MIDTERM

Bernoulli’s Equation
SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE 2
𝑢 𝑣
ℎ= γ𝑤
+ 2𝑔
+𝑧
Soil Permeability - is a property of a soil which
permits the flow of water Where:
h - total head
Permeability - defined as the property of a porous u - pressure
material which permits the passage or seepage of v - velocity
water through its interconnecting voids. g - acceleration due to gravity
γ𝑤- unit weight of water
Loose Soil - easy to flow high permeability
E.g. Gravel Head Loss between two points:

Dense Soil - difficult to flow low permeability ∆ℎ = ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵

Hydraulic Gradient
-​ Is the nondimensionalized form of the head
loss.
∆ℎ
𝑖= 𝐿
*L must be parallel to the flow of water

Darcy’s Law
★​ Henry Darcy (1803-1858)
★​ Hydraulic Engineer.
★​ His law is a foundation stone for several fields
Importance of Permeability of study.
★​ It influences the rate of settlement of a saturated ★​ Darcy’s Law demonstrated experimentally that
soil under load. for laminar flow conditions in a saturated soil,
★​ The design of earth dams is very much based the rate of flow or the discharge per unit time is
upon the permeability of the soils used. proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
★​ The stability of slopes and retaining structures ★​ Darcy(1856) stated that the flow of water
can be greatly affected by the permeability of through porous media is directly proportional to
the soils involved. head loss and inversely proportional to the
★​ Filters made of soils are designed based upon length of flow path. This may be written as:
their permeability.
∆ℎ
Factors Affecting Permeability of Soils 𝑣=𝑘 𝐿
or 𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖
1.​ Particle Size
Where:
2.​ Void Ratio of Soil
k - permeability coefficient/hydraulic conductivity
3.​ Properties of Pore Fluid
v - discharge velocity (average velocity)
4.​ Shape of Particles
5.​ Structure of Soil Mass
Discharge Velocity
6.​ Degree of Saturation
7.​ Absorbed water
𝑞
8.​ Entrapped Air and Organic Impurities in Water 𝑣=
9.​ Temperature 𝐴
10.​Stratification of Soil Seepage Velocity

𝑣𝑠 = 𝑣 ( )=1+𝑒
𝑒
𝑣
𝑛
 Constant-head test Falling-head Test
★​ A test in which the hydraulic gradient is
𝑄𝐿 continuously changing through the duration of
𝑘= 𝐴ℎ𝑡 experiment.

Where:
Q - volume of water collected
A - cross-sectional area
𝑘=
𝑎𝐿
𝐴𝑡
𝑙𝑛 ( ) ℎ1
ℎ2
L - length of the specimen
Where:
a - area of the standpipe
L - length of the specimen
A - cross-sectional area of soil specimen
ℎ1- initial head difference at 𝑡1
ℎ2- initial head difference at 𝑡2

𝑣 𝑘𝑖
c.) 𝑣 = 𝑛
; 𝑒
𝑠
1+𝑒

𝑣𝑠 =
((3.78×10 −2 𝑐𝑚
𝑠 ( 1𝑚
100𝑐𝑚 )( 3600𝑠
1ℎ𝑟 ))(0.0322))
0.6
1+0.6

𝑚
𝑣𝑠 = 0. 1168 ℎ𝑟

SOLUTION:
∆ℎ
a.) 𝑖 = 𝐿
​
36
𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(15)
; 𝐿 = 37. 2699𝑚
1.2𝑚
𝑖= 37.6899𝑚
; 𝑖 = 0. 0322 ​​

b.) 𝑞 = 𝐴𝑘𝑖
[ 2
](
𝑞 = (1. 1𝑐𝑜𝑠(15))𝑚 ⎡ 3. 78 × 10
⎣
−2 𝑐𝑚
𝑠 ( 1𝑚
100𝑐𝑚 )( 3600𝑠
1ℎ𝑟 ))⎤⎦(0. 0322)
3
𝑞 = 0. 0466 𝑚 /ℎ𝑟/𝑚

​
 Hydraulic Conductivity: Field Test Types of Aquifer

-​ The average hydraulic conductivity for a soil Unconfined Aquifer

deposit may be determined using pumping tests -​ It is one in which the ground water table is
from wells. the upper surface of the zone of saturation
-​ Water is pumped from a test well at a constant and it lies within the test stratum.
rate. -​ It is also called ‘free’ , ‘phreatic’ or
-​ The water level in several observation wells at ‘non-artesian’ aquifer.
distances from the test well is observed.
-​ When the water level in the test and observation Confined aquifer
levels reaches steady state, the hydraulic -​ It is one in which ground water remains
conductivity may be calculated from the heights entrapped under pressure greater than
and distances atmospheric, by overlying relatively
impermeable strata.
-​ It is also called ‘artesian aquifer’

Unsaturated Zones - is often located above the

main groundwater table (phreatic surface) with
voids partially filled with water or known as the
zone of aeration.

Saturated Zone - is within the main groundwater

regime with voids completely filled with water.
Perched groundwater can create saturated zones
with unsaturated zones.
Advantages:
-​ Field tests are generally more reliable than Aquifers - soils and rocks that transmit water with
laboratory tests for determining soil ease through their pores and fractures,
permeability, the main reason being that respectively. It's typically composed of gravel, sand,
field tests are performed on the undisturbed sandstone, limestone, and fractured volcanic,
soil exactly as it occurs in situ at the test igneous, and metamorphic rocks.
location.
Aquicludes - It consists of strata or
Disadvantages: discontinuities that are impermeable layers.
-​ Time-consuming Typical aquicludes are clay, shale, and unfractured
-​ Expensive igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Permeability - is a measure of how easily a fluid Perched Water - It is sustained above an

can move through a material. aquiclude or impermeable stratum such as clayey
layer. This can be monitored by means of
Transmissivity - the rate at which water is piezometers. Often first recognized during
transmitted horizontally through a unit width of an exploratory borings.
aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient.
Artesian Water - the piezometric head of water
Groundwater pressure is higher than the upper surface of the
-​ is derived from many sources but originates aquifer.
from rainfall and melting snow.
-​ are rarely static and vary with the rate of
recharge or discharge of the groundwater.
 Seepage

-​ Water flows through the voids in a soil which

are interconnected.
-​ Water flows from a higher energy to lower
energy and behaves according to the principles
of fluid mechanics.

Cutoff Walls - are walls used to support deep

excavations or slopes. It could be made of adjacent
concrete piles or steel sheet piles or diaphragm 𝑁𝑑 − 𝑟𝑒𝑑 (kung ilan space between dun sa mga
walls.
malungkot na curve)
𝑁𝑓 − 𝑦𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 (kung ilan space between dun sa mga
Formulas
naka smile na curve)

Permeability Coefficient (Unconfined Aquifer):

Terms

𝑘=
𝑄 𝑙𝑛 ( ) 𝑟1
𝑟2 Flow Nets - referred to the groundwater flow
calculated by the use of graphs.
(
π ℎ1−ℎ2
2 2
) Laplace’s Equation of Continuity - governs the
steady flow condition for a given point in the soil
Permeability Coefficient (Confined Aquifer): mass.

𝑘=
𝑄 𝑙𝑛 ( ) 𝑟1
𝑟2
The Two Orthogonal Families of Curves:

Flow Line - a line along which a water particle will

(
2π𝑡 𝑧2−𝑧1 ) travel from upstream to the downstream side in the
permeable soil medium.
Transmissivity:
Equipotential Line - a line in which the potential

𝑇=
𝑄 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑟1
𝑟2
head at all points is equal.

(
2π 𝑧2−𝑧1 )
Flow Nets:

(𝑘)(∆𝐻)(𝑁𝑓)
𝑞= 𝑁𝑑
Where:
∆𝐻 - head difference between upstream and
downstream
𝑁𝑓 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑁𝑑 − 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝
Problems
Problem #1: The moist unit weight of 0.0102m3 of soil is 150.41N. If the moisture content and
Specific gravity of soil solids are determined in the Laboratory to be 13.2% and 2.72
respectively. Calculate the following:
a.​ Moist unit weight (ans: 14.75 kN/m3)
b.​ Dry unit weight (ans: 13.03 kN/m3)
c.​ Void Ratio (ans: 1.0484)
d.​ Porosity (ans: 0.5118 or 51.18%)
e.​ Degree of Saturation (ans: 0.342 or 34.2%)
f.​ Air Content (ans: 65.8%)
g.​ Volume Occupied by water (ans: 1.785x10-3 m3)
Problem #2: A soil in its natural state has a moisture content of 30% and a unit weight of 16
kN/m3. The specific gravity of the soil particles is 2.50.
a.​ Evaluate the void ratio of the soil sample (ans: 0.9927)
b.​ Obtain the dry unit weight in kN/m3 (ans: 12.31 kN/m3 )
Problem #3: A cylindrical soil sample prepared for laboratory testing has a diameter of
71mm, a height of 142mm, and weighs 10.675x10-3 kN. If the degree of saturation is 93% and
the specific gravity of soil solids is 2.71, determine:
a.​ Void ratio (ans: 0.7701)
b.​ Water content (ans: 28.4%)
c.​ Water content under fully saturated condition (ans: 26.43%)
Problem #4: The moist unit weight of a soil is 2.1 g/cm3. If the water content is 15.5% and
the specific gravity of soil is 2.72. Determine the following:
a.​ Buoyant unit weight (ans:
b.​ Weight of water in kN to be added per cu.m of soil for 90% degree of saturation.
c.​ Weight of water in kN to be added per cu.m of soil for it to reach fully saturated.
Problem #5: Following are the results of a sieve analysis. Draw the Particle size distribution
curve. Determine:
a.​ Percent retained in No. 200 sieve (ans: 95.066%)
b.​ D10, D30, D60, D75 (ans: 0.142mm, 0.179mm, 0.402mm, 0.956mm)
c.​ Cu, Cc, So (ans: 2.83, 0.561, 2.364)
Problem #6: Given the laboratory results of the Attenberg’s Limits Test in the table.
Determine the following. The water content versus the number of blows is shown in the
figure.
a.​ Determine the nearest value of the liquid limit of soil. (ans: 35.95%)
b.​ Determine the nearest value of the plastic limit and plastic index of soil. (ans: 19.21%,
16.74%)
c.​ Determine the nearest value of the liquidity index of soil. (ans: 1.1354)
d.​ Determine the nearest value of the consistency index of soil. (ans: 0.1361)
e.​ What is the characteristic of the soil? (ans: Liquid State)
Problem #7: The results of the liquid limit and plastic limit test for a soil sample are shown
table 4 and 5.
a.​ Determine the liquid limit of the soil. (ans: 52.8501%)
b.​ Determine the plastic limit of soil. (ans: 11.402%)
c.​ Determine the plasticity index of soil. (ans: 41.4481%)
Problem #8: During an experiment for shrinkage limit determination of clay, the following
laboratory data were obtained.
Mass of dish coated with petroleum jelly = 11.30g
Mass of dish coated with petroleum jelly + wet soil = 38.51g
Mass of dish coated with petroleum jelly + oven-dried soil = 32.80g
Volume of shrinkage dish = 15.25cc
Volume of oven-dried soil pat = 12.85cc
a.​ Determine the shrinkage limit of soil. (ans: 15.395%)
b.​ Determine shrinkage ratio. (ans: 1.67)
c.​ Determine the specific gravity of soil solids. (ans: 2.2538)
Problem #9: The given data shows a sieve analysis of soil samples A, B, and C. Classify soils
A, B and C according to AASHTO.