PROJECT PLANNING AND
MANAGEMENT
Undergraduate Lecture Notes: The Comprehensive Project Life Cycle
1. Conceptual Overview of the Project Life Cycle
Project Life Cycle: The series of phases that a project passes through from its start to its
completion. It provides a basic framework that Project Managers and teams use to effectively
structure projects and set them up for success.
The type and number of project phases in a project life cycle depend upon many variables, chief
among them the delivery cadence and the development approach. Within the project life cycle
are a handful of different phases—or collections of logically related project activities that
culminates in the completion of one or more deliverables.
The Value of the Life Cycle Model
Define clear stages that connect a project’s beginning to its end;
Identify processes essential for progressing through each phase;
Provide a framework for modelling and managing projects efficiently; and
Help teams manage within the context of real-world constraints, where changes to one
parameter such as time, scope, or cost can affect others.
Phase Gate Review (Stage Gate):
Project phases often have a phase gate review to check that the desired outcomes or exit
criteria for the phase have been achieved before proceeding to the next phase. Exit criteria may
tie to acceptance criteria for deliverables, contractual obligations, meeting specific performance
targets, or other tangible measures.
2. Phase 1: Project Identification and Design
In the development sector this phase is indispensible in helping organizations answer the critical
question: ‘Are we doing the right project?’ During this phase, project teams and stakeholders
work together collaboratively and systematically to identify project ideas, collect assessment
data, analyze the project assessment data, and develop the project logic.
Methods of Defining and Measuring Needs
Much of the discussion around needs identification evolves from Jonathan Bradshaw’s 1972
work which identifies four methods of defining and measuring needs:
1. Normative needs are defined by the observations of experts, professionals and
consultants who implicitly or explicitly compare the current situation to a set of professional
or expert standards.
2. Comparative needs are defined by comparing the differences in people’s access to
resources. This approach recognizes that need is a relative concept.
3. Felt needs are defined by the individual’s or the community’s own perception of need and
any discrepancy between their situation and what they believe it ought to be. It is likely to be
subjective and could be better described as a ‘want’.
4. Expressed needs are defined as a felt need that has become a demand from an
individual or a community.
Data Collection Types
Secondary Data: Information available through published and unpublished sources,
including literature reviews, surveys, evaluations, assessments, and reports. It can be very
cost-effective and should be the first sources accessed.
Primary Quantitative Data: Focuses on information that can be counted and subjected to
statistical analysis (surveys, questionnaires, tests). Useful for classifying features and
seeking precise measurements.
Primary Qualitative Data: Seeks to capture participants’ experiences using words, pictures
and objects. Consists of detailed descriptions of situations, focus group conversations,
interviews, and direct quotations.
Project Analysis Frameworks
Assessment data is usually not actionable without further analysis. The analysis process
investigates the underlying causes and effects of specific problems. Development projects focus
on three categories of analysis:
1. Stakeholder Analysis: Involves identifying the stakeholders involved in the project,
exploring the stakeholders’ interests (what they might gain or lose, expectations, resources
they can commit, capacities), and mapping the influence/power they have over a project.
2. Problem Analysis: Utilizes tools like the Problem Tree to provide a simplified but robust
version of reality, identifying a 'starter problem', the effects of the core problem (placed
above), and the underlying issues and root causes (placed below). An alternative is
Appreciative Inquiry, an assets-based approach identifying strengths and successes.
3. Objectives Analysis: Identifies the objectives of the eventual project by considering
which elements of the objectives tree will be included in or excluded from the scope of the
project, and the criteria used to make these decisions.
3. Phase 2: Project Initiation
A formal initiation process provides sponsorship, formally authorizes the project team to
mobilize resources, provides a 'green light' to begin activities, and establishes clarity regarding
the steps required to move forward.
Progressive Decision Gates and Initiation Deliverables
At each 'go/no-go' decision gate, the project team develops specific documents that serve as
inputs upon which decisions are made:
Decision Gate Initiation Deliverable & Purpose
Decision Gate 1: Project Concept Paper: Provides the
Initial Internal Authorization information required to internally authorize
exploratory assessment and analysis and
potential proposal development.
Decision Gate 2: Expression of Interest: A high-level overview
Initial External Authorization document intended to start a conversation
with a potential donor and receive feedback
before considerable resources are devoted.
Decision Gate 3: Project Proposal: Designed to receive
Donor Funding Approval approval for a request for funding. It
describes project outcomes, logic,
monitoring plans, implementation schedules,
and resource requirements.
Decision Gate 4: Project Charter: A signed charter formally
Formal Project Approval authorizes the project to begin allocation of
resources and implementation work. It
communicates high-level parameters
(Purpose, Deliverables, Estimates, Risks,
and Tolerances).
4. Phase 3: Project Planning
The purpose of project planning is to ensure that the project arrives on time, on scope and on
budget, and according to established quality parameters; to emphasize comprehensive, logical
planning and to model the project for review.
Core Principles of Project Implementation Plans
1. Comprehensive: Outlines all direct work (activities, budget, schedule) and indirect work
(coordination, communication, procurement, human resources, risk management, and
transition planning).
2. Detailed: Decomposes project deliverables into smaller elements or work packages so
that the people responsible are clear about what needs to be done.
3. Participatory: Leverages stakeholder skills and knowledge for accurate estimates and
risk identification, increasing ownership and buy-in.
4. Iterative: Treats the plan as a living document. The iterative process of providing
increasing levels of detail over time is called 'rolling wave planning'.
Essential Planning Tools
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS): A hierarchical decomposition of the total scope of
work to be executed by the project team. It arranges the project scope in an outline or
hierarchy of 'work packages' (Level 1: Project, Level 2: Major tasks, Level 3: Subtasks, Level
4: Activities).
Project Scheduling Steps: Includes Activity Definition, Activity Sequencing (identifying
relationships among activities), Activity Resource Estimating, Activity Duration Estimating,
and Schedule Development.
5. Phase 4: Project Implementation
Within the implementation phase, the project manager, working with the project team, executes
the project plan, mobilizes teams, allocates resources, and carries out the work required to meet
project requirements.
Key Activities During Implementation
Launching the Project: Formally acknowledging the beginning of execution, onboarding
project team members, and introducing stakeholders.
Coordinating Roles & Responsibilities: Managing execution through a web of
relationships (communities, partners, vendors).
RACI Framework: Using the RACI Matrix to map out who is Responsible (does the work),
Accountable (approves/signs off), Consulted (two-way communication), and Informed (kept
up-to-date via one-way communication).
6. Phase 5: Project Monitoring, Evaluation, and
Control
These processes track, review, and regulate progress; identify areas where changes to the plan
are required; and initiate corresponding changes by comparing actual performance to the plan
(variance analysis).
Monitoring vs. Evaluation Framework
Type What Why When How
Project Continuous Analyze Continuous Field visits,
Monitoring review of project situation, find records,
progress at solutions, progress
activity & output discover trends, reports,
levels. keep activities indicator
on schedule, tracking, issues
measure log.
progress against
outputs, make
resource
decisions.
Project Gathering/ Measure project Periodically Internal or
Evaluation analyzing data effectiveness, (Midterm, End- external
at top levels assess if of-project, Post- evaluations led
(outcomes & broader project) by technical
goals). outcomes are experts.
achieved,
understand what
is working, learn
for future
improvement.
Indicator Design: SMART Criteria
When developing performance indicators to conceptualize objectives, the norm is to use the
SMART criteria:
Specific: What does the project intend to change?
Measurable: Can the indicator be assessed objectively and independently?
Achievable: Is it possible for the objective to accomplish the indicator?
Relevant: Is the indicator applicable to the context, practical, and cost-effective?
Time-bound: By when will the indicator be achieved?
7. Phase 6: Project Closing and Transition
Project Closing involves the formal completion of all project or phase-related activities and the
handover of finished deliverables. The end of a project in the international development sector is
often more aptly characterized as a transition phase.
The Four End-of-Project Transition Strategies
1. Expansion: Identification of elements for replication with a new target of scaling up the
project to a new geographical area or population.
2. Extension: Negotiation of adding time (with or without costs) to complete the project
activities.
3. Redesign: Continuation via a new phase with modified interventions or activities.
4. Termination: The project is fully ended and all administrative, financial, and contractual
closure activities are completed.
Core Closing Procedures and Outputs
Transition Execution: Resource Withdrawal, Stakeholder Engagement, Capacity Building,
and Sustainability Planning.
After-Action Review & Workshops: Conducting sessions with the team and stakeholders
to discuss what went well and what challenges were faced.
Scope Verification & Sign-Off: Compiling project accomplishments and analyzing progress
against the set objectives to obtain formal validation.
Archiving the Project File: Organizing all essential project documentation (hard and soft
copies) with proper labelling and sending them to the records department/PMO.
Key Closure Outputs: Final Approved Project Deliverables, Formal Stakeholder Sign-Offs,
Project Closure Report / Implementation Completion Report, Lessons Learned Report, and
Transition Plan Document.
8. Post-Project Evaluation Phase
Proposed as a separate comprehensive phase following standard project close-out. It is
devoted to the effort needed to first determine and also maintain, improve, and perfect the
ultimate success of the project, its products, and results.
Four Dimensions for Measuring Success
1. Project Management Dimension: How closely did the project achieve the original
objectives defined in the Project Charter or Business Case? Did it meet the specified
product specifications, budget, schedule, and scope?
2. Product Dimension: How well does the product meet functional/business objectives and
achieve its KPIs or Critical Success Factors? Do the users actually use the system and
achieve the specified benefits?
3. Stakeholder Satisfaction Dimension: What level of satisfaction or accomplishment
exists among stakeholders? Includes team growth (self-efficacy and self-esteem), executive
sponsors, investors, and operators.
4. Cognitive Constraint Dimension: Measures how the project manager and team handled
cognitive constraint factors like high decelerations/accelerations, the Student Syndrome,
Parkinson's Law, overloading stress, multitasking stress, and burnout syndrome.
Timing and Purpose
Measuring the Project Management dimension can usually be done soon after the project is
closed. However, evaluating the Product/Benefits dimension and Stakeholder Satisfaction will
usually take longer—often months after project closure.
The primary party that benefits from this phase is the organization that made the major
investment (the project owner). It provides valuable information regarding the wisdom of
initiating and authorizing the investment in the first place, and identifies weaknesses/threats that
can be turned into opportunities leading to the incubation phase of future projects.