Chapter 6
Cross Drainage Structures
SOE, PU
Cross Drainage structure
A structure which is constructed at the crossing of a canal and natural drain, so as dispose
of drainage water without interrupting the continuous canal supplies.
Cross Drainage works can be avoided by:
a) Changing the alignment
b) Mixing two or three streams in to one and only one cross drainage work
Types
1) Irrigation canal passes over the drainage
Aqueduct
Siphon aqueduct
2) Drainage passes over the irrigation canal
Super passage
Siphon super passage (canal siphon)
3) Drainage and canal intersection each other of the same level
Level Crossing
Inlet and outlet
Aqueduct
• HFL of the drain sufficiently below the canal bed, drainage water
flows freely under gravity.
Siphon aqueduct
• Canal above the drainage but HFL of the drain is much higher above the
canal bed, water runs under syphonic action.
• Drain bed is generally depressed & provided with concrete floor (Drop slope
3:1 & rising slope should not be steeper than 5:1)
• Drainage may be chocked and scour during flood and it is costlier than
aqueduct.
Super passage
• Drainage is passing over the irrigation canal as the canal bed level is
below drainage bed level.
• Its suitable when bed level of drainage above the full supply level of
canal.
Siphon super passage (canal siphon)
• Drainage over the canal, Full supply level (FSL) of canal much above
the bed level of the drainage.
• Canal run under the syphonic action.
Level Crossing
• Bed level of canal is equal to the drainage bed level.
• It consists of following construction of
a) Weir to stop drainage water
b) Canal regulator across a canal
c) Head regulator across the drainage /weir
Inlet and outlet
• For crossing small drainage, the drainage water to be admitted in to
the canal is very less.
• Drainage taken through the bank of canal inlet.
• Drainage mixed with canal and travel certain length, after which an
outlet is provided to create suction pressure & suck all the drainage
solid deposited at canal.
Disadvantages
• Drainage may polluted canal
• Bank erosion may occurs
• Maintenance cost is high
Types of aqueducts & syphon aqueducts
Depending upon the sides of aqueduct Type II
Type I
Type III
Selection of suitable type of cross drainage structure
In actual field, such ideal construction may not be available & choice
depends upon the many factors, such as
• Suitable canal alignment
• Nature of available foundation
• Position of water table and availability of dewatering equipment
• Suitability of soil embankment
• Permissible head loss in canal
• Availability of fund.
Design of syphon Aqueduct
I)Design of drainage water way:
An appropriate value of water way for drain may be obtained by using
the Lacey’s equation
P=4.75 Q
P=wetted perimeter
Q=discharge m3/s
*for wide drain width of water way B P
*No extra provision is generally made for the space occupied by piers.
*for syphon aqueduct, water way=
velocity limited to 2 to 3 m/sec
*Depth of Drain =
II)Afflux and head loss through siphon barrel
• Velocity limit 2 to 3 m/sec
• Higher velocity may cause quick abrasion of the barrel surface by rolling grit.
• Then , the head loss(h) trough siphon barrels and velocity(v) through them are
generally related by Unwin’s formula given as,
h=(1+f1+f2* ) -
V= velocity through the barrel
Va=velocity approach is generally neglected
f1=coeff. Of head loss at entry =0.55 for unshaped mouth
= 0.08 for bell mouth
f2=coeff. Such that the loss of head through the barrel due to surface friction,
Where f2 =a(1+ Material of surface of barrel a b
Smooth iron pipe 0.00497 0.025
Encrusted pipe 0.00996 0.025
Smooth cement plaster 0.00316 0.030
Ashlar or brick work 0.00401 0.070
Rubble masonary or stone pitching 0.00507 0.250
III) Fluming of canal
• Fluming is done in all works of type III.
• After deciding normal canal section and flumed canal section the transition has to be
designed so as to avoid sudden transition the formation of eddies so..
u/s of approach wings should not be steeper than 26.5°(i.e2:1 splay)
d/s departure wings should not be steeper than 18.5°(i.e. 3:1 splay)
Method to design of transitions
(a)Mitra’s method (when water depth remains constant)
According to him, the channel width at any section X-X at a distance x from the flumed section.
Bx= Bn=bed width of normal section
Bf=bed width of flumed section
Bx=bed width at any dis. X from flumed section
Lf=length of transition(diff. between expansion and contraction)
(b) Chaturvedi’s semi cubical parabolic transition when water depth
remains constant
X= (1-( )1.5 )
iv) Design of bottom of floor of aqueduct and siphon aqueduct
a) Uplift due to water table
*This force acts where the bottom floor is depressed below the drainage
bed, specially is siphon aqueduct.
*Maximum uplift under the worst condition would occur when there is
no water flowing in the drain and water table has risen up to the
drainage bed.
*Maximum uplift in such case would be equal to difference in level
between drainage bed and bottom of floor.
b)Uplift due to seepage of water from the canal to the drainage
• Maximum uplift due to this seepage occurs when the canal running full and
there is no water in the drain. Seepage pressure evaluated by bligh’s theory.
• Seepage starts from point (a) & reappear the drainage bed (c or d) where (b) is
the point under the Centre of the culvert bay.
• Seepage path from ‘a’ to ‘b’ and ‘b’ to ‘c’ can be known,total creep length
=ab+bc. H=total seepage head(FSL of canal-d/s bed level of drain) ,
• residual head at point ‘b’ =Hb given by Bligh’s
Hb = H-[ *ab]
Numerical
Design a suitable cross drainage structures from the following data
Canal Drainage
Discharge (Q)=32 m³/sec. Discharge (Q)=200 m³/sec.
Full supply level (FSL) = 213.5 High flood level (HFL) 210 m
Canal bed level=212 m High flood depth=2.5 m
Canal bed width = 20 m
Canal side slope (H:V) = 1.5:1
Solution:
Here, the bed level of canal (212 m) is in higher level than the high flood level of drainage
(210 m) so aqueduct should be constructed.
and, Qin (200 m³/sec.) » Q(32 m³/sec.) so, type III will be adopted.
i) Design of drainage waterway
Lacey's regime perimeter (P) = 4.75 =4.75 200=67.15 m
Provide 8 clear span of 8 m each with 1.5 m width pier.
Total length of waterway=8x8+1.5*7=74.5m
ii) Design of canal waterway
Bed width of canal 20 m
Let, width be reduced to 10 m , then..
Velocity through canal= m/sec. <3 m/sec OK
Providing a splay of 2:1 in contraction, we have,
Length of contraction transition
Providing 3:1 splay in expansion transition; we have,
Length of expansion transition =
In transitions, the side slope of the canal section will be warped in plan
from the original slope of 1.5:1 to vertical.
iii) Design of canal bed levels at different sections
At section 4-4
Depth of water = 213.5-212=1.5 m (FSL- Bed level) Given
Area of trapezoidal section = (B+1.5y)y = (20+1.5×1.5) × 1.5=33.375 m²
V4= .
m/sec Velocity head=
R.L. of canal bed at 4-4=212 m R.L. of water surface 4-4=212+ 1.5=213.5m
R.L. of TEL at 4-4=213.5+0.047=213.547 m
At section 3-3
let, constant depth of 1.5 m throughout the channel, we have at 3-3, a rectangular channel,
Bed width 10 m
2
32 2.1332
V3= m/s Velocity head= 3
10∗1.5 2 19.62
2 2
( − )
Loss of head in expansion =0.3( 3 4
2
RL of TEL at 3-3=R.L. of TEL at 4-4+ Loss in expansion=213.547 +0.055=213.602 m
R.L. of water surface at 3-3=213.602-Velocity head=213.602-0.232=213.37 m
R.L. of bed at 3-3=213.37-Water depth=213.37-1.5=211.87 m
2 2
At section 2-2 Here, friction loss between 2-2 to 3-3 is H L= /
4 3 where, n= 0.016;
for concrete.
2 2 2 2
R= HL= /
4 3 = /
4 3
=0.072
R.L of TEL at 2-2=R.L of TEL at 3-3+ Head loss in trough=213.602+0.072=213.674m
R.L of water surface 2-2=213.674-velocity head at 2-2=213.674-0.232=213.442m
R.L of bed level at 2-2=213.442-1.5=211.942m
At section 1-1
2 2
−
Here…Loss of head in contraction transition from 1-1 to 2-2=0.2( 2 1
)=0.2(0.232-0.047)=0.037 m
2
RL of TEL at 1-1=RL of TEL at 2-2+ Loss in contraction =213.674 +0.037=213.711 m
RL of water surface at 1-1=213.711-Velocity head=213711-0.047=213.664 m
RL of bed level at 1-1=213.664-1.5=212.164 m
iv) Design of transition
a) Contraction transition
Applying Mitra's hyperbolic transition equation;
BX=
Bx= X(m) 0 2 4 6 8 10
200 10 11.11 12.5 14.29 16.67 20
Bx=20−
where, x is measured from the flumed section.
b) Expansion transition
∗ ∗
BX =
∗ − ( − )
300
Bx=
30−
v)Design of trough
Depth of water in canal=1.5m
Provide free board of 0.6m, then
Height of trough=1.5+0.6=2.1m
Divide trough in two equal compartment of 5m
Internal wall thickness=0.3m,
Outer and bottom slab thickness=0.4 m
• 6. Hill Irrigation
• 6.1 Specific design considerations in hill irrigation
• 6.2 Choices of intake, control and regulation structures
• 6.3 Environmental protection measures in hill irrigation
• Drop structure:-
• By providing a series of small drop structures at different locations along the
canal a steep canal gradient can be reduced to a more gentle slope.
• Need
• To achieve a drop in the water level.
• To reduce the slope of the canal so that canal erosion can be minimized.
• Type of drop structure suitable for remote hilly areas:
• Vertical drop
• Cascade drop
• Chute drop
• Pipe drop
• Cross drainage structure:-
• For hills especially – gullies crossing , four possible ways to cross a
gully.
• An aqueduct / A siphon / A super passage / A level crossings.
• Selection of cross drainage structure:-
• Stream width
• Stream bed level in relation to canal bed level.
• Maximum probable flood and duration in stream.
• Nature of bed load during flood in stream.
• Usefulness as a supplementary sources of irrigation water.
• Cost of the cross drainage structure.
• Durability
• Simplicity in construction
• Aqueducts:
• Traditionally (Bamboo, wooden, HDP pipe-sometimes suspended in
longer span, RCC , Steel flume on timber beams-6m span)
• Advantage
• Minimum head loss
• Free from flood and sediment entry
• RCC aqueduct can serve as pedestrian bridge.
• Safe against hydrological uncertainties.
• Disadvantage
• High cost
• Construction skills require and difficult in construction
• Centre pipe may be different to construct in wide gullies.
Siphons Super passage:-Depending upon the site
Shallow siphons and deep condition and drainage width, super passage
siphons are found. Shallow are may be of HDP pipes, Hume pipes,
used in flatter parts of the hills Monolithic Box section, masonry section
and deep are used to cross a river with removal concrete cover slabs.
in deep valley. Advantage
Disadvantage • Minimum head loss
• Significant head loss • Easy to construct
• Chocking with sediment and • No foundation problem if built on firm
debris. rock out crops.
• Flood can damage the siphon Disadvantage
pipes • Not suitable for heavy flood flows (
• Require constant maintenance Sediment , debris etc)
and repairing. • Foundation problem if stabilizing
structure are in adequate.
Level Crossing :- Supplement irrigation water and a safety valve
during heavy rains.
Advantage:
Simple construction using local materials.
Easy to repair and maintain.
Disadvantage
Flood flows carrying heavy sediment load choke the canal.
Heavy seepage loss if the drainage channels have gravel and
sandy beds.
Culvert
Drop
Inverted siphon
Environmental Protection measure in hill irrigation:-
Brush Layer
Brush Matting
Vegetated Palisade Construction
Live stacking
Brush wattles( Slope Fascines)
Pioneer Plantation
Grass/Shrub Plantation
Jute Netting
Sodding
Seeding(Grass, Herbs, Trees etc)
Vegetated Dry Masonary Wall/ RipRap
Vegetated Gabion
Branch layering Of Gullies(Living)
Brush layering:-
• It helps for instantaneous and effective stabilization of steep slopes.
Reinforced earth after construction, deep stabilization after rooting .
• Construction step:-
• Small terraces 0.5-1 m at an angle of of 10 - 300 inclination
beginning at toe of slope.
• Brush layer is placed cross wise, one fourth of each branch should
extend over the edge of the terrace.
• The lower ditch is filled with material from the ditch above.
• Eg:- trees- phaledo, lahere papal, Kavro, Dabdabe, Bainsh, khairro,
• Bushes:- Asuro , Nilkada, Siudi, Sajiwan, Simili, Bihaya etc.
Brush layering
• Brush Matting:-
• it helps for surface protection of un vegetated areas, conserves moisture, keep
soil and seeds in place also it helps for instantaneous protection and subsequent
vegetation cover.
• Construction step:-
• Place branches parallel or crosswise from bottom to top.
• Next layer should overlap about 30 cm.
• Fix branches with pegs and wire or rope.
• Eg:- Rooting plant- Bihaya, simali, Asuro, Saijwan, Titepati, Nilkada etc.
Vegetated palisade construction:-
It act as a check dam for gullies with periodic floods. Good barrier against gully
erosion and helps to repair and fill the gullies. Good for steep and narrow gullies.
• Construction step:-
• Dig hole with crowbar.
• Prepare live stacks diameter 5 cm , length 1.5m -2 m.
• Stacks are driven into soil side by side.
• They are tied with local rope or wire which is anchored in the sides of the gulley.
• Eg:- Rooting plant- Sisau, Phaledo, Lahare papal, Kavro, Bamboo, Dabdabe,
Bainsh,Khirro etc.
• Brush wattles( Slope Fascines):-
• it helps for stabilization and drainage of back cuts and slides at surface. It may
holds the back sediment and also useful for bank protection.
• Construction step:-
• Excavation of small terrace ½ diameter of bundle.
• Prepare endless bundles( Fascines) and place it into terrace.
• Add stake through bundle.
• Cover wattle with soil, tamp firmly
• Eg:- Rooting plant- Phaledo, Lahare papal, Kavro, Dabdabe, Bainsh,Khirro etc
• Bushes:- Asuro, Nilkada, Sajiwan, Simili,Bihaya etc.
• Pioneer plantation:-
• The mulching helps the plant to grow faster by regulating the moisture. It
stabilizes the slope and provide fuel, fooder, fruits.
• Construction step:-
• Dig the pits 30*30*30 cm.
• Remove plastic tube from seeding.
• Plant seeding.
• Cover with soil and mulch and lamp gently ( Soil Preferably topsoil or forest
soil)
• Eg:- Fooder plant- Badahar, Kulmero, Koiralo, Khanyu etc.
• Fruits plant:- Citrus
• Other:- Rittha, Tuni, Okhar, Sisau, Tea , Coffee etc.
• Grass/Shrub Plantation:-
• Grass/shrub hedges along terraces and canal banks and contour lines stabilizes
soil and prevents overland flow and hill erosion. They also prevent siltation of
the canal.
• Construction step:-
• Take plant from nursery, split it into bushes with 3 plants.
• Cut the top off (About 20 cm from the base).
• Plant the bushes with a spacing of 20 cm on the edges or on the ridges.
• Eg:- Grass- Napier, Amrisso, Vetiver etc.
• Shrubs:- Alainchi
• Jute Netting:-
• It is a quick surface protection jute net protection seeds and gives them some
humidity and shadow . Cattle do not step on the jute net. Jute material decay
and compost.
• Construction step:-
• Anchoring of net (At least 15cm).
• Layout according to drawing-net has to be in good contact to soil
• Nailing every metre, one at each side , one in centre.
• Overlapping at least 10 cm.
• Seeding- Plantation of cutting or rolled slips- live stacks
• as anchoring i.e pegs of Sajiwan, Simali, Bihaya etc.
• Sodding:-
• It helps for stabilization of small, steep and critical slope. Specially along
small waterways or on cut and fill sides of irrigation canal.
• Construction step:-
• Cuts sods in a well vegetated area, store it if not more than 4 weeks.
• Place it on the slope.
• Nail it down with pegs.
• Eg:- Dubo, Khar, Kaans etc.
• Seeding (Grass,Herbs etc):-
• Grass-seeding is used for surface protection of bare slopes. It helps to provide a good
microclimate and supports and fastens the natural re-establishment of vegetation.
• Construction step:-
• Site preparation.
• Manure or compost application.
• The seeds are sown broadcast.
• To prevent heavy seeds from rolling down the slope small grooves are made
• with an inclination of about 3-5% towards the horizontal.
• Spacing of the grooves about 10 cm.
• Seeding from bottom to top.
• Eg:-Grasses:- Amrisso, Molasis, Setaria etc.
• Herbs :- Rahar, Taraphul, Desmodium, Kettuke etc. Trees:- Uttis, Kimbu etc
• Vegetated Dry masonry wall/RipRap:-
• Punctual and linear stabilization of slopes and ice protection. Due to vegetation,
dry masonry wall becomes more flexible. Plants reinforce the fill behind the
wall and help blending the wall into the surroundings. Good drainage through
wall by the plants. Soft and hard stones can be used.
• Construction step:-
• Live sataking or planting of rooted plants may be done during construction of
masonary wall if construction takes place in the proper season.
• Fill the interslices with the available soil.
• Cuttings should be long enough to reach into soil if a portion of the backfill
consists of small rocks or gravels.
• Eg:-Grasses:- Asuro , Nilkada, Siru, Bihaya, Sajwani, Simili etc.
• Vegetated Gabion:-
• Punctual and linear stabilization of slopes, toes and river banks. The flexibility
and effectiveness of the gabions will be considerably improved by this
combination with living material.
• Construction step:-
• Construction of gabion.
• Placing of cuttings between two adjacent gabions or into gabion during
construction (2.5 stems per m2)
• Cuttings should be long enough to reach into soil at the back of the gabion.
• Eg:-Grasses:- Asuro Bhaya, Nilkada, Siru, Simali, Saijwan etc.
Thanks End of Chapter 6