RAY OPTICS

AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Complete Study Guide – Built From First Principles

CBSE Class 12 – Physics – Chapter 9

What’s inside this guide:

• A “Basics First” primer – for everything you need before the chapter even
starts (including a short Human Eye primer)

• Every single derivation in the chapter, done step by step, with reasons for
each step

• Sign convention explained visually so you never confuse + and − again

• Solved examples worked out fully (mirrors, lenses, prism, microscope, tele-
scope)

• A complete formula sheet for last-minute revision

• A large practice question bank with a full answer key

Tip: Read the ”Basics First” section slowly even if you think you know it –
90% of mistakes in this chapter come from sign convention slips, not the physics.
Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

Contents

1 Basics First – Read This Before Anything Else 3

1.1 What is a ray, and what is a beam? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 The two laws everything in this chapter is built on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Key vocabulary you must know cold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 The Cartesian Sign Convention (learn this before touching any formula) . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 A basic primer on the Human Eye (background only – not examined as part of this
chapter) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 9.2 – Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrors 6

2.1 9.2.2 – Focal length of a spherical mirror: derivation that f = R/2 . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 9.2.3 – The Mirror Equation: full derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Magnification of a mirror: derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Rules for drawing ray diagrams (mirrors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 9.3 & 9.4 – Refraction and Total Internal Reflection 10

3.1 Refractive index relations (no derivation needed – definitional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Apparent depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3 Total Internal Reflection (TIR) and the Critical Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.4 Applications of TIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 9.5 – Refraction at Spherical Surfaces and by Lenses 12

4.1 Refraction at a single spherical surface: full derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2 9.5.2 – Refraction through a thin lens: Lens Maker’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3 Magnification by a lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4 Power of a Lens: derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.5 Combination of thin lenses in contact: derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5 9.6 – Refraction Through a Prism 16

5.1 Minimum Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

6 9.7 – Optical Instruments 18

6.1 9.7.1 – The Simple Microscope (Magnifying Glass) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.2 9.7.1 (cont.) – The Compound Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.3 9.7.2 – The Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.4 Reflecting Telescopes (Cassegrain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

7 Master Formula Sheet 21

8 Practice Question Bank (with full Answer Key) 22

8.1 Section A – Mirrors (1–6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
8.2 Section B – Refraction & TIR (7–12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

8.3 Section C – Lenses (13–20) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

8.4 Section D – Prism, Microscope, Telescope (21–28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
8.5 Section E – Conceptual / HOTS (29–32) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
8.6 Answer Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

1 Basics First – Read This Before Anything Else

This section has zero exam weight by itself, but without it, nothing else in this chapter will make
sense. Go slow here.

1.1 What is a ray, and what is a beam?

Light is an electromagnetic wave (wavelength roughly 400–750 nm), but because this wavelength
is tiny compared to everyday objects (a few cm or bigger), we can pretend light travels in
perfectly straight lines.
Ray = the straight-line path along which light energy travels. It’s an arrow, nothing more.
Beam = a bundle of many rays travelling together.
This ”pretend it’s a straight line” approximation is called ray optics or geometrical optics.
It works as long as we don’t zoom in too close (that regime, where the wave nature matters, is
wave optics – the next chapter).

c = 2.99792458 × 108 m/s ≈ 3 × 108 m/s (used in all calculations)

Speed of light in vacuum is the fastest speed possible in nature.

1.2 The two laws everything in this chapter is built on

When light hits a reflecting surface (a mirror):

1. Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection, i.e. ∠i = ∠r′ (both measured from the normal,
never from the surface).

2. The incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane.

Normal = the imaginary line perpendicular to the surface at the point where light strikes it. For
a curved (spherical) mirror, the normal at any point passes through the centre of curvature
– because the normal to a circle always passes through its centre.

When light passes from one transparent medium into another, it bends at the boundary. Two
laws:

1. Incident ray, refracted ray, and normal lie in the same plane.
sin i
2. = n21 = a constant, called refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t. medium 1.
sin r

Why does light bend at all? (Intuition)

Refractive index of a medium is really a statement about how much slower light travels in it
compared to vacuum: n = c/v. A denser medium slows light down more. When a wavefront
enters a denser medium at an angle, one edge of it slows down before the other edge does –
exactly like a car’s wheel dipping from a tarmac road onto sand: the wheel that hits the sand

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

first slows down, so the whole axle turns. That ”turning” is refraction.

1.3 Key vocabulary you must know cold

Term Plain-English meaning

Pole (P) The geometric centre point of a spherical mirror’s surface.
Centre of curvature Centre of the sphere that the mirror is a ”slice” of.
(C)
Radius of curvature Distance from pole to centre of curvature.
(R)
Principal axis The line joining P and C (for a mirror), or the line through the
optical centre (for a lens).
Principal focus (F) The point where rays parallel to the principal axis converge (or
appear to diverge from) after reflection/refraction.
Focal length (f) Distance from pole/optical-centre to F.
Paraxial rays Rays that are close to the principal axis and make small angles
with it – this is the approximation that makes all our simple
formulas work (tan θ ≈ θ ≈ sin θ in radians).
Real image Rays actually meet here; can be caught on a screen.
Virtual image Rays only appear to diverge from here; cannot be caught on a
screen (e.g. your image in a plane mirror).
Optical centre Central point of a lens through which light passes without any
net bending.

1.4 The Cartesian Sign Convention (learn this before touching any formula)
heights
→ NEGATIVE
Distances against incident light Distances along incident light → POSITIVE

principal axis (x-axis)

Pole / Optical Centre

incident light direction Heights upward → POSITIVE

Heights downward → NEGATIVE

1. All distances are measured from the pole (mirrors) or optical centre (lenses).

2. Distances measured in the same direction as incident light = positive. Distances

measured opposite to incident light = negative.

3. Heights measured upward from the principal axis = positive. Heights measured down-
ward = negative.

d The single most common mistake

The object is (almost) always placed to the left, with light travelling left-to-right. This auto-
matically makes the object distance u negative in every single problem where the object is
real (in front of the mirror/lens). Students who forget this get every sign in their final answer

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

flipped. Always write down u = −(given distance) as your very first step.

1.5 A basic primer on the Human Eye (background only – not examined as part
of this chapter)

• Light enters through the cornea, passes through the pupil (whose size is controlled by
the iris), and is focused by the eye lens onto the retina, which acts like a screen (real,
inverted image forms there; the brain flips it).

• The eye lens is elastic. Muscles change its curvature (and hence its focal length) to focus
on objects at different distances. This ability is called accommodation.

• Near point: the closest distance at which the eye can focus comfortably. For a normal
eye this is taken as D = 25 cm – this is exactly the D that appears in every microscope
magnification formula in this chapter!

• Far point: the farthest point the relaxed eye can see clearly – infinity, for a normal eye.

• Common defects (only so the numbers D = 25 cm make sense to you):

– Myopia (near-sightedness) – far objects look blurred; corrected using a concave

(diverging) lens.
– Hypermetropia (far-sightedness) – near objects look blurred; corrected using a con-
vex (converging) lens.
– Presbyopia – age-related loss of accommodation power; often needs bifocal lenses.

This eye content is background only. The actual examinable chapter starts now.

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

2 9.2 – Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrors

2.1 9.2.2 – Focal length of a spherical mirror: derivation that f = R/2

A ray parallel to the principal axis strikes a concave (or convex) mirror at point M. Since the
normal at M passes through the centre of curvature C, the line CM is perpendicular to the mirror
surface at M. Let θ be the angle of incidence. By the law of reflection, the angle of reflection is
also θ. Let D be the foot of the perpendicular from M onto the principal axis.

incident ray

R reflected ray
2θ
θ
C F D P

Since ∠MCP = θ is the angle the incident ray’s normal (CM) makes with the axis, and using the
exterior angle property of triangle MCF (exterior angle = sum of two opposite interior angles),
it can be shown that:
∠M F P = 2θ
Now write the tangent of each angle using right triangle MDC and MDF:
MD MD
tan θ = , tan 2θ = (9.1)
CD FD
Paraxial approximation: For rays close to the pole, θ is small, so tan θ ≈ θ and tan 2θ ≈ 2θ.
Equation (9.1) becomes:
MD MD
=2·
FD CD
The M D cancels from both sides:
CD
FD = (9.2)
2
For paraxial rays, point D is extremely close to the pole P, so we can replace F D → f (focal
length) and CD → R (radius of curvature). Equation (9.2) becomes:

R
f= (9.3)
2

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

This single result, f = R/2, is used silently in almost every mirror numerical – you’re very often
given R and must first convert it to f before touching the mirror formula.

2.2 9.2.3 – The Mirror Equation: full derivation

We want a formula linking object distance u, image distance v, and focal length f : this is the
1 1 1
famous + = . We derive it using an image formed by a concave mirror, and the sign
v u f
convention makes it valid for ALL cases (concave/convex, real/virtual).

A (i) parallel ray

B′
B C F P

A′
v (BP direction shown for magnitude)
u

1 1 1
§ 9.2 – Deriving + =
v u f
Step 1: Two pairs of similar triangles.
Consider the ray from A parallel to the axis, striking the mirror at M and reflecting through
F to A′ . Triangles A′ B′ F and MPF are similar (for paraxial rays, MP is essentially a vertical
straight line). So:
B ′ A′ B′F B ′ A′ B′F
= , and since P M = AB : = (9.4)
PM FP BA FP
Also, since ∠AP B = ∠A′ P B ′ (both rays pass through P at equal/opposite angles), triangles
A′ B′ P and ABP are similar:
B ′ A′ B′P
= (9.5)
BA BP
Step 2: Combine (9.4) and (9.5). Since both left sides are equal:
B′F B′P B′P − F P
= = (9.6)
FP BP FP
(using B ′ F = B ′ P − F P , since F lies between P and B′ )
Step 3: Apply the sign convention. Light travels left to right (positive direction). To reach
B (object), B′ (image), or F (focus) from P, we must travel against the incident light — so all
three are negative distances:
B ′ P = −v, F P = −f, BP = −u

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

Step 4: Substitute into (9.6):

−v + f −v v−f v v v
= =⇒ = =⇒ =1+
−f −u f u f u
Step 5: Divide throughout by v:

1 1 1
= + (9.7 – Mirror Equation)
f v u

2.3 Magnification of a mirror: derivation

Magnification is defined as m = h′ /h (image height / object height). From the similar triangles
A′ B′ P and ABP used above:
B ′ A′ B′P
=
BA BP
Now bring in heights with sign convention: object height BA = h (positive, above axis), image
height B ′ A′ = −h′ (below axis for a real inverted image, so it carries a negative sign in the ratio
′
– formally −h −v
h = −u ). Simplifying:
h′ v
m= =− (9.9)
h u
This one formula, with proper signs plugged in, correctly predicts real/inverted or virtual/erect
images for BOTH concave and convex mirrors – you never need to memorise separate cases.

R 1 1 1 h′ v
f= + = m= =−
2 v u f h u

2.4 Rules for drawing ray diagrams (mirrors)

1. Ray parallel to principal axis → reflects through the focus F.

2. Ray through/directed at the centre of curvature C → reflects straight back along the
same path (because it hits the mirror perpendicularly).

3. Ray through/directed at the focus F → reflects parallel to the principal axis.

4. Ray hitting the pole P → reflects following the ordinary law of reflection (equal angles
with axis).

Example 9.3 – Concave mirror, two object positions

An object is placed at (i) 10 cm, (ii) 5 cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 15
cm. Find position, nature and magnification of image.
Setup: f = −R/2 = −15/2 = −7.5 cm (negative: concave mirror, focus is in front, against
incident light).

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

(i) u = −10 cm:

1 1 1 1 −1 1 −10 + 7.5 −2.5
+ = ⇒ = + = =
v −10 −7.5 v 7.5 10 75 75
10 × 7.5
v= = −30 cm
−2.5
v −30
Image is 30 cm in front of mirror (real side). m=− =− = −3
u −10
Magnified (×3), real, inverted.
(ii) u = −5 cm (object is now between pole and focus, since f = 7.5 cm):
1 1 1 5 × 7.5
+ = ⇒ v= = 15 cm
v −5 −7.5 7.5 − 5
15
Image is 15 cm behind the mirror – virtual. m=− = +3
−5
Magnified (×3), virtual, erect.

A jogger runs at 5 m/s toward a parked car’s convex side mirror, R = 2 m (f = +1 m, convex
⇒ positive). Find how fast the image appears to move when the jogger is at 39 m, 29 m, 19 m,
9 m.
fu
From the mirror equation, v = . For u = −39 m:
u−f

(−39)(1) −39 39
v= = = m
−39 − 1 −40 40
34
After 1 s the jogger is at u = −34 m (moved 5 m closer): v = m.
35
39 34 1365 − 1360 5 1
Shift in 1 second: − = = = m.
40 35 1400 1400 280
1
Average image speed between 39 m and 34 m = m/s.
280
Repeating for the other positions gives: at 29 m → 150
1
m/s, at 19 m → 1
60 m/s, at 9 m → 1
10
m/s.
Key insight: even though the jogger’s real speed is constant, the image speeds up dramatically as
the object nears the mirror – this is a classic conceptual HOTS question.

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

3 9.3 & 9.4 – Refraction and Total Internal Reflection

3.1 Refractive index relations (no derivation needed – definitional)

sin i 1
n21 = , n12 = , n32 = n31 × n12
sin r n21
If n21 > 1: medium 2 is optically denser; ray bends towards the normal (r < i).
If n21 < 1: medium 2 is optically rarer; ray bends away from the normal (r > i).

Turpentine has lower mass density than water but higher refractive (optical) density. Optical
1
density ∝ , it has nothing to do with mass per unit volume.
speed of light in that medium

3.2 Apparent depth

For near-normal viewing, apparent depth h1 = real depth h2 divided by the refractive index of
the medium being viewed through:
h2
h1 =
n
This is why the bottom of a water tank appears raised.

3.3 Total Internal Reflection (TIR) and the Critical Angle

When light travels from a denser medium to a rarer one, it bends away from the normal, so
the angle of refraction r is always bigger than i. As i increases, eventually r reaches 90◦ – the
refracted ray just grazes the surface. The value of i at which this happens is called the critical
angle, ic . If i is increased even further, refraction becomes impossible – all the light is reflected
back into the denser medium. This is Total Internal Reflection.

By Snell’s law, for light going from denser medium (1) to rarer medium (2):

sin i
n21 =
sin r
At the critical angle, i = ic and r = 90◦ , so sin r = 1:

sin ic = n21 (9.12)

1
And the refractive index of the denser medium w.r.t. the rarer one is n12 = .
sin ic

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

Substance Refractive Index Critical Angle

Water 1.33 48.75◦
Crown glass 1.52 41.14◦
Dense flint glass 1.62 37.31◦
Diamond 2.42 24.41◦

1. Light must travel from an optically denser to an optically rarer medium.

2. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle
ic .

3.4 Applications of TIR

A 90◦ -turning prism and a 180◦ -turning prism both use a 45◦ prism angle. Since the critical
angle of ordinary crown/flint glass is under 45◦ (see table above), light hitting the internal 45◦
face at 45◦ incidence exceeds ic and is totally reflected – no light escapes, and no silvering is
needed (unlike an ordinary mirror).

Each fibre has a core (higher refractive index) surrounded by cladding (lower refractive index).
Light entering at a suitable angle undergoes repeated TIR along the core-cladding boundary and
travels the full length of the fibre with almost no loss of intensity – even if the fibre is bent. Used
in telecommunications and as medical ”light pipes” (endoscopes).

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

4 9.5 – Refraction at Spherical Surfaces and by Lenses

4.1 Refraction at a single spherical surface: full derivation

i r

n1 n2
O M C I

v
u

Let O be a point object on the axis, with light going from medium n1 into medium n2 through
a spherical surface of centre C. Let N be the point where the ray meets the surface, M the foot
of perpendicular from N to the axis.
Step 1: Exterior angle in △NOC. Angle i is the exterior angle at N, so:
MN MN
i = ∠N OM + ∠N CM = + (9.13)
OM MC
Step 2: Exterior angle in △NIC. Similarly:
MN MN
r = ∠N CM − ∠N IM = − (9.14)
MC MI
Step 3: Apply Snell’s law for small angles. n1 sin i = n2 sin r ⇒ n1 i = n2 r (paraxial).
Substitute (9.13), (9.14):
( ) ( )
MN MN MN MN
n1 + = n2 −
OM MC MC MI

Cancel M N and rearrange:

n1 n2 n2 − n1
+ = (9.15)
OM MI MC
Step 4: Apply sign convention. OM = −u, M I = +v, M C = +R:

n2 n1 n2 − n1
− = (9.16)
v u R

This holds for any curved spherical surface, convex or concave.

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

Light from a point source in air hits a spherical glass surface (n = 1.5, R = +20 cm). Source is
100 cm away. Find the image position.
u = −100 cm, n1 = 1, n2 = 1.5:
1.5 1 0.5 1.5
+ = ⇒ = 0.025 − 0.01 = 0.015 ⇒ v = +100 cm
v 100 20 v
Image forms 100 cm from the surface, in the direction of incident light (inside the
glass).

4.2 9.5.2 – Refraction through a thin lens: Lens Maker’s Formula

A thin lens has two spherical (or one spherical + one flat) surfaces. We apply equation (9.16)
once at the first surface (treating the lens as if the object O directly forms image I1 ), and again
at the second surface (treating I1 as a virtual object for it), then combine.

First surface (ABC), radius R1 , refraction from n1 (surrounding medium) into n2 (lens
material):
n1 n2 n2 − n1
+ = (9.17)
OB BI1 BC1
Second surface (ADC), radius R2 , refraction from n2 back into n1 – note the refractive
indices swap roles here, and I1 acts as a (virtual) object for this surface:
n2 n1 n2 − n1
− + = (9.18)
DI1 DI DC2
Add (9.17) and (9.18). For a thin lens BI1 = DI1 , so those terms cancel appropriately,
leaving: ( )
n1 n1 1 1
+ = (n2 − n1 ) + (9.19)
OB DI BC1 DC2
Now let the object go to infinity (OB → ∞) so that DI → f (the very definition of focal
length): ( )
n1 1 1
= (n2 − n1 ) + (9.20)
f BC1 DC2
Apply the sign convention: BC1 = +R1 , DC2 = −R2 , and define n21 = n2 /n1 :
( )
1 1 1
= (n21 − 1) − (9.21 – Lens Maker’s Formula)
f R1 R2

§ 9.7 – From Lens Maker’s Formula to the Thin Lens Formula

Going back to (9.19) and (9.20), subtracting them directly instead gives:
n1 n1 n1
+ =
OB DI f

In the thin-lens approximation, B and D both coincide with the optical centre. Apply sign

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

convention: BO = −u, DI = +v:

1 1 1
− = (9.23 – Thin Lens Formula)
v u f

Note the sign difference from the mirror equation – lenses use minus, mirrors use plus.
This is one of the most commonly confused points in the whole chapter.

Mirror Lens
1 1 1 1 1 1
Formula + = − =
v u f v u f
v v
Magnification m=− m=
u u

4.3 Magnification by a lens

h′ v
m= =
h u
Positive m ⇒ erect & virtual image. Negative m ⇒ inverted & real image.

4.4 Power of a Lens: derivation

Power measures how strongly a lens converges/diverges light – defined as the angle δ (in radians)
by which it bends a ray parallel to the axis, striking at unit height (h = 1) from the optical
centre.
h 1 1
tan δ = ; if h = 1, tan δ = ⇒ δ ≈ (small-angle approx.)
f f f
1
P =
f

Unit: dioptre (D); 1 D = 1 m−1 . P is positive for converging (convex) lenses, negative for
diverging (concave) lenses.

Example 9.7 – three quick power/index problems

(i) f = 0.5 m ⇒ P = 1/0.5 = +2 D.
(ii) Double convex lens, R1 = +10 cm, R2 = −15 cm, f = +12 cm. Find n:
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 6
= (n − 1) − = (n − 1) ⇒ n−1= = 0.5 ⇒ n=1.5
12 10 −15 6 12

(iii) Convex lens, f =(20 cm in air

) (nglass
( = 1.5).)Find f in water (nwater = 1.33).
1 1 1 1 1 1
In air: = (1.5 − 1) − ⇒ − = .
20 R1 R 2 R1 R2 10
1 1
In water, using relative index n21 = 1.5/1.33: = (1.5/1.33 − 1) ×
fw 10

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Solving gives fwater = +78.2 cm – the lens becomes much ”weaker” in water because the relative
refractive index drops closer to 1.

4.5 Combination of thin lenses in contact: derivation

Two thin lenses A (f1 ) and B (f2 ) are in contact. The image from lens A becomes the (virtual)
object for lens B.
1 1 1
Lens A: − =
v1 u f1
1 1 1
Lens B (object distance is now v1 ): − =
v v1 f2
Add both equations – the v1 terms cancel:
1 1 1 1
− = +
v u f1 f2

But the LHS is just 1/f for the equivalent single lens, so:

1 1 1
= + + ... P = P1 + P2 + . . . m = m1 × m2 × . . .
f f1 f2

Convex lens powers are positive, concave lens powers are negative – when combining, add with
correct signs (a +5D and a −2D lens combine to +3D, i.e. still converging).

Lenses of f = +10, −10, +30 cm placed 5 cm and 10 cm apart; object 30 cm in front of the first
lens.
Lens 1 (u = −30, f = 10): v11 = 10
1 1
+ −30 30 ⇒ v1 = 15 cm.
= 3−1
Lens 2 (image is 15 − 5 = 10 cm beyond lens 2, so it’s a virtual object, u2 = +10, f = −10):
1 1 1
= + = 0 ⇒ v2 = ∞
v2 −10 10
Lens 3 (parallel beam incident, u3 = ∞, f = +30): v3 = 30 cm.
Final image forms 30 cm to the right of the third lens.

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5 9.6 – Refraction Through a Prism

A

i e

P r1 r2 S

B C

A ray PQ hits face AB at angle of incidence i, refracts to angle r1 , travels to the second face
AC, hits it at internal angle r2 , and emerges at angle e. The angle between incident ray PQ
(extended) and emergent ray RS is the angle of deviation δ.

Step 1. In quadrilateral AQNR (N = intersection of the two normals inside the prism), the
angles at Q and R are both 90◦ (normal ⊥ surface). So the remaining two angles must sum to
180◦ :
∠A + ∠QN R = 180◦
Step 2. In triangle QNR: r1 + r2 + ∠QN R = 180◦ .
Step 3. Comparing the two: ∠A = r1 + r2 , i.e.

r1 + r 2 = A (9.34)

Step 4: Total deviation is the sum of the bending that happens at each face: at AB, the ray
bends by (i − r1 ); at AC, it bends by (e − r2 ).

δ = (i − r1 ) + (e − r2 ) = i + e − (r1 + r2 )

δ =i+e−A (9.35)

5.1 Minimum Deviation

As i is varied, δ first decreases, reaches a minimum value Dm , then increases again (see the
characteristic U-shaped graph below). At minimum deviation, and only at minimum deviation:

i=e ⇒ r 1 = r2

and the ray inside the prism travels parallel to the base.

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

Dm

i
i=e

At minimum deviation: from (9.34), r1 = r2 = r ⇒ 2r = A ⇒ r = A/2.

A + Dm
From (9.35): Dm = 2i − A ⇒ i = .
2
Now apply Snell’s law at the first face (n1 = 1 for air, n2 = n21 for the prism):

sin i
n21 =
sin r
[ ]
A + Dm
sin
2
n21 = [ ] (9.38)
A
sin
2
This is how refractive index of a prism material is measured experimentally: measure A and
Dm directly.

For a thin prism (small A), Dm is also small, so sin θ ≈ θ (radians):

(A + Dm )/2
n21 ≈ ⇒ Dm = (n21 − 1)A
A/2

Conclusion: thin prisms barely deviate light at all.

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

6 9.7 – Optical Instruments

6.1 9.7.1 – The Simple Microscope (Magnifying Glass)

A converging lens of small focal length, held close to the eye, with the object placed at or within
the focal length. Two viewing scenarios:

• Image at the near point D (25 cm) – maximum magnification but some eye strain.

• Image at infinity – relaxed-eye viewing, magnification is (very slightly) less.

Start from ordinary lens magnification m = v/u, and rewrite using the thin lens formula v1 − u1 =
f ⇒ u = v − f:
1 1 1 1
( )
v 1 1 v
m= =v − =1−
u v f f
By sign convention the virtual image forms on the same side as the object, so v = −D (negative,
and equal in magnitude to D = 25 cm):

D
m=1+ (9.39)
f

Without any lens, the largest angle an object of height h can subtend at the eye (while still
being clearly visible) is when it sits at the near point D:

h
tan θo = ≈ θo (9.40)
D
With the lens, place the object at the focus (u = −f ) so the image forms at infinity. The angle
subtended by the image (which equals the angle the ray makes leaving the lens) is:

h
θi = (9.41)
f

Angular magnification is the ratio of these two angles:

θi D
m= = (9.42)
θo f

This is exactly 1 less than equation (9.39) – a negligible practical difference, but conceptually
important: ”magnification” in optical instruments always means angular magnifica-
tion (ratio of angles subtended at the eye), not a literal size ratio, because the image and object
are at different, incomparable distances.

d Why does a magnifier work if the angle subtended doesn’t even increase from what it ”should” be?
The trick is NOT that the lens increases the angle beyond what the object subtends. It’s that
the lens lets you bring the object much closer than 25 cm (which the naked eye can’t focus on),
so that closer object subtends a bigger angle than it could ever manage sitting at the near point

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

unaided.

6.2 9.7.1 (cont.) – The Compound Microscope

Objective (small fo , near the object) forms a real, inverted, magnified image. This becomes
the object for the eyepiece (acts like a simple magnifier), which further magnifies it into a final
large virtual image.

Magnification by objective: using similar triangles in the ray diagram, with L = tube length
(distance between second focal point of objective and first focal point of eyepiece):

h′ L
mo = = (9.43)
h fo

Magnification by eyepiece (acting as simple microscope) – image at near point:

D
me = 1 + (9.44(a))
fe
or, image at infinity:
D
me = (9.44(b))
fe
Total magnification (image at infinity case, most commonly used):

L D
m = mo × me = × (9.45)
fo fe

fo = 1.0 cm, fe = 2.0 cm, L = 20 cm, D = 25 cm:

20 25
m= × = 250
1 2
To get large magnification, both fo and fe must be small (hard to make under ∼1 cm), and L
must be reasonably large.

6.3 9.7.2 – The Telescope

Here the objective has a large focal length and large aperture (to gather more light from distant,
faint objects); the eyepiece still has a small focal length and works as a simple magnifier on the
real image formed by the objective.

§ 9.16 – Magnifying power of a telescope

Magnifying power m is the ratio of the angle β subtended at the eye by the final image, to the

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

angle α subtended by the actual distant object:

β h fo
m≈ ≈ ·
α fe h

fo
m= (9.46)
fe
Length of telescope tube (normal adjustment, image at infinity) = fo + fe .

fo = 100 cm, fe = 1 cm ⇒ m = 100. Two stars actually 1′ (one arcminute) apart would appear
separated by 100 × 1′ = 100′ = 1.67◦ .

6.4 Reflecting Telescopes (Cassegrain)

• No chromatic aberration in a mirror (unlike a lens).

• A mirror can be supported over its entire back, so it doesn’t sag under its own weight
like a large lens does (supported only at the rim).

• Cassegrain design: a convex secondary mirror reflects light back through a hole in the
primary mirror, giving a large effective focal length in a physically short tube.

World’s largest: the twin Keck telescopes (Hawaii), 10 m diameter mirrors. India’s largest: 2.34
m Cassegrain reflector at Kavalur, Tamil Nadu (Indian Institute of Astrophysics).

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

7 Master Formula Sheet

R 1 1 1 v h′
• Mirror: f = ; + = ; m=− =
2 v u f u h
sin i 1
• Snell’s law: n21 = ; n12 = ; n32 = n31 × n12
sin r n21
• Apparent depth: h1 = h2 /n

• Critical angle: sin ic = n21 (denser → rarer)

n2 n1 n2 − n1
• Spherical refracting surface: − =
v u R
( )
1 1 1
• Lens maker’s formula: = (n21 − 1) −
f R1 R 2
1 1 1 v h′
• Thin lens formula: − = ; m= =
v u f u h
1 1 1 1
• Power: P = (dioptre, D); lenses in contact: = + + . . . ; P = P1 + P2 + . . . ;
f f f1 f2
m = m1 m2 . . .
sin[(A + Dm )/2]
• Prism: r1 + r2 = A; δ = i + e − A; n21 = ; thin prism: Dm =
sin(A/2)
(n21 − 1)A
D D
• Simple microscope: m = 1 +(image at D); m = (image at ∞)
f f
( )
L D L D
• Compound microscope: m = mo me = 1+ or · (image at ∞)
fo fe fo fe
fo
• Telescope: m = ; tube length = fo + fe (normal adjustment)
fe

1. Object distance u is virtually ALWAYS negative for a real object.

2. Mirror equation uses +, lens equation uses −. Never swap them.

3. f is negative for concave mirrors AND concave (diverging) lenses; positive for convex
mirrors AND convex (converging) lenses – despite mirrors and lenses using opposite
curvature-naming intuition, the f -sign rule matches for ”converging = positive” in both.

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

8 Practice Question Bank (with full Answer Key)

Original problems in the same style and difficulty as your textbook, covering every sub-topic.
Try each one fully before checking the answer key at the end.

8.1 Section A – Mirrors (1–6)

1. An object 3 cm high is placed 20 cm from a concave mirror of focal length 15 cm. Find the
image position, nature, and size.

2. A convex mirror has radius of curvature 40 cm. An object is placed 30 cm in front of it. Find
image position and magnification.

3. At what distance from a concave mirror of focal length 12 cm should an object be placed to
get an image magnified 3 times (real image)?

4. A dentist’s concave mirror (R = 3.6 cm) is held 1.5 cm from a tooth. Find magnification.

5. Derive the mirror formula from first principles, clearly stating the sign convention used at
each step.

6. Why does a convex mirror always produce a virtual, diminished image irrespective of object
position? Prove using the mirror equation.

8.2 Section B – Refraction & TIR (7–12)

7. Light passes from air (n = 1) into glass (n = 1.5) at an incidence angle of 30◦ . Find the angle
of refraction.

8. Find the critical angle for a glass-air interface if nglass = 1.5.

9. A coin lies at the bottom of a 40 cm deep pool. Find the apparent depth (nwater = 1.33).

10. Explain, with a labelled diagram, why a diamond sparkles more than a glass replica of the
same cut.

11. A ray of light strikes an equilateral prism (A = 60◦ ) such that r1 = r2 . If n = 1.5, find i, r1 ,
and the deviation.

12. State the two necessary conditions for total internal reflection to occur, and explain how
optical fibres use both.

8.3 Section C – Lenses (13–20)

13. An object 5 cm tall is placed 30 cm from a convex lens of focal length 10 cm. Find image
position, height, and nature.

14. A concave lens of focal length 25 cm forms an image 15 cm from the lens. Find the object
distance.

15. Two thin lenses of power +4 D and −1.5 D are placed in contact. Find the focal length and
nature of the combination.

16. A biconvex lens has R1 = 15 cm, R2 = −15 cm, and is made of glass with n = 1.5. Find its
focal length.

17. Derive the lens maker’s formula from the refraction-at-a-single-surface formula, stating clearly
what happens at each of the two surfaces.

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

18. Show algebraically that an object placed between f and 2f of a convex lens produces a real,
magnified image beyond 2f .

19. Two converging lenses of focal length 20 cm and 5 cm are 30 cm apart. An object is placed
30 cm in front of the first lens. Find the final image position.

20. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm in air is immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.25. If
nglass = 1.5, find its new focal length.

8.4 Section D – Prism, Microscope, Telescope (21–28)

21. A prism of angle A = 60◦ gives minimum deviation Dm = 30◦ in air. Find its refractive index.

22. Using the previous answer, find the new minimum deviation if the same prism is now immersed
in water (n = 1.33).

23. A simple magnifier of focal length 5 cm is used by an observer with near point 25 cm. Find
the magnifying power (a) image at near point, (b) image at infinity.

24. A compound microscope has fo = 1.5 cm, fe = 5 cm, tube length 18 cm. Find the total
magnification (image at infinity).

25. A telescope objective has focal length 75 cm and the eyepiece has focal length 5 cm. Find the
magnifying power and tube length in normal adjustment.

26. Why must the objective of a telescope have a large diameter (not just a suitable focal length)?
Give two distinct reasons.

27. Explain why modern astronomical telescopes use mirrors rather than lenses as the objective.
List three advantages.

28. Derive the expression for magnifying power of a compound microscope when the final image
forms at infinity.

8.5 Section E – Conceptual / HOTS (29–32)

29. If the lower half of a concave mirror is covered with black paint, what happens to the image
of an object placed in front of it? Explain fully.

30. A fish underwater looks up at 48.75◦ from the normal at the water surface. What does it see
if it looks at exactly this critical angle, and beyond it?

31. Explain why a magnifying glass provides angular magnification even though the angle sub-
tended by the object and the virtual image (at the same position) are technically equal.

32. Why should the eye be positioned slightly away from (not jammed against) the eyepiece of a
compound microscope for best viewing?

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

8.6 Answer Key

Q Answer
1 f = −15, u = −20. v1 = −15 1
− −20
1
= −4+3 −1
60 = 60 ⇒ v = −60 cm. m = −v/u = −3. Real,
inverted, magnified 3×, 9 cm tall, 60 cm in front of mirror.
2 f = +20 (convex), u = −30. v1 = f1 − u1 = 20 1
− −301 1
= 20 1
+ 30 = 3+2 5
60 = 60 . v = +12 cm,
m = −v/u = −12/(−30) = 0.4; virtual, erect, diminished, 12 cm behind mirror.
3 For real magnified image, m = −3 = −v/u ⇒ v = 3u. Sub into 3u 1
+ u1 = −12
1
⇒ 3u
4
= −1
12 ⇒
u = −16 cm. Object should be 16 cm in front of the mirror.
4 f = −1.8 cm, u = −1.5 cm. v1 = −1.8 1
− −1.5
1
= −1 1
1.8 + 1.5 . LCD 9: =
−5+6
9 = 19 ⇒ v = 9 cm.
m = −v/u = −9/(−1.5) = 6. Magnification = 6× (virtual, erect, enlarged image,
useful for dentist to see tooth clearly).
5 Derivation as shown in Section 9.2.3 of this guide – similar triangles A′ B′ F ∼ MPF
and A′ B′ P ∼ ABP, combine, apply sign convention (B ′ P = −v, F P = −f , BP = −u),
simplify to v1 + u1 = f1 .
6 For convex mirror f > 0 always. For any real object u < 0. From v1 = f1 − u1 , both terms
are positive, so v > 0 always ⇒ image always forms behind the mirror ⇒ always virtual.
Also |v| < |f | always in this regime so |m| = |v/u| < 1 ⇒ always diminished.
30◦ ◦
7 sin r = sin1.5 1.5 = 0.333 ⇒ r = 19.47 .
= 0.5
8 ◦
sin ic = 1/1.5 = 0.667 ⇒ ic = 41.8 (matches Table 9.1’s crown glass value closely).
9 h1 = h2 /n = 40/1.33 = 30.1 cm.
10 Diamond has a much smaller critical angle (24.4◦ vs ∼ 41◦ for glass) and much higher n
(2.42 vs 1.5). Light entering a diamond undergoes TIR far more easily and far more often
before it can escape, so far more light is internally bounced around and eventually exits as
sparkle – this is precisely why diamond cuts are engineered around this small critical angle.
11 r1 = r2 = A/2 = 30◦ (since r1 = r2 is the minimum-deviation condition). sin i = n sin r1 =
1.5 × 0.5 = 0.75 ⇒ i = 48.6◦ . Dm = 2i − A = 97.2 − 60 = 37.2◦ .
12 (1) Light must go from denser to rarer medium. (2) Angle of incidence > ic . In fibres: core
(n higher) is the denser medium, cladding (n lower) is rarer; light is launched so it always
hits the core-cladding boundary above ic , guaranteeing repeated TIR along the whole (even
bent) length.
13 f = +10, u = −30. v1 = 10 1 1
+ −30 = 3−130 = 30 ⇒ v = +15 cm. m = v/u = 15/(−30) = −0.5.
2

Image 15 cm on the far side, real, inverted, 2.5 cm tall (half size).
14 f = −25, and since a concave lens always gives a virtual image for a real object, take
v = −15 cm. −15 1
− u1 = −25
1
⇒ u1 = −15 1
+ 251
= −5+3 −2
75 = 75 ⇒ u = −37.5 cm. Object is
37.5 cm from the lens.
15 P = P1 + P2 = ) = +2.5 D ⇒ f = 1/2.5 = +0.4 m = 40 cm, converging.
( 4 + (−1.5)
16 1
f = (1.5 − 1) 1
15 − 1
−15 = 0.5 × 2
15 = 1
15 ⇒ f = 15 cm.
17 Derivation as shown in Section 9.5.2 – apply the single-surface formula at surface 1 (eq.
9.17), then at surface 2 (eq. 9.18) treating I1 as virtual object, add the two, use thin-lens
approximation (BI1 = DI1 ), let object → ∞ to define f , apply sign convention (BC1 = R1 ,
DC2 = −R2 ) to get eq. (9.21).
18 Let u = −x where f < x < 2f . v1 = f1 − x1 = x−f fx
f x (positive since x > f ) ⇒ v = x−f > 0,
so image is real, on the far side. Substituting x = 1.5f (a value between f and 2f ) gives
v = f (1.5f )
0.5f = 3f > 2f , confirming: image forms beyond 2f , real. Magnification m = v/u
has |v| > |u|, so it’s also magnified.
19 Lens 1 (f = 20, u = −30): v11 = 20 1
− 30
1 1
= 60 ⇒ v1 = 60 cm (beyond lens 2, since lenses
are 30 cm apart). Lens 2 (virtual object, u2 = +30, f = 5): v12 = 15 + 30 30 = 30 ⇒
1
= 6+1 7

v2 = 4.29 cm beyond the second lens.

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Ray Optics & Optical Instruments CBSE Class 12 – Physics

Q Answer
( )
20 Relative index in liquid: n21 = 1.5/1.25 = 1.2. f1w = (1.2 − 1) R11 − R12 . From air data:
( ) ( )
1
20 = (0.5) 1
R1 − 1
R2 ⇒ 1
R1 − R2 = 0.1. In liquid: fw = 0.2 × 0.1 = 0.02 ⇒ fw = 50 cm
1 1

(lens becomes much weaker in the denser liquid).

sin[(60 + 30)/2] sin 45◦ 0.707
21 n= = ◦
= = 1.414.
sin(60/2) sin 30 0.5
22 Relative index of glass w.r.t. water: n′21 = 1.414/1.33 = 1.063. Using n′21 =
sin[(60 + Dm ′ )/2]
⇒ sin[(60 + Dm ′ )/2] = 1.063 × 0.5 = 0.531 ⇒ (60 + D ′ )/2 = 32.1◦ ⇒
sin 30 ◦ m
′ ◦
Dm = 4.1 (much smaller – the prism barely bends light underwater since the relative index
is now close to 1).
23 (a) m = 1 + D/f = 1 + 25/5 = 6×. (b) m = D/f = 25/5 = 5×.
L D 18 25
24 m= · = × = 12 × 5 = 60×.
fo fe 1.5 5
25 m = fo /fe = 75/5 = 15×. Tube length = fo + fe = 80 cm.
26 (i) Larger diameter ⇒ more light-gathering area ⇒ can observe fainter/more distant objects.
(ii) Larger diameter ⇒ better resolving power (ability to distinguish two close objects as
separate), which depends on aperture, not just focal length.
27 (i) No chromatic aberration (mirrors don’t disperse different colours differently). (ii) A
mirror can be supported across its whole back surface (lighter mechanical burden) rather
than only at the rim like a lens. (iii) Large lenses are heavy, sag under their own weight,
and are very expensive/difficult to manufacture free of defects at large sizes; mirrors avoid
this.
28 Derivation as shown in Section 9.7.1 – mo = L/fo from objective’s real image; me =
D/fe from eyepiece acting as simple magnifier with image at infinity; total m = mo × me =
(L/fo )(D/fe ).
29 The image will still show the complete object (every point on the object still sends rays
to every unblocked part of the mirror, and all rays from one object point still converge to
one image point) – only the intensity (brightness) of the image is reduced (roughly
halved here), not its completeness.
30 Beyond the critical angle, the fish sees total internal reflection – instead of seeing the
sky, it sees a mirror-like reflection of the pool’s bottom/sides. Exactly at ic , the refracted
ray would graze along the water surface (r = 90◦ ).
31 The angular magnification comes not from increasing the angle beyond what’s geometrically
”natural,” but from letting the eye bring the object much closer than the unaided near point
(25 cm) while still keeping it in sharp focus – something the naked eye cannot do.
32 The eye itself is also a lens system with its own near point; placing it exactly at the eyepiece
can strain focusing and reduces the field of view. Keeping it a short working distance away
(a few mm to about 1 cm) lets the exit pupil of the instrument align with the eye’s pupil,
giving a comfortable, fully-illuminated, minimally distorted view.

1. Re-derive all 6 major derivations (mirror eq., spherical surface, lens maker’s, thin lens
from it, prism r1 + r2 = A & δ = i + e − A, prism Dm formula) from memory, without
looking, at least twice before the exam.
2. Redo every problem in Sections A–E without looking at the answer key first.
3. Keep a small card with just the Master Formula Sheet and glance at it the morning of
the test.

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