive oxygen species (ROS) and stimulation of inflammation through these systems
[23, 24, 47, 48], respectively. Nanostructures’ chemical and physical characteristics
are remarkably influenced by their morphology. In contrast to bulk materials, the
form of nanostructures is also linked to their characteristics and molecular interac-
tions. In the case of nanocomposites, not just shape but also the type of interaction
comes to the forefront. Multilayered structures and thin films exhibit the 1D confine-
ment phenomenon in addition to the size impact of individual nanoparticles. Simi-
larly, in multilayered structures, 1D periodicity results from the atomic arrangement
and interfaces of the materials, which alters the material’s physical properties [49].
Due to their microstructural characteristics, domain size, and nanoscale thickness,
single or multiphase polycrystals relate to nanostructures. Due to their minuscule
dimensions, nanostructures have a high atomic fraction at grain or interface bound-
aries and, as a result, feature distinctive physical and chemical characteristics. In the
nanoregime, the pore diameters are shrunk to improve the characteristics and surface
area of material [50].

1.3 Nanomaterial Classification

To comprehend and value the variety of NMs, categorization is necessary. The NMs
might be organized depending on their physical and chemical features. Moreover,
NMs created by cutting, rolling mills, extruding, chipping, hammering, and many
other bottom-up [51] and top-down [52] techniques have distinct sorts of structures,
and surface coatings may confuse classifications. In general, NPs are categorized
according to their shape, dimensionality, aggregation [7], and homogeneity [53].
The morphology or form of NMs varies according to their manner of synthesis.
Flatness, sphericity, and aspect ratio are the primary morphological qualities. Overall,
morphologies with a small aspect ratio are spherical, oval, cubic, prismatic, spiral,
or columnar. High aspect ratio morphologies assume the form of zigzags, helixes,
and belts [54]. NMs are categorized according to their dimensions as:
• 0-dimensional (0D)
• 1-dimensional (1D)
• 2-dimensional (2D)
• 3-dimensional (3D).
They are additionally categorized based on their diameter, which ranges between
1 and 100 nm [55]. On the basis of composition, NMs are categorized into four
primary types:
8 1 Introduction

1. Carbon-based NMs
2. Organic-based NMs
3. Inorganic-based NMs
4. Composite-based NMs.

1.3.1 0-Dimensional (0D) Nanomaterials

They possess distinctive physical features that allow for much greater solar energy
absorption. Other size-dependent changes in features include quantum confinement
in semiconductor NPs, surface plasma resonance in some metal NPs, and chemical
reactivity that could be employed in photography area as illustrated in Fig. 1.1 [56].
All dimensions of zero-dimensional nanomaterials (0D) are nanoscale, i.e., below
100 nm. In addition to quantum dots, 0D comprises round NMs, cube, nanorod,
polygons, hollow sphere, metal, and core–shell NMs (QDs) [57].

1.3.2 1-Dimensional (1D) Nanomaterials

One-dimensional nanostructures consist of nanomaterials with two distinctive dimen-

sions among 1 and 100 nm and one size of zero nanometers (1D). These mate-
rials are many micrometers in length yet have a diameter of only a few nanometers
Fig. 1.1 [58]. These one-dimensional nanostructures include nanotubes, nanofibers,
and nanowires, among others. In fact, the length of nanotube or nanowire might be
far longer. 1D nanomaterials may be amorphous or crystalline, a single crystallite
or polycrystalline materials, of simple or complicated composition, stand-alone or
embedded in another media, and metallic, porcelain, or polymeric [56].

1.3.3 2-Dimensional (2D) Nanomaterials

When nanostructures consist of thin layers with a depth of at least probably one
atomic layer and contain numerous atoms on their exterior, they are considered
two-dimensional intricate materials (2D) as shown in Fig. 1.1. Because of their low
density and larger dimensions on the macro/nanoscale, 2D nanomaterials should
always be the thinnest nanostructures. These nanostructures have a lattice with
strong in-plane connections and weak contact forces (van der Waals) inside the
layers and may be generated by laminating substrates [56]. Since two dimensions
are not confined to nanoscale, 2D nanomaterials exhibit plate-like forms, such as
nanofilms, nanolayers, and nanocoatings, and might be amorphous or crystalline, of
1.3 Nanomaterial Classification 9

Fig. 1.1 Schematic illustration of the classification of nanomaterials based on different criteria.
Reproduced with permission from Ref. [62] Copyright 2020, Elsevier

different chemical configurations, practiced as a single layer or as multilayer frame-

works, positioned on a substrate, and incorporated into a complex lattice of materials
[59, 60].

1.3.4 3-Dimensional (3D) Nanomaterials

There are additional three-dimensional nanostructures including bulk counterparts

with diameters more than 100 nm (3D) Fig. 1.1. This scalability is exemplified by
materials with a nanocrystalline framework or the existence of nanoscale attributes.
10 1 Introduction

Multiple configurations of nanoscale crystals, which are often present in diverse

inclinations, may be used to create nanomaterials in bulk. 3D nanomaterials may
be formed of dispersions of nanoparticles, bunches of nanowires, and nanotubes,
as well as multinanolayers, but more complicated configurations are also feasible.
Nanoflowers are one kind of potential structures, for instance. Regarding 2D nano-
materials, conduction electrons will be restricted in thickness but dispersed in the
sheet plane [50]. With all proportions exceeding the nanoscale, they nonetheless
display remarkable molecular and bulk characteristics, which are a reflection of their
nanoscale (1–100 nm) constituent units. The arrangement of 0D spheres results in
the formation of 3D nanocrystals, whereas 1D rods or 2D plates give birth to unique
superstructures, such as those seen in box-shaped graphene and mesostructured
platinum films [61].

1.4 Classification of Nanomaterials Based on Type

The majority of existing nanomaterials may be categorized into four material-based

categories, which are as follows:

1.4.1 Carbon-based Nanomaterials

Typically, these NMs are composed of carbon and have morphologies as hollow
tubes, elliptical, and spheres. Carbon-based NMs consist of fullerenes (C60), carbon
nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibers, carbon black, graphene (Gr), and carbon
onions. Laser ablation, arc discharge, and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) are
crucial manufacturing techniques for various carbon-based compounds (excluding
carbon black) [63]. These carbon NMs are composed of hybridized sp2 carbon atoms
generated in many dimensions [64–66]. Carbon-based NMs of nanoscale dimensions
exhibit a variety of chemical and physical characteristics, as conductivity, mechanical
characteristics, chemical inertness, and thermal characteristics, to name a few. For
their many uses, carbon-based NMs have garnered a significant lot of interest. The
following groups may be established for materials based on the structure of carbon-
based NMs: (i) fullerene (0D), an allotrope of carbon (C) consisting of 60 C atoms
grouped in buckyball form. Unique features of fullerene derivatives allow them to
mitigate reactive species such as oxygen and nitrogen [67]; (ii) CNT (1D), a material
with hollow structure made of hexagonally connected carbon atoms. The chemical
and physical alterations of CNT confer a variety of qualities to the materials in which
it is employed, including increased mechanical strength and thermal stability [68];
(iii) graphene sheets (2D), which are sp2-bonded carbon nanostructures that form a
hexagonal or honeycomb matrix. One carbon atom covalently bonds to three other
carbon atoms to produce a thin sheet of graphene as shown in Fig. 1.2. This material
is distinguished by its huge surface area, strong electrical conductivity, excellent
1.4 Classification of Nanomaterials Based on Type 11

stability, and relatively high excitability. Graphene may be extracted from graphite
by mechanical and chemical exfoliation [69]; and (iv) graphite and nanodiamonds
are complementary materials (3D). Graphite is formed of hexagonally stacked sp2
carbon atoms, but nanodiamonds contain a layered, spherical structure with excel-
lent mechanical stability. Unique qualities of nanodiamonds include optical and
magnetic properties. Common applications for these substances include coatings,
semiconductors, and abrasives [7, 70].

Fig. 1.2 Different forms of carbon-based nanostructures. Reproduced with permission from Ref.
[62] Copyright 2020, Elsevier
12 1 Introduction

1.4.2 Inorganic Nanomaterials

These NMs consist of metal and metal oxide NPs as well as NSMs smaller than
100 nm [71]. These NMs may be manufactured into metals as Au or Ag nanoparti-
cles, metal oxides as TiO2 and ZnO nanostructures, and semiconductors like silicon
and ceramics [4]. Clays and other natural inorganic nanomaterials are formed in
various chemical situations of Earth’s crust via crystal formation. Volcanic eruptions
may generate pigments, cement, and fumed silica, among other substances, as a
result of their complexity. Metal is a component of engineered inorganic NPs, and as
a contrast material, metal oxide NPs have drawn more attention. Inorganic quantum
dots have distinctive features, such as enhanced luminosity, exceptional photosta-
bility, and multicolor capacity under single-source excitation [72]. Quantum dots are
nanocrystals of semiconducting materials with diameter ranging from 2 to 10 nm
and are extensively employed as diagnostic and therapeutic approach for in vitro and
in vivo sensing [73].

1.4.3 Organic Nanomaterials

Excluding carbon-based and inorganic-based NMs, these are mostly composed of

organic materials [4]. Organic-based NMs are mostly made of organic molecules, as
lipids, carbohydrates, or polymeric substances, and possess a diameter between 10 nm
and 1 µm [74]. Due to their excellent structural consistency, stability, and selec-
tive delivery, polymeric NPs are receiving more attention from researchers [75].
Polymer nanoparticles, dendrimers, liposomes, and micelles have been evaluated as
possible drug delivery methods [76]. These NMs are polymeric NPs composed of
branching units. Multiple chain ends on the surface of dendrimer may be manipu-
lated to perform certain chemical activities, and this characteristic allows them to
be employed as catalysts. The 3D dendrimers have internal chambers where other
molecules might be effectively inserted and employed for medication administra-
tion. For organic-based NM synthesis, many procedures were often used, including
mechanical grinding, laser ablation, solvent replacement, solution-based reduction,
and ion linkage [77, 78].

1.4.4 Composite Nanomaterials

A composite is mixture of two or more distinct materials with the intention of

combining their greatest features. A nanocomposite is multiphase solid substance in
which at least one phase contains one dimension on nanoscale (100 nm), or a structure
with nanoscale repeat spacing between distinct phases that comprise the substance
[7]. Composite-based NMs, for instance, are formed by combining nanoparticles
1.4 Classification of Nanomaterials Based on Type 13

(NPs) with several materials. Nanocomposites exist in nature, as in structure of bones,

egg shell, and abalone shell [79]. In manufacturing composite structures, nanometer-
scale physical dimensions are constantly exploited. Various qualities, including flex-
ural strength, water absorption, optical characteristics, abrasion resistance, and gloss
retention, may be produced by combining several materials to make a composite [80–
82]. Box-Behnken may be used to create chitosan-tripolyphosphate/TiO2 nanocom-
posites leveraging fewer energy and chemicals for reactive orange adsorption process
[83].

1.4.5 Metallic Nanomaterials

Metal nanoparticles, including gold, iron, silver, and numerous other metallic NPs,
have been examined, and these materials possess exceptional chemical, photonic,
and electrical characteristics in contrast to bulk materials [84]. Au NPs, for instance,
may be produced and manufactured using a combination of sonoelectrochemical and
ultrasonic vibration [85]. Depending on the planned techniques, the scale of some
metallic NPs varies; for instance, by lowering grain size to nanometer scale, bandgap
of electronic structure changes to distinct electronic levels with significant number
of atoms emerging at surface. Typically, metal nanoparticles may absorb light by
interband transitions, as Pt, Pd, Ni, and Ru, and intraband transitions like Al, Ag,
Au, and Cu. According to previous research [86], catalytic activity of metal NPs may
be enhanced by irradiation with light.

1.4.6 Metal Oxide Nanomaterials

Numerous types of metal oxides, including TiO2 , Fe2 O4 , Al2 O3 , ZnO, and SiO2 ,
have been produced using sol–gel or hydrothermal processes. A metal oxide offers
a substantial benefit in numerous applications, as catalysis, chemical sensors, and
semiconductors, due to change in its surface characteristics, which changes mate-
rial bandgap energy as illustrated in Fig. 1.3 [87]. Biocompatibility, which provides
a highly active surface area, is more significant attribute of these materials than
their highly active surface area. Several processes, such as linking a polymer chain,
coupling agent, or doping metal ions, may readily modify the surface of NPs [88, 89].
Moreover, fatty acids may be employed to change the surface of nanoparticles using
eco-friendly techniques such as Al2 O3 [90]. Several chemical substances, including
epoxies, amines, thiols, and anionic compounds, are employed to modify the surface
of NPs [91–94].
14 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.3 Different types of structures: a metallic, b segregated bimetallic, c organized bimetallic
mixed, d random biometrics mixed, and e cluster bimetallic mixed structures. Reproduced with
permission from Ref. [62] Copyright 2020, Elsevier

1.4.7 Bimetallic Nanomaterials

Bimetallic NPs consist of two metal constituents that display distinct features,
including chemical persistence and reactivity and size-dependent electrical and
optical features. Configuration, shape, and size acquisition often influence these
qualities as presented in Fig. 1.3. Bimetallic Pd/Cu-BNPs may be made by a simple
grafting of binaphthyl moiety as stabilizers on the Pd-metallic surface and have
applications in catalytically efficient processes [95]. The technique of production
has a substantial impact on size distributions of nanoparticles and their recyclability
as catalyst materials. Several bimetallic materials, like Al-TiO2 -Ag, Ag-Cu, Au/Pd,
Au/Pd@SiO2 , Fe-Cu, and Ag-Au, show that a combination of two metals may exhibit
variable propagation and stability of NPs, as well as optical and magnetic characteris-
tics [95–100]. According to prior research, the nanostructure of bimetallic materials
is substantially affected by a number of variables, including the solubility of two
metals and the fabrication circumstances.

1.4.8 Silica-based Nanomaterials

Owing to the advantageous surface chemistry and mesoporous configuration of

these NMs, they have found widespread use. Multiple parameters, including
templates, hydrolysis rate, and reaction mechanism, may impact the mesoporous
shape and pore size of silica. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles with a pore width
of 2–50 nm may be generated in both basic and acidic environments by altering
the template content, pH solution, and the addition of hydrophobic chemicals
[98]. The most prevalent silica-based materials include nanoclays, which are NPs
containing layered silicates with Si atoms bonded tetrahedrally to octahedral Al(OH)3
or Mg(OH)2 [99].
1.5 Fabrication of Nanomaterials 15

1.4.9 Ceramic Nanomaterials

Nanoceramic is a form of NP material that consists of ceramics and is subsequently

characterized as heat-resistant, inorganic, and non-metallic solids comprised of non-
metal/metal compounds with dimensions less than 100 nm [100, 101]. Sobiera-
jska et al. [102] described the manufacture of porous hydroxyapatite nanoceramics
and their antibacterial implementations [102]. High-quality hydroxyapatite (HAP)
and methylcellulose were co-precipitated to produce calcium hydroxyapatite porous
nanoceramics (ncHAP). Depending on the annealing temperatures, the surface area
and porosity of ncHAP vary. Antibacterial property is influenced by the interactions
between its surface charges and pathogens [103].

1.4.10 Polymeric Nanomaterial

Polymeric NMs are firm nanoparticles composed of polymers that are either natural
or manufactured. These materials are frequently used in health care and biophar-
maceuticals as drug delivery controllers employed for body sensing [104]. The
examples of polymer-based NMs include (i) polymeric micelles resulting from of
amphiphilic block copolymers self-assembly in a particular solvent. Chitosan poly-
meric micelles may be employed for drug administration because of their unique
properties, including nanosize, persistence, biocompatibility, micellar association,
and least toxicity; (ii) polymeric NPs, typically made of biodegradable and biocom-
patible polymers with a mean range of 10–1000 nm. These substances are often
employed to deliver medications to particular sites [105]. The production proce-
dures for polymer nanoparticles alter the particular properties of generated material
[106, 107]. In general, the fabrication techniques are categorized as the polymeriza-
tion of monomers, the ionic crystallization of hydrophilic polymers, and polymers
dispersion; and (iii) dendrimers are smaller than 15 nm in diameter and comprise
3D-shaped macromolecules [108].

1.5 Fabrication of Nanomaterials

There are several methods for manufacturing NMs, including bottom-up and top-
down methods. In the bottom-up method, nanoparticles are generated at the atomic
level before being incorporated into the target substance. This comprises the produc-
tion of nanoparticles (NPs) from colloidal suspension and powders from sol–gel
technique, followed by inclusion. Other methods encompass precipitation, reduc-
tion, green synthesis, spinning, biological synthesis, molecular self-assembly, and
vapor-phase deposition of NMs [81]. In the top-down method, a bulk substance at the
macroscopic level is reduced to required NPs using several techniques. Etching, ball
16 1 Introduction

Fig. 1.4 Schematic illustrating the top-down and bottom-up methods for nanoparticle preparation.
Reproduced with permission from Ref. [62] Copyright 2020, Elsevier

milling, grinding/milling, optical lithography, soft lithography, and scanning probe

lithography are a few instances of this as shown in Fig. 1.4 [81].

References

1. J. Hulla, S. Sahu, A. Hayes, Nanotechnology. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 34(12), 1318–1321 (2015).
[Link]
2. F.J. Heiligtag, M. Niederberger, The fascinating world of nanoparticle research. Mater. Today
16(7–8), 262–271 (2013). [Link]
3. P. Walter et al., Early use of PbS nanotechnology for an ancient hair dyeing formula. Nano
Lett. 6(10), 2215–2219 (2006). [Link]
IUM/[Link]