④ ⑥④☒ ⑥☒801-58

meosis

for production of ( )
meosis gametes sex cells
'

daughter cells have Half the chromosomes

diploid to haploid

& form
-

sperm egg join

=
haploid sets
complete diploid set

homologous chromosomes -
similar but nonidentical chromosome pairs an
organism vecieves from its two
parents

meiosis I =
homologue pairs separate

meiosis 11 = sister chromatids separate

single cell division occurs TWICE

cell 4
one
starting can
produce gametes

meiosis I

7. mitosis
same interphase as

2. prophase 1 -
chromosomes condense
,
& align w/
homologue partner

crossing over between pairs assisted

by synaptonemal complex
-

cniasmata after breaks down

keep pair together synaptonemal complex

common for
multiple crossing overs to occur

spindles capture chromosomes & move them toward middle

homologous bind from

-

2 pairs to microtubules opposite poles

3. I
metaphase homologue pairs line at
metaphase plate
-

random orientation allows for w/ different sets of

gametes homologues

4.
anaphase 1 -
same mitosis -
sister chromatids stay attached

5. telophase 1 others
same as mitosis for some cells
step skipped by
-

occurs
,

6. forms
cytokinesis two
daughter haploid cells
-
meiosis 11 (
"
meiosis for haploid cells
"
)

7.
prophase 11 →
telophase 11 -
same as mitosis

four
2.
cytokinesis haploid cells
-

each chromosome has one chromatid

reasons for genetically difkerent gametes :

→
crossing over

→ random orientation of
homologue pairs

Mendel & his pea

BLENDING MODEL PREDICTION MENDEL 'S actual RESULTS

✗ tall
tail plant short plant ✗ short -
p generation
d d
F
medium
all fall
-
, generation
all

self fertilization
d self d -

- fertilization

3 7
all medium tall : short - f , generation

law of
segregation

alleles -
different versions of a
gene

genotype
-
alleles carried by an
organism -
determines
phenotype

phenotype
-
organism 's observable features

homozygous
-
two copies of the SAME allele ( YY or )
yy

heterozygous
-
two DIFFERENT
copies ( Yy )

of gamete
law
segregation -

only one of the two

gene copies present in an
organism is distributed to each

that it makes & allocation of is random

the the
gene copies

autosomal the of the numbered Chromosomes

in
question scx
-

is one or
gene on non -
Law of Independent assortment

l aw of
independent assor tment -
alleles of 2 or more different genes get sorted i n to
gametes

of
independently each other

for does not influence relieved for

allele a gamete relieves one
gene the allele another
gene

dihybrid -

heterozygous for two

genes

-
random orientations of
homologous pairs in middle of cell

=
gametes w/ dif .
combos of "
mom
"
& "
dad "
alleles

genes dif Chromosomes assort

independently
-
on .

-
linked genes do not display independent assortment

Probability in genetics

empirical calculated from

probability real -
life observations
-

calculated based info & circumstances produce

theoretical probability -
event is on about the rules that that
event

of it theoretical
larger # data points used to calculate empirical probability ,
more closely will approach
probability

product rule
-

probability of two events

occurring together =
product of both probabilities

G) 46

(
ex : roll dice once → p( getting a =

roll dice twice → P( 26 's ) 436 ← (46×46)

getting
=

only used for independent events

used
can be to
predict frequencies in fertilization

ex : Aa ✗ aa → Pcaa ) = 1/2×42 =
44

t has 42
each
parent chance of
making an a
gamete

sum rule -

probability that
any
of several MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE events will occur is equal to the

'
of the
sum events probabilities

ex :
dice → PC 7 6) = 46 t
'
16 = 1/3
rolling a a or a

ex : Aa ✗ Aa → place or Aa ) =
44 +
Yy +44=3/4

independent events -
occurrence of one event does not affect the occurrence of another event

exclusive cannot at the time

mutually same
-

occur
calculating dihybrid crosses :

Bbcc ✗ Bbcc 1 Bb ?
.

probability of
getting
T T
' "" us
black U 2 of ?
probability getting Cc
'
us . .

straight fur
fur
yellow
B b

::☒: on different chromosomes :

genes are
law because events are
use product
g
independent ( law of
independent assortment )
42 '
14
✗
Yz =

Mendelian
non
genetics
-

multi pule alleles real populations have multi alleles for

pule gene
-

co dominance -
two alleles simultaneously expressed

pleiotropy genes affect characteristics

some
many
-

that
lethal alleles -
alleles prevent survival when homozygous or
heterozygous

carried chromosomes different inheritance autosomal

linkage genes show patterns
-
sex on sex than

recessive alleles of 2 different have same

complementary genes
-

genes may
the
phenotype

epistasis alleles of mask the of

-
one
gene may alleles another
gene

linked do assort
genes not
independently
^

characteristics controlled # of different

polygenic inheritance
by
a
genes
-

environmental effects -
characteristics influenced
by environmental factors ( how genotype is translated )

incomplete penetrance -
not all individuals w/ a
genotype display a
corresponding phenotype

variable expressivity -
individuals of a
particular genotype may have weaker / Stronger versions of a
phenotype

chromosomal basis of inheritance

chromosome theory of inheritance -

genes found @ specific locations on chromosomes

homologous pairs

pair separation mirrors law of

segregation

chromosome pairs sorted independently ( of

independent assortment )
into gametes law
X -
linked inheritance

don't inheritance
sex chromosomes
always come in
homologous pairs → distinctive patterns of

SRY " "

-
sex -
determining region of Y

✗ -
linked -

gene present on ✗ & not Y

males have 7 ✗ chromosome →

hemizygous for linked
✗ genes
- -

carriers -
women
heterozygous for disease alleles

male son : 50% chance disease

having

female 50%
daughter ; chance carrier

&
genetic linkage mapping homologous
orientation crossing over
-

✓ pair ]
g
unlinked found dir chromosomes or far same chromosome
genes
on
apart on
-
. .

linked found the chromosome

-

genes close together on same

recombinant of that if
configurations alleles ones can only for m crossing over occurs
- -

crossovers between 2 rare

close
together genes a re

USE FREQUENCY Of RECOMBINATION TO ESTIMATE RELATIVE DISTANCE APART On CHROMOSOME

two
very close
genes : few recombination events tightly linked
,

*
testers &
:
homozygous recessive

linked
genes parental chromosome
configurations are over
expressed
-
- -

TO MEASURE LINKAGE Quant ITIVITY , CALCULATE RECOMBINATION FREQUENCY

Rf =
recombinant ✗ 100%
total
offspring

CAREER Rf =
FARTHER APART

Rf (a -
B) = 13.2% 13.2% 6.4%

Rf( B- C) =
6.4%

a B C
Rf ( a- C) =
18.5%

18.5%
Pedigrees

pedigree -
char t that shows the presence or absence of a trait within a family across
generations

7. determine dominant or recessive

D does not skip generations

neither parent is required to express R

2. determine autosomal or sex-linked

in ✗ -
linked recessive traits
,
males more affected

inheritance of mitochondrial & chloroplast Dna

DIFFERENCES TO NUCLEUS Dna

high # copies of Dna

copy many
-

random segregation -

randomly distributed to
daughter cells

inheritance
single parent offspring get Dna only from male OR female
- -

mutations in mother 's mitochondria can cause human disorders

genetic
-

polygenic inheritance & environmental effects

human has continuous variation

height
-

inheritance traits than 7

polygenic some are controlled
by more
gene
-

height &
weight are
examples of traits that could be influenced by environmental factors

variable be w/
expressivity a
phenotype may weaker or
stronger in different people same genotype
-

incomplete individuals w/ certain genotype not develop associated

penetrance may or
may phenotype
-
a

w/ the
genotype

of to
phenotype plasticity -
ability an
organism change in response to stimuli or inputs from their

environment

traits fit environment

allows
organisms to
develop to better a particular
aneuploidy & chromosomal rearrangement

euploid contains chromosomes organized into

complete sets
-

correctly

aneuploid -
cell
missing 1 or more chromosomes

2m I
monosomy = -

= Zn t )
trisomy

polyploid -

organisms w/ more than 2 complete sets of chromosomes

nondisjunction -
disorders in chromosome #

CHROMOSOMAL REARRANGEMENTS

duplication -

part of a chromosome is copied

deletion -
part of a chromosome is removed

inversion -
chromosomal region is flipped

translocation of 1 attached to another

piece chromosome gets
-

reciprocal -
chromosomes swap segments