HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Class 12 Biology — Important Questions with Answers (CBSE / NCERT Pattern)

This question bank covers the NCERT chapter Human Reproduction, compiled in line with frequently repeated
CBSE board exam / PYQ patterns. Sections: 20 one-mark (definitions & one-word), 20 MCQs, 15 two-mark, 10
three-mark, and 10 five-mark questions.

SECTION A | ONE MARK QUESTIONS (Definitions / One-word) — 20 Qs

1. Define spermatogenesis.
Ans. The process of formation of haploid spermatozoa from diploid spermatogonia in the
seminiferous tubules of the testis.

2. Define oogenesis.
Ans. The process of formation of a mature haploid ovum (egg) from a diploid oogonium in the ovary.

3. What is menarche?
Ans. The onset of the first menstrual cycle at puberty in a female.

4. What is menopause?
Ans. The permanent cessation of menstrual cycles, usually occurring around 45–50 years of age.

5. Define capacitation.
Ans. The series of functional and structural changes that sperm undergo inside the female
reproductive tract, enabling them to fertilise the ovum.

6. What is parturition?
Ans. The process of delivery of the foetus (childbirth) at the end of gestation, induced by
neuro-endocrine signals.

7. Define colostrum.
Ans. The yellowish fluid secreted by the mammary glands during the initial days of lactation; rich in
antibodies (IgA) essential for building the newborn's immunity.

8. What is the acrosome?

Ans. A cap-like vesicle at the tip of the sperm head containing enzymes that help the sperm penetrate
the egg membranes during fertilisation.

9. Define zona pellucida.

Ans. The thick, transparent glycoprotein membrane surrounding the secondary oocyte.

10. What is corona radiata?

Ans. The layer of follicular (granulosa) cells that surrounds the zona pellucida of the ovum after
ovulation.

11. What is the gestation period in humans?

Ans. About 9 months, i.e., approximately 280 days (40 weeks) from the last menstrual period.

12. Define implantation.

Ans. The attachment and embedding of the blastocyst into the endometrial lining of the uterus.

13. What is the placenta?

Ans. A specialised structure that provides structural and functional connection between the
developing foetus and the mother's uterine wall for exchange of nutrients, oxygen and waste.
14. What is corpus luteum?
Ans. The structure formed from the remains of the ruptured Graafian follicle after ovulation; it
secretes progesterone.

15. Define spermiogenesis.

Ans. The transformation of round spermatids into elongated, motile spermatozoa.

16. What is spermiation?

Ans. The release of mature spermatozoa from the Sertoli cells into the lumen of the seminiferous
tubule.

17. What are Sertoli cells?

Ans. 'Nurse' cells located in the seminiferous tubules that provide nutrition and support to the
developing germ cells.

18. Define coitus.

Ans. The act of copulation, in which the penis is inserted into the vagina to deposit semen.

19. What is a Graafian follicle?

Ans. The fully mature ovarian follicle, ready to release the secondary oocyte at ovulation.

20. What is amniocentesis?

Ans. A prenatal diagnostic technique that analyses foetal cells in amniotic fluid to detect
genetic/chromosomal disorders; sex-determination using this test is legally banned in India.
SECTION B | MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS — 20 Qs
1. The functional unit of the testis is:
(a) Seminiferous tubule (b) Vas deferens (c) Epididymis (d) Rete testis
Ans. (a) Seminiferous tubule

2. Sperm formed in the testis are transported by all of the following EXCEPT:
(a) Rete testis (b) Vasa efferentia (c) Epididymis (d) Fallopian tube
Ans. (d) Fallopian tube

3. The male ejaculate on average contains sperm count of:

(a) 60–100 million/mL (b) 20–300 million/mL (avg. ~100 million/mL) (c) 1–5 million/mL (d) 500–600
million/mL
Ans. (b) 20–300 million/mL (avg. ~100 million/mL)

4. Which hormone triggers ovulation (LH surge)?

(a) FSH (b) Estrogen (c) LH (d) Progesterone
Ans. (c) LH

5. Fertilisation normally occurs in the:

(a) Uterus (b) Ampullary-isthmic junction of the fallopian tube (c) Ovary (d) Vagina
Ans. (b) Ampullary-isthmic junction of the fallopian tube

6. The chromosome number in a human secondary oocyte is:

(a) 46 (b) 23 (c) 44 (d) 22
Ans. (b) 23

7. The hormone mainly responsible for maintaining pregnancy is:

(a) FSH (b) Progesterone (c) LH (d) Oxytocin
Ans. (b) Progesterone

8. hCG hormone is secreted by:

(a) Corpus luteum (b) Developing embryo (trophoblast) (c) Pituitary gland (d) Placenta only after
3rd trimester
Ans. (b) Developing embryo (trophoblast)

9. The average menstrual cycle length is:

(a) 14 days (b) 21 days (c) 28 days (d) 35 days
Ans. (c) 28 days

10. Cleavage of the zygote occurs while it is moving through the:

(a) Uterus (b) Oviduct (fallopian tube) (c) Cervix (d) Ovary
Ans. (b) Oviduct (fallopian tube)

11. The blastocyst gets embedded in the endometrium; this process is called:
(a) Cleavage (b) Gastrulation (c) Implantation (d) Parturition
Ans. (c) Implantation

12. Colostrum secreted during the first few days of lactation is rich in:
(a) Fats (b) IgA antibodies (c) Lactose only (d) Iron
Ans. (b) IgA antibodies

13. The umbilical cord connects the foetus to the:

(a) Uterus wall (b) Placenta (c) Amnion (d) Ovary
Ans. (b) Placenta
14. Which cells provide nourishment to developing sperm?
(a) Leydig cells (b) Sertoli cells (c) Germinal epithelium (d) Interstitial cells
Ans. (b) Sertoli cells

15. Leydig cells secrete:

(a) FSH (b) Testosterone (c) Inhibin (d) LH
Ans. (b) Testosterone

16. Menstrual phase of the cycle typically lasts:

(a) 1–2 days (b) 3–5 days (c) 10–14 days (d) 20 days
Ans. (b) 3–5 days

17. Parturition is induced by signals from the:

(a) Fully developed foetus and placenta (neuro-endocrine mechanism) (b) Ovary only (c) Pituitary
alone (d) Mother's brain independent of foetus
Ans. (a) Fully developed foetus and placenta (neuro-endocrine mechanism)

18. Amniotic fluid mainly helps in:

(a) Digestion of the foetus (b) Shock absorption and protection of the foetus (c) Hormone
production (d) Sperm transport
Ans. (b) Shock absorption and protection of the foetus

19. The pouch-like cavity formed around the embryo, filled with fluid, is the:
(a) Chorion (b) Amnion (c) Allantois (d) Yolk sac
Ans. (b) Amnion

20. Which of the following is NOT a part of the male accessory gland set?
(a) Seminal vesicle (b) Prostate gland (c) Bulbourethral gland (d) Fallopian tube
Ans. (d) Fallopian tube
SECTION C | TWO MARK QUESTIONS — 15 Qs
1. Differentiate between spermatogenesis and oogenesis (any two points).
Ans. Spermatogenesis occurs continuously from puberty till old age and produces four functional
sperm from one primary spermatocyte, with no polar bodies formed. Oogenesis is a cyclic, mostly
prenatal-initiated process that produces only one functional ovum along with polar bodies (which
degenerate) from one primary oocyte.

2. What is the role of the acrosome during fertilisation?

Ans. The acrosome, present at the tip of the sperm head, contains hydrolytic enzymes
(hyaluronidase and proteases) that help dissolve the corona radiata and zona pellucida of the ovum,
allowing the sperm to penetrate and fuse with the egg membrane.

3. Name the hormones responsible for the LH/FSH surge before ovulation and explain its
significance.
Ans. A rapid rise in LH (LH surge), along with FSH, occurs around the 14th day of the cycle. The LH
surge induces rupture of the Graafian follicle, releasing the secondary oocyte (ovulation).

4. What is the significance of the corpus luteum in the menstrual cycle?

Ans. The corpus luteum, formed from the remnants of the ruptured Graafian follicle, secretes large
amounts of progesterone, which is essential for maintaining the endometrium in case of pregnancy; it
degenerates if fertilisation does not occur, leading to menstruation.

5. Why is the menstrual cycle absent during pregnancy?

Ans. During pregnancy, high levels of hCG maintain the corpus luteum, which continues to secrete
progesterone. Progesterone maintains the endometrium and inhibits the pituitary from releasing
FSH/LH, thereby stopping further follicular development and menstruation.

6. What is capacitation and where does it occur?

Ans. Capacitation refers to the physiological and biochemical changes that sperm undergo within the
female reproductive tract (uterus and oviduct) that make them capable of fertilising the ovum.

7. Mention the function of the placenta (any two).

Ans. The placenta facilitates the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and removal of carbon
dioxide and excretory/waste materials produced by the embryo. It also acts as an endocrine gland,
secreting hCG, hPL, estrogens and progesterone.

8. What is colostrum and why is it important for the newborn?

Ans. Colostrum is the yellowish fluid secreted by the mammary glands during the first few days after
childbirth. It is rich in antibodies (IgA) that are essential for developing resistance/immunity in the
newborn infant.

9. Differentiate between the amnion and chorion.

Ans. The amnion is the fluid-filled membrane immediately surrounding the embryo, providing a
shock-absorbing environment. The chorion is the outermost membrane which forms chorionic villi that
interdigitate with the uterine tissue to form the placenta.

10. What are the roles of FSH and LH in the male reproductive system?
Ans. FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of factors that aid spermiogenesis. LH
acts on Leydig cells to stimulate synthesis and secretion of testosterone/androgens.

11. What is meant by parturition and which hormone plays a key role?
Ans. Parturition is the process of childbirth. Oxytocin, released from the maternal pituitary (and also
secreted by the foetus), causes strong uterine contractions during labour, leading to expulsion of the
foetus.
12. Give two functions of testosterone in males.
Ans. Testosterone regulates the development, maturation and function of the male accessory sex
organs, and stimulates the appearance of secondary sexual characters (facial hair, deep voice,
muscular build).

13. What happens during the luteal (secretory) phase of the menstrual cycle?
Ans. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which causes the endometrium to become thick,
glandular, and vascularised (secretory phase), preparing it for possible implantation of the embryo.

14. Distinguish between a primary follicle and a Graafian follicle.

Ans. A primary follicle is an immature ovarian follicle consisting of a primary oocyte surrounded by a
single layer of granulosa cells. A Graafian follicle is the fully matured follicle with a large fluid-filled
antrum, ready to release the secondary oocyte at ovulation.

15. What is the significance of the polar body in oogenesis?

Ans. During meiosis in oogenesis, unequal cytoplasmic division produces a small polar body (which
eventually degenerates) alongside the larger, functional secondary oocyte, ensuring that most
cytoplasm/nutrients are retained by the egg cell for supporting early development.
SECTION D | THREE MARK QUESTIONS — 10 Qs
1. Describe the structure of a human sperm.
Ans. A human sperm has four main parts: (1) Head — contains an elongated haploid nucleus,
covered anteriorly by the acrosome (a cap containing enzymes for penetrating the ovum); (2) Neck —
contains centrioles; (3) Middle piece — contains numerous mitochondria arranged spirally which
provide energy (ATP) for the movement of the tail; (4) Tail — the long flagellum that provides motility,
enabling the sperm to swim towards the ovum.

2. Explain the three phases of the menstrual cycle.

Ans. (1) Menstrual phase (day 1–5): breakdown of the endometrial lining due to fall in progesterone,
leading to bleeding. (2) Follicular/Proliferative phase (day 5–13): a primary follicle matures into a
Graafian follicle under FSH/LH influence, and rising estrogen levels cause the endometrium to
regenerate/proliferate; ends with ovulation on day 14 following the LH surge. (3) Luteal/Secretory
phase (day 15–28): the corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which makes the endometrium thick
and secretory for possible implantation; in the absence of fertilisation the corpus luteum degenerates,
progesterone falls, and the cycle repeats.

3. Describe the process of fertilisation in humans.

Ans. Sperms deposited in the vagina swim through the cervix and uterus into the fallopian tube,
undergoing capacitation en route. Fertilisation occurs in the ampullary-isthmic junction. A capacitated
sperm penetrates the corona radiata and zona pellucida of the secondary oocyte using acrosomal
enzymes. Only one sperm fuses with the oocyte plasma membrane, triggering completion of
meiosis-II in the oocyte and formation of a haploid ovum. Fusion of the haploid sperm nucleus with
the haploid egg nucleus restores the diploid number and forms a zygote.

4. Explain the process of implantation and formation of the placenta.

Ans. The zygote undergoes repeated mitotic divisions (cleavage) while moving down the oviduct,
forming a morula and then a blastocyst by the time it reaches the uterus. The blastocyst's outer
trophoblast layer attaches to and gets embedded in the endometrium (implantation), roughly a week
after fertilisation. Finger-like projections called chorionic villi develop from the trophoblast and
interdigitate with maternal uterine tissue, together forming the placenta, which serves as the site of
nutrient, oxygen and waste exchange between mother and foetus.

5. Describe the hormonal changes that trigger parturition.

Ans. Signals for parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the placenta, which induce
mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex. This stimulates the mother's pituitary to release
oxytocin, which acts on the uterine muscle to cause stronger contractions. In turn, increasing oxytocin
stimulates further uterine contractions in a positive-feedback loop, ultimately resulting in strong labour
contractions that lead to delivery of the foetus, followed by expulsion of the placenta.

6. What are the major events of gametogenesis common to both sexes? Explain briefly.
Ans. Gametogenesis in both sexes involves three phases: (1) Multiplication phase — germ cells
(spermatogonia/oogonia) divide repeatedly by mitosis to increase their number. (2) Growth phase —
the cells increase in size to become primary spermatocytes/oocytes. (3) Maturation phase — the
primary cells undergo meiosis-I and meiosis-II to produce haploid gametes (spermatozoa in males; a
single functional ovum plus polar bodies in females).

7. Describe the structure and functions of the placenta.

Ans. The placenta is a disc-shaped organ formed by the interlocking of foetal chorionic villi and
maternal uterine tissue. Functionally, it (1) facilitates supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo
and removal of CO2 and excretory wastes produced by the embryo, (2) acts as an endocrine tissue
producing hormones such as human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL),
estrogens, progesterone and relaxin, which are essential for maintaining pregnancy.
8. Explain the role of various hormones in regulating spermatogenesis.
Ans. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior
pituitary to secrete LH and FSH. LH acts on Leydig cells to stimulate synthesis and secretion of
testosterone/androgens, which stimulate the process of spermatogenesis. FSH acts on Sertoli cells,
stimulating secretion of factors that assist in the process of spermiogenesis (conversion of spermatids
to spermatozoa).

9. Describe the changes that occur in the ovary and uterus during the follicular phase of the
menstrual cycle.
Ans. In the ovary, rising FSH stimulates the growth of several primary follicles, one of which matures
into a Graafian follicle, accompanied by increasing secretion of estrogen. In the uterus, the rising
estrogen levels stimulate regeneration and proliferation of the endometrium after the menstrual
phase, along with growth of endometrial glands; this phase ends with ovulation triggered by the
mid-cycle LH surge.

10. What is amniocentesis? Why has its misuse become a matter of concern in India?
Ans. Amniocentesis is a foetal diagnostic technique based on the analysis of amniotic fluid
surrounding the developing embryo, used to detect genetic/chromosomal disorders. It has been
misused for determining the sex of the foetus, leading to female foeticide; because of this misuse,
sex-determination through amniocentesis (and other prenatal techniques) for non-medical purposes
is legally banned in India under the PCPNDT Act.
SECTION E | FIVE MARK QUESTIONS — 10 Qs
1. Describe the male reproductive system with the help of its major parts and their functions.
Ans. The male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes located in a scrotal sac outside the
abdominal cavity (for maintaining a lower temperature required for spermatogenesis). Each testis has
about 250 compartments called testicular lobules, each containing 1–3 highly coiled seminiferous
tubules, the site of sperm production. Seminiferous tubules are lined by germ cells (spermatogonia)
and Sertoli cells (which nourish germ cells); the surrounding interstitial spaces contain Leydig cells,
which secrete testosterone. Sperms from the seminiferous tubules pass through the rete testis and
vasa efferentia into the epididymis, where they mature and are stored. From the epididymis, the vas
deferens ascends and joins the duct of the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct, which opens
into the urethra. The urethra, common to both the reproductive and urinary systems, extends through
the penis and opens via the urethral meatus. Accessory glands — the seminal vesicles, prostate
gland, and bulbourethral glands — secrete fluids that nourish and provide a medium for sperm
transport, together constituting seminal plasma along with sperm to form semen.

2. Describe the female reproductive system with the help of a labelled account of its major parts.
Ans. The female reproductive system comprises a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts (fallopian tubes),
a uterus, a cervix, a vagina, and external genitalia, along with a pair of mammary glands. The ovaries
are the primary reproductive organs that produce ova and secrete ovarian hormones (estrogen and
progesterone). Each oviduct has a funnel-shaped fimbriated infundibulum near the ovary for collecting
the ovum after ovulation, followed by a wider ampulla (site of fertilisation) and a narrower isthmus,
which joins the uterus. The uterus is a single, pear-shaped organ supported by ligaments; its wall has
three layers — perimetrium (outer), myometrium (middle, smooth muscle responsible for contractions
during labour), and endometrium (inner, glandular layer that undergoes cyclic changes during the
menstrual cycle and forms the site of implantation). The cervix connects the uterus to the vagina; the
vagina serves as the site for sperm deposition during coitus and as the birth canal.

3. Describe spermatogenesis with reference to its hormonal regulation.

Ans. Spermatogenesis is the process of formation of haploid spermatozoa from diploid
spermatogonial cells present in the seminiferous tubules. It begins at puberty due to significant
increase in the secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. GnRH
stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete two gonadotropins: LH and FSH. LH acts on Leydig cells to
stimulate synthesis and secretion of testosterone, which in turn stimulates the process of
spermatogenesis. FSH acts on Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of factors that help in the
conversion of spermatids into spermatozoa (spermiogenesis). The stages are: spermatogonia (2n)
multiply by mitosis → some grow into primary spermatocytes (2n) → undergo meiosis-I to form
secondary spermatocytes (n) → meiosis-II produces haploid spermatids (n) → spermatids transform
into spermatozoa by spermiogenesis, and the sperm heads become embedded in Sertoli cells before
their eventual release into the lumen (spermiation).

4. Describe oogenesis and explain the events of the menstrual cycle in a human female.
Ans. Oogenesis is the process of formation of a mature haploid ovum from a diploid oogonium; unlike
spermatogenesis, it starts during embryonic development itself, when a large number of oogonia are
formed, most of which degenerate, while surviving ones become primary oocytes arrested at
prophase-I of meiosis until puberty. At puberty a few primary follicles resume development each
month; one primary oocyte completes meiosis-I to form a secondary oocyte and a first polar body just
before ovulation. Meiosis-II is completed only after fertilisation. The menstrual cycle (~28 days) has
three phases: menstrual phase (endometrial breakdown), follicular phase (follicle maturation and
endometrial proliferation under estrogen, ending in ovulation via the LH surge), and luteal phase
(corpus luteum secretes progesterone, making the endometrium secretory for possible implantation; if
fertilisation fails, the corpus luteum degenerates, hormone levels fall, and menstruation begins again).
5. Describe the process of fertilisation and early embryonic development up to implantation.
Ans. Ejaculated sperms travel through the female reproductive tract, undergoing capacitation, and
reach the ampullary-isthmic junction of the fallopian tube where fertilisation with the secondary oocyte
occurs. The acrosomal enzymes of the sperm help it penetrate the corona radiata and zona pellucida;
fusion of a single sperm with the oocyte membrane induces completion of meiosis-II in the oocyte,
forming the ovum, and the fusion of the two haploid nuclei restores diploidy, forming the zygote. The
zygote undergoes mitotic divisions called cleavage as it moves down the oviduct towards the uterus,
forming a 2-celled, 4-celled, 8-celled embryo and eventually a solid ball called the morula. The morula
continues dividing and develops into a blastocyst, in which cells are arranged into an outer
trophoblast layer and an inner cell mass. The trophoblast attaches to the endometrium, and the inner
cell mass differentiates to form the embryo. Approximately a week after fertilisation, the blastocyst
becomes embedded in the endometrium of the uterus — the process of implantation — which marks
the beginning of pregnancy.

6. Describe the structure and functions of the placenta, and list the hormones secreted by it.
Ans. The placenta is a unique structure that develops from the interdigitation of foetal chorionic villi
and maternal uterine (endometrial) tissue, connected to the foetus by the umbilical cord. It functions
as a site for the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and for removal of carbon dioxide and
excretory/waste substances produced by the embryo, acting as a selective barrier as well. It also
functions as an endocrine gland, producing several hormones essential for supporting pregnancy:
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens, progestogens, and
relaxin (secreted towards the end of pregnancy, helping soften the cervix/pelvic ligaments for
parturition).

7. Explain parturition and lactation with the hormones involved.

Ans. Parturition (childbirth) is induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism. Signals for it
originate from the fully developed foetus and the placenta, which induce mild uterine contractions
known as foetal ejection reflex. This triggers release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary, which
acts on the uterine muscles causing stronger contractions, which in turn stimulates further oxytocin
release — a positive-feedback loop that leads to increasingly strong labour contractions, culminating
in delivery of the baby, followed by expulsion of the placenta. Lactation, the production of milk by the
mammary glands, is under hormonal control: during pregnancy the mammary glands undergo
differentiation and develop the ability to synthesise milk; after parturition, prolactin (from the pituitary)
stimulates milk production, while oxytocin causes milk ejection (let-down reflex). The initial secretion
during the first few days is colostrum, rich in antibodies (IgA), important for building the baby's
immunity.

8. Draw a labelled diagram of the human sperm (describe its parts) and explain the significance
of each part.
Ans. A mature human sperm consists of a head, a neck, a middle piece, and a tail (as would be
shown in a labelled diagram). Head: contains a haploid, elongated nucleus; the anterior two-thirds is
capped by the acrosome, a membrane-bound vesicle filled with hydrolytic enzymes required to
dissolve the egg's outer coverings during fertilisation. Neck: contains the centrioles, important for the
initial cell divisions of the zygote after fertilisation. Middle piece: possesses numerous mitochondria
arranged in a helical/spiral fashion around the axial filament, which generate the energy (ATP)
required for the swimming movements of the tail. Tail: a long flagellum enclosed by the plasma
membrane, whose whip-like movements propel the sperm forward, enabling it to reach and fertilise
the ovum. (In an exam, sketch the four parts in sequence and label each as described.)

9. Explain, with reasons, why the seminiferous tubules and testes are important for
reproduction, and describe the associated accessory ducts and glands.
Ans. The testes are the primary male reproductive organs, essential because they perform the dual
function of producing sperm (via spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules) and secreting the
 androgen testosterone (via Leydig cells), which is required for the development of secondary sexual
characters and maintenance of the reproductive tract. The seminiferous tubules are lined by germinal
epithelium (spermatogonia) and Sertoli cells that nourish developing germ cells, making them the
actual site of sperm formation. Sperm produced here travel through a series of accessory ducts: rete
testis → vasa efferentia → epididymis (site of sperm storage and maturation) → vas deferens →
ejaculatory duct → urethra. Along the way, accessory glands — the paired seminal vesicles, the
single prostate gland, and the paired bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands — add secretions that provide
nutrition, mobility, and a favourable pH for sperm, together with sperm constituting semen, which is
ejaculated during coitus.

10. What is amniocentesis? Discuss its medical purpose along with the ethical/legal issues
surrounding its misuse in India, and describe the concept of infertility and ART briefly.
Ans. Amniocentesis is a foetal diagnostic technique in which a sample of amniotic fluid surrounding
the developing embryo is analysed to detect chromosomal abnormalities (such as Down's syndrome)
and certain genetic disorders in the foetus, allowing for informed medical decisions during pregnancy.
Unfortunately, this technique has been grossly misused in India to determine the sex of the foetus,
contributing to female foeticide; consequently, the use of amniocentesis (and other prenatal
techniques) for sex determination is legally banned under the Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal
Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act. Separately, infertility (the inability of a couple to conceive
despite unprotected coitus) can be addressed with Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) such
as In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF, popularly the 'test-tube baby' programme, where fertilisation occurs
outside the body and the resulting embryo is transferred into the uterus or fallopian tube), Gamete
Intra-Fallopian Transfer (GIFT), Zygote Intra-Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT), and Intra-Cytoplasmic Sperm
Injection (ICSI), which help infertile couples have children.

Prepared for CBSE Class 12 Biology exam preparation — Chapter: Human Reproduction.