Soldering and Welding 19

Metals joining operations are usually divided 5. Some casting defects can be corrected with
into three categories such as brazing, soldering, soldering.
and welding. Clean oxide-free metal surfaces brought
into intimate contact will bond together as a
SOLDERING
consequence of metallic bonding forces. How
Process of building up a localized area with ever, this does not occur in most practically due
to surface contamination and/or oxidation.
a filler metal or joining two or more metal 1. The basic technique of soldering is first
components by heating them to a temperature to obtain metal surfaces that are free of
and filling the gap between them to a molten
with a liquidus temperature below 450°C (for contamination. This is accomplished by
brazing the liquidus temperature is more than cleaning and by using fluxes, which also
450°C). prevents oxidation during the soldering
process.
WELDING 2. Ametal alloy witha lower melting point than
the parts to be joined must be chosen.
Process of fusing two or more metals parts 3. The parts should be brought to the solder's
through the application of heat, pressure or melting temperature. If the molten metal
both, with or without a filler metal, to produce wets the solid metal, it will spread between
a localized union across the interface between the flux and the metal part, providing
the parts. intimate contact.
Soldering is often used in the construction Upon solidification, the solder will still be in
of dental appliances. contact and metallic bonding will be established.
Solder penetrates joints by capillary action.
Advantages
1. Fixed partial dentures are frequently casting Type of Solders
parts that are soldered together after careful 1. Gold solders
fitting to the master casting.
2. Silver solders.
2. Wrought wire clasp arms can be soldered in
place for partial dentures using investment Gold Solders
soldering technique.
3. Orthodontic wires and bands are often Composition of gold solders are given in Table
soldered together. 19.1.
4. Soldering can be used to build up certain Ni may be added instead of copper if a white
regions of crowns and inlays where the alloy is desired. Copper is not used for "PFM"
dimensions should be increased, such as for appliance because it colors the porcelain green,
missing contact points. as does silver.
 Chapter 19 Soldering and Welding 371
Table 19.1 Composition of gold solders It should flow freely when it melts so that a
Ingredients Weight Functions layer of the solder should be formed over the
96 parts united.
It should be as strong as the parts joined.
Gold 65 Main ingredient.
The fusion temperature ofa solder should be
Silver 16.3 Improves the welding
less than that of the solidus temperature of
(spreading and pene the parent metals by at least 100°C.
tration) of gold solders
Also whitens the alloy It should not cause pitting of the soldered
13.4 Lowers the fusion
joint.
Copper The solder should have a color that matches
temperature
Improves strength the color of the parts joined.
Makes solder amenable
to age-hardening Classification
Zinc 39 Lowers the fusion
temperature
1. According to their purpose
Fluxes may be divided into three types.
Tin 17 Lowers the fusion
Type-1: Surface protection-prevents
temperature oxidation.
Type-I1: Reducing agent--reduces any
Table 19.2 Composition of silver solders oxides present and exposes clean metal.
Type-IlI: Solvent--dissolves any oxides
Ingredients Weight 9% Functions present and carries them away.
Silver 10-80 Main ingredient 2. According to type of material
Copper 15-50 Improves the Borax fluX
strength Fluoride flux.
Zinc 4-35
Borax Flux
Cadmium Trace Lowers the fusion
temperature Composition
Tin Trace Lowers the fusion " Dehydrated borax (Na,B, 0-)
temperature Boric acid (H,BO,)
Phosphorus Trace Lowers the fusion Silica.
temperature The fused borax flux produces oxide-free
surfaces over which the solder will flow easily.
Silver Solders
The flux can be applied as a powder or a liquid
(flux mixed with alcohol), or a paste. A paste
Compositions of silver solders are given in formed
gives thebymost control in application and is
mixing the powdered flux with
Table 19.2.
petrolatum or a similar inert base.
FLUX
Fluoride Flux
The Latin word "flux" means "flow.
"A flux is a material that is used to prevent Composition
Potassium fluoride
oxidation, removes any preexisting oxide coat on Boric acid
the metal surface and allows free flow of solder".
Borax glass
Sodium carbonate or silica.
ldeal Requirements The ingredients are fused and grounded to
. Should be resistant to tarnish and corrosion. fine powder, which is used either directly or as
372 Section 3 Laboratory Dental Materials

a liquid in alcohol or paste in petrolatum. These Precautions

fluxes are used for soldering alloys containing The parts must be clean and secured
chromium because fluorides dissolve the properly
chromium oxide. on the master cast to prevent warping or
porosity.
2. Sheets of paper should not be used as a gauge
SOLDERING INVESTMENT MATERIALS because they are often too thin, ranging from
0.005-0.l mm.
Soldering investments should not expand as for
casting investments because soldering requires 3. The parts should be securely fastened
lower temperatures than casting. together with sticky wax.
4. There should not be any investment material
Low fusing gold solders: Quartz based, rather at the joint.
than crystobalite based, gypsum investments 5. Over-heating may cause sulfur contamination.
are used.
6. Immediate quenching should be avoided
Preceramic soldering: Phosphate bonded because warpage could occur if the
soldering investments are used. investment were quenched immediately.
7. Total bench cooling also should be avoided
because that would make the solder too
TYPES OF SOLDERING TECHNIQUES brittle through age-hardening,
1. Investment soldering 8. Finishing instruments should not be used to
2. Free-hand soldering. remove the flux because the glass is harder
than the metal, and surrounding metal will
be removed along with the wax.
Investment Soldering
Investment soldering is recommended for Free Hand Soldering
precise arrangement of parts for fixed partial Soldering of orthodontic appliances is generally
dentures or partial dentures with wrought wire accomplished without the use of an investment.
clasp arms. Orthodontic torches can be placed on the bench
Procedure so that both hands are free to hold the parts in
position. Solder is generally melted on one of
The parts are placed on the cast with the gap the parts. Then they are held together and the
distance between them is at least 0.1 mm. joint is heated.
Excessive gap distance can lead to distortion
and pitting. The parts are securely fastened Precautions
together with sticky wax before removal from Thin wire parts must be held in contact to
master cast and subsequent placement in the avoid narrowing of the joint caused by the
soldering investment. Investment should cover surface tension of the solder. This decrease in
metal parts where they are not to be soldered, diameter, concentrates stress is much more
but no investment in the soldering joint. Antiflux significant that for larger appliances.
may be applied to confine the flow of solder. Flux The wires should not be overheated because
can be applied to the joint area before or after that deteriorates mechanical properties.
preheating of the investment. Overheating of stainless steel wires should
Soldering is accomplished with a reducing be avoided since they can lead carbide
flame when the parts are at 750°C-870°C, giving protection, which may soften the wire.
them a yellowish red color. The solder flows
smoothly into the joint area. The investment and
appliance are allowed to cool for about 5 minutes Defective Soldering
before quenching, The flux cools to aglass that Microstructural changes result from prolonged
can be removed through pickling. heating or overheating. Overheating of wrought
 Chapter 19 Soldering and Welding 373

wires during soldering can lead to diffusion 1. Spot welding or resistance welding
between solder and wire and recrystallization 2. Pressure welding
and grain growth. Microstructural changes, 3. Laser welding.
surface fiting and internal porosity all result in
a weak joint. Spot welding
When the solder does not flow properiy In spot welding the two clean metal
resulting in an incomplete joint, it usually due to surfaces to
one or mnore of the following: be welded are placed together under pressure.
The parts were too cool when the solder was Metal-to-metal contact is obtained by passing
applied.
a current through the joint to cause inter
The parts were not at similar temperatures; facial melting. If a pulse of sufficient voltage
the solder would flow over the heater part and duration is applied by means of copper
electrodes, melting will begin at the interface
leaving an incomplete joint. between the parts and spread outward to form
Flux was insufficient to cover the joint. a weld.
Contamination was present due to improper
cleaning, poor placements of flux, sulfur suchSpot as
welding is used to join flat structures,
orthodontic bands and brackets, and an
released from overheated investment,
oxidation from an improperly adjusted torch. electric pulse is applied. The magnitude of the
pulse depends on the metals and their size and
. The gap distance was too small (0.1 mm) tor shane at the welding point, and on the size of
the solder to penetrate between the parts, the electrodes.
which leads to the formation to voids.
If the gap distance was too large, the solder
may not bridge the gap or if it does, the Pressure Welding
diameter of the joint will be too small for an
adequate strength. If two metal parts are placed together and a
sufficiently large force is applied perpendicular
Bonding will occur between two metallic to the surface, pressure welding occurs, e.g. pure
surfaces placed in contact if they are free of 8old and gold foil.
surface films (including oxides and flms of
adsorbed gases) and surface roughness.
Laser Welding
METHODS OF WELDING In laser welding, the beam is focused at the
joint to melt the opposing surfaces. The two
The three methods of welding used in dentistry liquid surfaces contact and form a weld on
achieved metal-to-metal contact differently. solidification.