Unit 2: SOLUTIONS

2.1 Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures

 Mixtures are combinations of two or more substances in which the individual
substances keep their own properties.

 A homogeneous mixture is a mixture in which the composition is uniform

throughout the mixture.

Example: NaCl and water, sugar dissolves in water

 A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that consists of physically distinct parts, each

with different properties. This type of mixtures has at least two visible phases.

Example: Mixture of oil and water, wood ash and water, sand and water,
 2.1.1 Suspensions, Solutions, Colloids
 A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solid particles are spread
throughout the liquid without dissolving in it. Examples: A mixture of chalk and water,
sand and water, mixture of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and water, muddy water

 Solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute dissolved in a solvent.

 Two components of solution

 Solute (minor component) - it present in a smeller amount

 Solvent (major component ) - it present in a larger amount

o Properties of Solutions

 single uniform phase and has no visible boundaries

 components do not settle upon standing or separate by filtration (solute cannot be

separated from the solvent by filtration, sedimentation, or coagulation) but
separated from the solvent by other physical processes e.g. Distillation or
Evaporation
4.2 Types of Solutions
1. Gaseous solutions: Gaseous solutions are usually described as gas-gas solutions
where both solute and solvent are gases

2. Liquid solutions: Solids, liquids and gases dissolve in a liquid solvent to form
liquid solutions.

3. Solid solutions: Many alloys, ceramics, and polymer blends are solid solutions.
 A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in which insoluble particles of one or more
substances are suspended uniformly throughout another substance.

 Properties of Colloids

 A colloid (or colloidal solution) appears to be homogeneous but actually, it is

heterogeneous upon closer inspection.

 The size of particles in a colloid is bigger than those in a true solution but
smaller than those in a suspension. It is between 1 nm and 100 nm in diameter.

 The particles of a colloid can pass through a filter paper. So, a colloid cannot
be separated by filtration.

 Colloids are quite stable. The particles do not separate on keeping.

 A colloid (or a colloidal solution) scatters a beam of light passing through it

(because its particles are fairly large).
• The phenomenon in which the particle in a colliod scatter the beams of light that
are directed at them and make the path of the light beam visible is called Tyndall
effect.

• Coagulation is the process by which the dispersed phase of a colloid is made to

aggregate and thereby separate from the continuous phase.
 2.2. The Solution Process
 A solution is formed when the solute particles are completely dissolved in
the solvent.

 The solution process thus involves three basic steps;

i. breaking up the solute-solute inter-particle forces

ii. ii. breaking up the solvent-solvent inter-particles forces

iii. formation of solute-solvent interaction.

Note that: the formation of a solution from a solute and a solvent is a

physical process, not a chemical change.
2.2.1 Liquid Solutions and Inter-particle Forces of Attractions

• When one substance (the solute) dissolves in another (the solvent), particles
of the solute disperse throughout the solvent.
Solutes dissolve in a
• During this three types of interactions is happened
solvent when the inter-
particle forces of
interaction between
solute molecules and
solvent molecules are
replaced by solute-solvent
interactions.
 Inter-particle/Intermolecular Forces
• atoms in a molecule (e.g. Cl2 , H2 O, NH3 , etc) are held together by covalent
bond/s. The covalent bonds are called intramolecular forces within a molecule.

• Three states of matter-solid, liquid and gas

• gaseous state is characterized by absence of interparticle forces and hence the

molecules of a gas are free to move independent of the other molecules.

• However, in liquids and solids, molecules are held together by intermolecular

forces between molecules. Intermolecular forces are also called noncovalent
interactions.
 Ions and dipoles are attracted to one another by electrostatic forces called ion-
dipole forces, that are not van der Waals forces.
 Hydrogen bonding is a particularly strong type of dipole-dipole interaction. These
forces play a central role in the formation of solutions.

 Dipole-Dipole Forces  b/n polar molecules as a result of electrostatic

interactions among dipoles. e.g. Solubility of HBr in H2O.
 Dipole–induced Dipole Force  a polar molecule distorts the electron cloud of
a nonpolar molecule eg. water and O2 , N2 ,
• Dispersion Forces (London forces)It is common to all types of molecules-
polar as well as nonpolar.

• Ion-Dipole Forces  are the principal force involved when an ionic compound
dissolves in water. e.g. NaCl dissolves in H2O via ion-dipole interaction

• Ion–induced dipole forces  one type of charge-induced dipole force

• The Hydrogen Bond  b/n a hydrogen bonded to an electronegative O, N, or F

atom
 2.2.2 Solutions of Ionic Solids in Water
• Many ionic compounds are soluble in water; however, not all ionic compounds
are soluble. Chemists refer to substances as soluble, slightly soluble, or
insoluble in a qualitative sense.

2.2.3 The Solubility Rules for Ionic Solids

Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of a substance that can be dissolved

in a given volume of solvent at a given temperature.

 solubility rules for common ionic compounds

2.2.4 Solution of Liquids in Liquids
 When two similar liquids (in terms of polarity) are placed together and are able to mix
into a solution, they are said to be miscible.

2.2.5 The Rate of Dissolution

Dissolution is defined as the process through which a solute dissolves in a solvent (e.g.
water) to produce a solution.

2.2.6 Energy Changes in Solution Process

Solvation refers to the process of attraction and association of molecules of a solute
and a solvent.
Solvation energy is the energy released when solute molecules are solvated by
solvent molecules.
Solvation in water is called hydration. Thus, hydration energy is the energy released
when solute molecules or ions are solvated by water molecules.
• The heat of solution or enthalpy of solution is defined as the amount of heat
released or absorbed during the dissolution process and can be calculated using
the equation

Where q is the amount of energy released or absorbed in Joules (J), m is mass of the
solution, T is the temperature change (Ti -Tf ), Cg is the specific heat of solution
(J/[Link])

• The molar heat of solution (ΔHsoln) of a substance is the heat absorbed or released
when one mole of the substance is dissolved in water at constant pressure:

• Heat (Enthalpy) of solution can either be positive (endothermic) or negative

(exothermic) depending on the observed temperature change.
• The three processes are solute-solute, solvent-solvent, and solute-solvent
interactions each accompanied by an enthalpy change:
2.3 Solubility as an Equilibrium Process

Solution equilibrium is the physical state described by the opposing processes of

dissolution and recrystallization occurring at the same rate.

2.3.1 Unsaturated, Saturated, and Supersaturated Solutions

 A saturated solution is a solution that is at equilibrium and contains the
maximum amount of dissolved solute
 Unsaturated solution is the solution that has not reached its maximum solubility.
 Supersaturated solutions are solutions that have dissolved solute beyond the
normal saturation point.
2.3.2 Factors Affecting Solubility of Substances

A. Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Solids

 solubility of most of solid solutes increases with temperature.
B. Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Gases
 The solubility of gases in liquids decreases with increasing temperature.
C. Effect of Pressure on Solubility of Gases: Henry’s Law
 Pressure has virtually no effect on the solubility of solids or liquids in
liquid solvents because they are incompressible.
 In contrast, the solubility of gases increases as the partial pressure of the
gas above a solution increases (Henry’s Law).
• 2.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration of
Solutions
 2.4. Ways of Expressing Concentration of Solutions
• Concentration is defined as the relative quantity of a solute against
a total quantity of solution or solvent. There are different ways of
expressing concentration of solutions

1. Percent by mass or volume,

2. Mole fraction

3. Molarity

4. Molality and

5. Normality
 Percent by mass or volume
• Mass percent (sometimes called weight percent) is the percent by mass of the solute
in the solution

• Example 1: A solution is made by dissolving 13.5 g of glucose, C6H12O6 , in 0.100

kg of water. What is the mass percentage of solute in this solution?
Given: Mass of solute (glucose) = 13.5 g Solution answ 11.9%
Mass of solvent = 0.100 kg =100 g
Required: %(w/w)
Example 2: A rubbing alcohol usually contains 70 mL of isopropanol in 100 mL of
solution. What is the %(v/v) of this solution %(v/v) isopropanol = (70/100) x 100% =
70%
 parts per million (106 ppm) and parts per billion (109 ppb)

1. A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride, KCl, is dissolved in 54.6 g of water. What is the
percent, by mass, of KCl in the solution? 84.375 g
2. a) If 150 g of orange juice contains 120 mg of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C), what is the
concentration of ascorbic acid, expressed in ppm? b) Express the concentration of ascorbic
acid given in (a) in ppb. 800 ppm and 800,000 ppb.
3. What is the (w/v)% of a solution if 24.0 g of sucrose is dissolved in a total solution of 243
mL? 9.88%.
4. How many grams of NaCl are required to make 625 mL of a 13.5% solution? 84.4 g
5. Find the concentration of calcium ion (in ppm) in a 3.50 g pill that contains 40.5 mg of
Ca2+. 11,571.43 ppm.
6. The label on a 300 mL beer bottle indicates 5.0 % alcohol by volume. How many milliliters
of alcohol does the bottle of beer contain? 15.0 mL
 Mole Fraction
• Mole fraction: the ratio of the number of moles of a given component to the total
number of moles of solution.

• For a two-component solution, where nA and nB represent the number of moles of

the two components,

Example: What is the mole fraction of I2 in a solution containing 30 g of I2 in 400 g of

CCl4 ? (I=254 g/mol, CCL4=154g/mol)

EX. 1. A sample of rubbing alcohol contains 142 g of isopropyl alcohol (C3H7OH)

and 58.0 g of water. What are the mole fractions of alcohol and water? ([Link] C3H7OH
= 60.0 g/mol, H2O = 18 g/mol.)

2. In a solution composed of A, B, and C, if we have 1 mole of A , 1 mole of B and 2

moles of C. Find the mole fraction of each of them.
 Molarity
• The molarity (M) of a solution is the number of moles of solute present in
exactly 1 L of solution.

1. What is the molar concentration of a solution containing 16.0 g of CH3 OH in

200 mL of solution? Ans= 2.50 M

2. Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) needed to make

2.50 L of 0.100 M NaOH. Ans 0.25 mole
 2.4.4 Molality
• Molality (m) does not contain volume in its ratio; it is the number of moles of
solute dissolved in a given mass of solvent (Kg):

1. What is the molality of a solution prepared by dissolving 32.0 g of CaCl2 in 271 g

of water? Ans 1.06 m CaCl2

2. How many grams of glucose (C6H12O6) must be dissolved in 563 g of ethanol

(C2H5OH) to prepare a 2.4031022 m solution?

3. How many grams of glucose (C6 H12O6 ) must be dissolved in 563 g of ethanol
(C2H5OH) to prepare a 2.40 x 10-2 m solution? Ans: mass of glucose = 2.43 g
(Verify this)
 2.4.5 Normality
• The normality of a solution is the gram equivalent weight of a solute per liter of
solution.