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Nutrient
A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow and reproduce. The requirement for
dietary nutrient intake applies to animals, plants, fungi and protists. Nutrients can be incorporated
into cells for metabolic purposes or excreted by cells to create non-cellular structures such as hair,
scales, feathers, or exoskeletons. Some nutrients can be metabolically converted into smaller
molecules in the process of releasing energy such as for carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and
fermentation products (ethanol or vinegar) leading to end-products of water and carbon dioxide. All
organisms require water. Essential nutrients for animals are the energy sources, some of the amino
acids that are combined to create proteins, a subset of fatty acids, vitamins and certain minerals.
Plants require more diverse minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen
absorbed through leaves. Fungi live on dead or living organic matter and meet nutrient needs from
their host.

Different types of organisms have different essential nutrients. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is essential
to humans and some animal species but most other animals and many plants are able to synthesize it.
Nutrients may be organic or inorganic: organic compounds include most compounds containing
carbon, while all other chemicals are inorganic. Inorganic nutrients include iron, selenium, and zinc,
while organic nutrients include, protein, fats, sugars and vitamins.

A classification used primarily to describe nutrient needs of animals divides nutrients into
macronutrients and micronutrients. Consumed in relatively large amounts (grams or ounces),
macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, water) are primarily used to generate energy or to
incorporate into tissues for growth and repair. Micronutrients are needed in smaller amounts
(milligrams or micrograms); they have subtle biochemical and physiological roles in cellular
processes, like vascular functions or nerve conduction. Inadequate consumption of essential
nutrients, or diseases that interfere with absorption, result in a deficiency state that compromises
growth, survival, and reproduction. Consumer advisories for dietary nutrient intakes, such as the
United States Dietary Reference Intake, are based on the amount required to prevent deficiency and
provide macronutrient and micronutrient guides for both lower and upper limits of intake. In many
countries, regulations require that food product labels display information about the amount of any
macronutrients and micronutrients present in the food in significant quantities. Nutrients in larger
quantities than the body needs may have harmful effects.[1] Edible plants also contain thousands of
compounds generally called phytochemicals which have unknown effects on disease or health
including a diverse class with non-nutrient status called polyphenols which remain poorly understood
as of 2024.

Types

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Macronutrients
Macronutrients are defined in several ways.[2]

The chemical elements humans consume in the largest quantities are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen, phosphorus, and sulphur, summarized as CHNOPS.
The chemical compounds that humans consume in the largest quantities and provide bulk energy
are classified as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Water must be also consumed in large
quantities but does not provide caloric value.
Calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and chloride ions, along with phosphorus and sulfur,
are listed with macronutrients because they are required in large quantities compared to
micronutrients, i.e., vitamins and other minerals, the latter often described as trace or ultratrace
minerals.[3]
Macronutrients provide energy:

Carbohydrates are compounds made up of types of sugar. Carbohydrates are classified according
to their number of sugar units: monosaccharides (such as glucose and fructose), disaccharides
(such as sucrose and lactose), oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides (such as starch, glycogen,
and cellulose).
Proteins are organic compounds that consist of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Since the
body cannot manufacture some of the amino acids (termed essential amino acids), the diet must
supply them. Through digestion, proteins are broken down by proteases back into free amino
acids.
Fats consist of a glycerin molecule with three fatty acids attached. Fatty acid molecules contain a -
COOH group attached to unbranched hydrocarbon chains connected by single bonds alone
(saturated fatty acids) or by both double and single bonds (unsaturated fatty acids). Fats are
needed for construction and maintenance of cell membranes, to maintain a stable body
temperature, and to sustain the health of skin and hair. Because the body does not manufacture
certain fatty acids (termed essential fatty acids), they must be obtained through one's diet.

Biomolecule Kilocalories per 1 gram[4]

Protein 4
Carbohydrate 4

Ethanol 7[5]
Fat 9

Micronutrients
Micronutrients are essential dietary elements required in varying quantities throughout life to serve
metabolic and physiological functions.[6][7]

Dietary minerals, such as potassium, sodium, and iron, are elements native to Earth, and cannot
be synthesized. They are required in the diet in microgram or milligram amounts. As plants obtain
minerals from the soil, dietary minerals derive directly from plants consumed or indirectly from
edible animal sources.[8]
Vitamins are organic compounds required in microgram or milligram amounts.[9] The importance
of each dietary vitamin was first established when it was determined that a disease would develop
if that vitamin was absent from the diet.[9]
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Essentiality

Essential nutrients
An essential nutrient is a nutrient required for normal physiological function that cannot be
synthesized in the body – either at all or in sufficient quantities – and thus must be obtained from a
dietary source.[10][11] Apart from water, which is universally required for the maintenance of
homeostasis in mammals,[12] essential nutrients are indispensable for various cellular metabolic
processes and for the maintenance and function of tissues and organs.[13] The nutrients considered
essential for humans comprise nine amino acids, two fatty acids, thirteen vitamins, fourteen minerals
and choline.[13] In addition, there are several molecules that are considered conditionally essential
nutrients since they are indispensable in certain developmental and pathological states.[13][14][15]

Amino acids
An essential amino acid is an amino acid that is required by an organism but cannot be synthesized de
novo by it, and therefore must be supplied in its diet. Out of the twenty standard protein-producing
amino acids, nine cannot be endogenously synthesized by humans: phenylalanine, valine, threonine,
tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine.[16][17]

Fatty acids
Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are fatty acids that humans and other animals must ingest because the
body requires them for good health but cannot synthesize them.[18] Only two fatty acids are known to
be essential for humans: alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6
fatty acid).[19]

Vitamins and vitamers

Vitamins occur in a variety of related forms known as vitamers. The vitamers of a given vitamin
perform the functions of that vitamin and prevent symptoms of deficiency of that vitamin. Vitamins
are those essential organic molecules that are not classified as amino acids or fatty acids. They
commonly function as enzymatic cofactors, metabolic regulators or antioxidants. Humans require
thirteen vitamins in their diet, most of which are actually groups of related molecules (e.g. vitamin E
includes tocopherols and tocotrienols):[20] vitamins A, C, D, E, K, thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2),
niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6), biotin (B7), folate (B9), and cobalamin (B12). The
requirement for vitamin D is conditional, as people who get sufficient exposure to ultraviolet light,
either from the sun or an artificial source, synthesize vitamin D in the skin.[21]

Minerals
Minerals are the exogenous chemical elements indispensable for life. Although the four elements
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen (CHON) are essential for life, they are so plentiful in food and
drink that these are not considered nutrients and there are no recommended intakes for these as
minerals. The need for nitrogen is addressed by requirements set for protein, which is composed of
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nitrogen-containing amino acids. Sulfur is essential, but again does not have a recommended intake.
Instead, recommended intakes are identified for the sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and
cysteine.

The essential nutrient trace elements for humans, listed in order of recommended dietary allowance
(expressed as a mass), are potassium, chloride, sodium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc,
manganese, copper, iodine, chromium, molybdenum, and selenium. Additionally, cobalt is a
component of vitamin B12 which is essential. There are other minerals which are essential for some
plants and animals, but may or may not be essential for humans, such as boron and silicon.

Choline
Choline is an essential nutrient.[22][23][24] The cholines are a family of water-soluble quaternary
ammonium compounds.[25][26] Choline is the parent compound of the cholines class, consisting of
ethanolamine having three methyl substituents attached to the amino function.[27] Healthy humans
fed artificially composed diets that are deficient in choline develop fatty liver, liver damage, and
muscle damage. Choline was not initially classified as essential because the human body can produce
choline in small amounts through phosphatidylcholine metabolism.[28]

Conditionally essential
Conditionally essential nutrients are certain organic molecules that can normally be synthesized by an
organism, but under certain conditions in insufficient quantities. In humans, such conditions include
premature birth, limited nutrient intake, rapid growth, and certain disease states.[14] Inositol, taurine,
arginine, glutamine and nucleotides are classified as conditionally essential and are particularly
important in neonatal diet and metabolism.[14]

Non-essential
Non-essential nutrients are substances within foods that can have a significant impact on health.
Dietary fiber is not absorbed in the human digestive tract.[29] Soluble fiber is metabolized to butyrate
and other short-chain fatty acids by bacteria residing in the large intestine.[30][31][32] Soluble fiber is
marketed as serving a prebiotic function with claims for promoting "healthy" intestinal bacteria.[33]

Non-nutrients
Ethanol (C2H5OH) is not an essential nutrient, but it does supply approximately 29 kilojoules (7
kilocalories) of food energy per gram.[34] For spirits (vodka, gin, rum, etc.) a standard serving in the
United States is 44 millilitres (11⁄2 US fluid ounces), which at 40% ethanol (80 proof) would be 14
grams and 410 kJ (98 kcal). At 50% alcohol, this would be 17.5 g and 513 kJ (122.5 kcal). Wine and
beer contain a similar amount of ethanol in servings of 150 and 350 mL (5 and 12 US fl oz),
respectively, but these beverages also contribute to food energy intake from components other than
ethanol. A 150 mL (5 US fl oz) serving of wine contains 420 to 540 kJ (100 to 130 kcal). A 350 mL
(12 US fl oz) serving of beer contains 400 to 840 kJ (95 to 200 kcal).[35]

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According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, based on NHANES 2013–2014 surveys, women ages
20 and up consume on average 6.8 grams of alcohol per day and men consume on average 15.5 grams
per day.[36] Ignoring the non-alcohol contribution of those beverages, the average ethanol
contributions to daily food energy intake are 200 and 450 kJ (48 and 108 kcal), respectively. Alcoholic
beverages are considered empty calorie foods because, while providing energy, they contribute no
essential nutrients.[34]

By definition, phytochemicals include all nutritional and non-nutritional components of edible

plants.[37] Included as nutritional constituents are provitamin A carotenoids,[38] whereas those
without nutrient status are diverse polyphenols, flavonoids, and lignans that are present in numerous
plant foods.[39] Some phytochemical compounds are under preliminary research for their potential
effects on human diseases and health.[37][38][39] However, the qualification for nutrient status of
compounds with poorly defined properties in vivo is that they must first be defined with a Dietary
Reference Intake level to enable accurate food labeling,[40] a condition not established for most
phytochemicals that are claimed to provide antioxidant benefits.[41]

Deficiencies and toxicity

An inadequate amount of a nutrient is a deficiency. Deficiencies can be due to several causes,
including an inadequacy in nutrient intake, called a dietary deficiency, or any of several conditions
that interfere with the utilization of a nutrient within an organism.[1] Some of the conditions that can
interfere with nutrient utilization include problems with nutrient absorption, substances that cause a
greater-than-normal need for a nutrient, conditions that cause nutrient destruction, and conditions
that cause greater nutrient excretion.[1] Nutrient toxicity occurs when excess consumption of a
nutrient does harm to an organism.[42]

In the United States and Canada, recommended dietary intake levels of essential nutrients are based
on the minimum level that "will maintain a defined level of nutriture in an individual", a definition
somewhat different from that used by the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture
Organization of a "basal requirement to indicate the level of intake needed to prevent pathologically
relevant and clinically detectable signs of a dietary inadequacy".[43]

In setting human nutrient guidelines, government organizations do not necessarily agree on amounts
needed to avoid deficiency or maximum amounts to avoid the risk of toxicity.[44][45][46] For example,
for vitamin C, recommended intakes range from 40 mg/day in India[47] to 155 mg/day for the
European Union.[48] The table below shows U.S. Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamins and minerals, PRIs for the European Union
(same concept as RDAs), followed by what three government organizations deem to be the safe upper
intake. RDAs are set higher than EARs to cover people with higher-than-average needs. Adequate
Intakes (AIs) are set when there is insufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs. Countries
establish tolerable upper intake levels, also referred to as upper limits (ULs), based on amounts that
cause adverse effects. Governments are slow to revise information of this nature. For the U.S. values,
except calcium and vitamin D, all data date from 1997 to 2004.[17]

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Highest U.S. Highest EU Upper limit

Nutrient U.S. EAR[44] Unit
RDA or AI[44] PRI or AI[48] U.S.[44] EU[45] Japan[46]
Vitamin A 625 900 1300 3000 3000 2700 μg

Vitamin C 75 90 155 2000 ND ND mg

Vitamin D 10 15 15 100 100 100 μg

Vitamin K NE 120 70 ND ND ND μg

α-tocopherol (Vit E) 12 15 13 1000 300 650–900 mg

Thiamin (Vit B1) 1.0 1.2 0.1 mg/MJ ND ND ND mg

Riboflavin (Vit B2) 1.1 1.3 2.0 ND ND ND mg

Niacin* (Vit B3) 12 16 1.6 mg/MJ 35 10 60-85 mg

Pantothenic acid (Vit B5) NE 5 7 ND ND ND mg

Vitamin B6 1.1 1.3 1.8 100 25 40-60 mg

Biotin (Vit B7) NE 30 45 ND ND ND μg

Folate (Vit B9) 320 400 600 1000 1000 900-1000 μg

Cobalamin (Vit B12) 2.0 2.4 5.0 ND ND ND μg

Choline NE 550 520 3500 ND ND mg

Calcium 800 1000 1000 2500 2500 2500 mg

Chloride NE 2300 NE 3600 ND ND mg

Chromium NE 35 NE ND ND ND μg

Copper 700 900 1600 10000 5000 10000 μg

Fluoride NE 4 3.4 10 7 ____ mg

Iodine 95 150 200 1100 600 3000 μg

18 (females) 16 (females)
Iron 6 45 ND 40-45 mg
8 (males) 11 (males)
Magnesium* 350 420 350 350 250 350 mg

Manganese NE 2.3 3.0 11 ND 11 mg

Molybdenum 34 45 65 2000 600 450-550 μg

Phosphorus 580 700 640 4000 ND 3000 mg

Potassium NE 4700 4000 ND ND 2700-3000 mg

Selenium 45 55 70 400 300 330-460 μg

Sodium NE 1500 NE 2300 ND 3000-3600 mg

Zinc 9.4 11 16.3 40 25 35-45 mg

* The daily recommended amounts of niacin and magnesium are higher than the tolerable upper limit
because, for both nutrients, the ULs identify the amounts that will not increase the risk of adverse
effects when the nutrients are consumed as a serving of a dietary supplement. Magnesium
supplementation above the UL may cause diarrhea. Supplementation with niacin above the UL may

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cause flushing of the face and a sensation of body warmth. Each country or regional regulatory agency
decides on a safety margin below when symptoms occur so that the ULs may differ based on the
source.[44][45]

EAR U.S. Estimated Average Requirements.

RDA U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowances; higher for adults than children and may be even higher
for pregnant or lactating women.

AI U.S. Adequate Intake; AIs are established when there is insufficient information to set EARs and
RDAs.

PRI Population Reference Intake is the European Union equivalent of RDA; it is higher for adults
than for children and maybe even higher for pregnant or lactating women. For Thiamin and Niacin,
the PRIs are expressed as amounts per megajoule (239 kilocalories) of food energy consumed.

Upper Limit Tolerable upper intake levels.

ND ULs have not been determined.

NE EARs, PRIs, or AIs have not yet been established or will not be (EU does not consider chromium
an essential nutrient).

Plant
Plants absorb carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen from air and soil as carbon dioxide and water.[49] Other
nutrients are absorbed from soil (exceptions include some parasitic or carnivorous plants). Counting
these, there are 17 important nutrients for plants:[50] these are macronutrients; nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), magnesium (Mg), carbon (C), oxygen(O) and
hydrogen (H), and the micronutrients; iron (Fe), boron (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn),
copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo) and nickel (Ni). In addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur are also needed in relatively large quantities. Together, these six are
the elemental macronutrients for all organisms.[51] They are sourced from inorganic matter (for
example, carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, and diatomic molecules of nitrogen
and, especially, oxygen) and organic compounds such as acids, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins.

See also
Primary nutritional groups
Food composition
Nutrient cycle
Nutrient density
Nutrition
Nutritionism
List of macronutrients

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List of micronutrients
List of nutrition guides
List of phytochemicals in food
River Continuum Concept
Table of food nutrients

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External links
USDA. Dietary Reference Intakes ([Link]
[Link]/sites/[Link]/files/uploads/recommended_intakes_individuals.pdf)
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