GRADE 12 • MATHEMATICS • PAPER 2

COMPLETE STUDY NOTES

Analytical Geometry | Trigonometry | Euclidean Geometry

Chapters 1 & 2: Analytical Geometry

Chapters 3 & 4: Trigonometry
Chapters 5, 6 & 7: Euclidean Geometry
 CHAPTERS 1 & 2 | ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
1. Distance Between Two Points
d = √[(x₂ − x₁)² + (y₂ − y₁)²]
Steps:

 Subtract x-coordinates, square the result

 Subtract y-coordinates, square the result
 Add both squared values, then take the square root
Example: A(1, 2) and B(4, 6)

d = √[(4−1)² + (6−2)²] = √[9 + 16] = √25 = 5

💡 EXAM TIP: Squaring always removes negatives — no need to worry about which point is "first".

2. Gradient
m = (y₂ − y₁) / (x₂ − x₁) = rise / run = Δy / Δx
 Positive gradient: Positive m → line rises left to right
 Negative gradient: Negative m → line falls left to right
 Zero: m = 0 → horizontal line
 Undefined: undefined → vertical line
💡 EXAM TIP: Always label your points (x₁, y₁) and (x₂, y₂) before substituting to avoid sign errors.

3. Parallel & Perpendicular Lines

Parallel lines: m₁ = m₂ (equal gradients, different y-intercepts)

Perpendicular lines: m₁ × m₂ = −1

∴ m₂ = −1 / m₁ (flip and change sign)

💡 EXAM TIP: If m = 3, the perpendicular gradient is −1/3. Flip the fraction, negate it.

4. Collinear Points
Three points are collinear if all gradients between them are equal:

m(AB) = m(BC) = m(AC)

Example: A(1,1), B(2,3), C(3,5)

m(AB) = (3−1)/(2−1) = 2
m(BC) = (5−3)/(3−2) = 2 ∴ Collinear ✓

5. Midpoint
M = ( (x₁+x₂)/2 , (y₁+y₂)/2 )
Simply average the x-values and average the y-values.

💡 EXAM TIP: If the midpoint M and one endpoint are given, set up equations and solve for the
unknown endpoint.
6. Equation of a Line
 Form 1: y = mx + c (slope-intercept)
 Form 2: y − y₁ = m(x − x₁) (point-slope)
 Form 3: ax + by + c = 0 (standard)
Method: Find m, substitute known point into y − y₁ = m(x − x₁), simplify.

Example: m = 2, through (1, 3)

y − 3 = 2(x − 1) → y = 2x + 1

7. Angle of Inclination
The angle θ a line makes with the positive x-axis.

tan θ = m ∴ θ = arctan(m)
 • m > 0 → θ ∈ (0°, 90°) [acute]
 • m < 0 → θ ∈ (90°, 180°) [obtuse]
 • m = 0 → θ = 0°
💡 EXAM TIP: Calculator gives a reference angle. If m < 0, your calculator gives a negative angle — add
180° to get the inclination.

8. Area of Triangle (Coordinate Formula)

Area = ½ |x₁(y₂−y₃) + x₂(y₃−y₁) + x₃(y₁−y₂)|
Example: A(0,0), B(4,0), C(0,3)

Area = ½ |0(0−3) + 4(3−0) + 0(0−0)|

= ½ |0 + 12 + 0| = 6 units²
💡 EXAM TIP: Always take the absolute value — area is never negative!
 CHAPTERS 3 & 4 | TRIGONOMETRY
1. Definitions & CAST Diagram
For point P(x, y) on a circle of radius r = √(x²+y²):

sin θ = y/r cos θ = x/r tan θ = y/x

CAST Rule — signs per quadrant:

 • Q1 (0°– 90°): ALL positive

 • Q2 (90°–180°): SIN positive
 • Q3 (180°–270°): TAN positive
 • Q4 (270°–360°): COS positive
💡 EXAM TIP: Mnemonic: "All Students Take Calculus" — reading Q1→Q4 anti-clockwise.

2. Reduction Formulae
Rule: Keep the ratio the same; adjust the sign using CAST.

180° ± θ (ratio stays, check sign):

sin(180°−θ) = sinθ cos(180°−θ) = −cosθ

sin(180°+θ) = −sinθ cos(180°+θ) = −cosθ
360° ± θ and −θ (ratio stays):

sin(360°−θ) = −sinθ cos(360°−θ) = cosθ

sin(−θ) = −sinθ cos(−θ) = cosθ
90° ± θ (RATIO CHANGES: sin ⇔ cos):

sin(90°−θ) = cosθ cos(90°−θ) = sinθ

sin(90°+θ) = cosθ cos(90°+θ) = −sinθ
💡 EXAM TIP: Only at 90°/270° does the ratio switch. At 180°/360°, the ratio stays — only the sign
changes.

3. Trigonometric Identities
sin²θ + cos²θ = 1
tanθ = sinθ / cosθ
Derived forms:

sin²θ = 1 − cos²θ
cos²θ = 1 − sin²θ
Proving Identities — Strategy:

 Work on ONE side only (usually the more complex side)

 Convert everything to sin and cos
 Look for sin²θ + cos²θ = 1 and factorise
 NEVER move terms across the equals sign during a proof
 💡 EXAM TIP: If you see (1 − sin²θ), immediately replace it with cos²θ. Recognising these patterns
quickly saves time.

4. General Solutions
Gives ALL solutions, not just those in 0°–360°. Use n ∈ ℤ (any integer).

sinθ = k: θ = arcsin(k) + 360°n OR θ = 180° − arcsin(k) + 360°n

cosθ = k: θ = ±arccos(k) + 360°n
tanθ = k: θ = arctan(k) + 180°n
Steps:

 Solve for the reference angle (treat as positive, first quadrant)

 Use CAST to find which quadrants apply
 Write both general solution expressions
 Substitute n = 0, ±1, ±2, ... if a specific range is needed
💡 EXAM TIP: Tan has a period of 180°. Sin and Cos have a period of 360° — never mix these up!
 CHAPTERS 5, 6 & 7 | EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
1. Circle Theorems — Complete List
CHORD THEOREMS

 A line from the centre perpendicular to a chord bisects the chord.

 A line from the centre to the midpoint of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.
 The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the centre.
ANGLE THEOREMS

 The angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference subtended by the same arc.
 Angles subtended by the same arc (in the same segment) are equal.
 The angle in a semicircle is 90° (angle subtended by a diameter).
CYCLIC QUADRILATERAL

 Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary (sum to 180°).

 The exterior angle of a cyclic quad equals the interior opposite angle.
TANGENT THEOREMS

 A tangent is perpendicular to the radius at the point of contact.

 Two tangents drawn from an external point are equal in length.
 The angle between a tangent and a chord equals the angle in the alternate segment (Tan-Chord
Theorem).

2. PROOF: Line from Centre ⊥ to Chord Bisects It

Given: Circle with centre O; OM ⊥ AB at M

RTP: AM = MB

Draw OA and OB (both radii ∴ OA = OB)

In △OMA and △OMB:

OA = OB (radii)
OM = OM (common side)
∠OMA = ∠OMB = 90° (given: OM ⊥ AB)

∴ △OMA ≡ △OMB (RHS)

∴ AM = MB ✓ (corresp. sides of congruent △s)

3. PROOF: Line from Centre to Midpoint of Chord

Given: M is midpoint of chord AB (AM = MB)

RTP: OM ⊥ AB

Draw OA and OB (radii ∴ OA = OB)

 In △OMA and △OMB:
OA = OB (radii)
OM = OM (common)
AM = MB (given)

∴ △OMA ≡ △OMB (SSS)

∴ ∠OMA = ∠OMB
But ∠OMA + ∠OMB = 180° (angles on str. line)
∴ ∠OMA = ∠OMB = 90°
∴ OM ⊥ AB ✓

4. PROOF: Angle at Centre = 2 × Angle at Circumference

Given: O is centre; A, B, C on circumference

RTP: ∠AOB = 2∠ACB

Draw OC and extend to point D.

Let ∠ACO = α and ∠BCO = β ∴ ∠ACB = α + β

In △OCA: OA = OC (radii) ∴ isosceles

∴ ∠OAC = α
∴ ∠AOD = 2α (exterior ∠ of △)

In △OCB: OB = OC (radii) ∴ isosceles

∴ ∠OBC = β
∴ ∠BOD = 2β (exterior ∠ of △)

∴ ∠AOB = 2α + 2β = 2(α+β) = 2∠ACB ✓

5. PROOF: Opposite Angles of a Cyclic Quad

Given: ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, centre O

RTP: ∠DAB + ∠BCD = 180°

Let ∠DAB = α

Arc BCD subtends ∠BOD at centre:

∠BOD = 2α (∠ at centre = 2 × ∠ at circumference)

Reflex ∠BOD = 360° − 2α (angles at a point)

Arc BAD subtends reflex ∠BOD:

∠BCD = ½(360° − 2α) = 180° − α

∴ ∠DAB + ∠BCD = α + (180° − α) = 180° ✓

6. PROOF: Tangent-Chord Theorem

Given: Tangent PQ at B; chord BC; D in alternate segment
RTP: ∠PBC = ∠BDC

Draw diameter BE (through centre O to E on circle)

∠EBQ = 90° (tangent ⊥ radius at B)

∴ ∠EBC + ∠CBQ = 90° ... (i)

∠BEC = 90° (angle in semicircle)

In △BEC: ∠BCE + ∠EBC = 90° ... (ii)

From (i) and (ii): ∠CBQ = ∠BCE

But ∠BDC = ∠BCE (∠s in same segment, arc BC)

∴ ∠PBC = ∠BDC ✓

7. Solving Riders — Strategy & Axioms

Step-by-step approach:

 READ the question carefully. Identify what is given and what must be proved.
 MARK the diagram: equal angles, equal lengths, right angles.
 CHOOSE the correct theorem based on the diagram features (chord, tangent, inscribed angle, cyclic
quad, etc.).
 WRITE every statement with its reason in brackets.
 WORK logically: start from given information and build step-by-step to the conclusion.
Common Axioms & Reasons to Quote:

 (∠ at centre = 2 × ∠ at circumference)
 (opp. ∠s of cyclic quad)
 (tan ⊥ radius)
 (tan-chord theorem / ∠ in alternate segment)
 (∠s in same segment)
 (ext. ∠ of cyclic quad = int. opp. ∠)
 (∠ in semicircle = 90°)
 (line from centre ⊥ chord)
 (tangents from common ext. point are equal)
💡 EXAM TIP: If you are stuck: Draw ALL radii. Mark all equal lengths. Look for isosceles triangles
formed by two radii. Every reason MUST be stated — unsupported statements earn no marks!
 EXAM REMINDERS
Analytical Geometry: Write the formula first, then substitute. Show all working — method marks
count!

Trigonometry: For reduction formulae: 180°±θ keeps the ratio; 90°±θ swaps sin⇔cos. Always verify
sign with CAST.

Euclidean Geometry: Every statement needs a reason in brackets. Name the full theorem. No
reason = no mark.