LIFE SCIENCES NOTES

TOPIC: EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION

COMPILED BY: MABUZA SS ( NJEYEZA SS SCHOOL)

Definition of biological evolution

Evolution= is the process by which organisms develop over time from earlier forms.
Biological evolution= refers to any genetic change in a population that is inherited and
becomes a characteristic of that population over several generations.
Theory vs Hypothesis
=A theory is an explanation of something that has been observed in nature which can be
supported by facts, generalisations, tested hypotheses, models and laws.
=A hypothesis is a possible solution to a [Link] Is a testable statement that can be
accepted or rejected
Evidence for evolution
1. Fossil evidence: The evidence that shows characteristics that make us similar to,
or different from African apes comes largely from a study of fossils (thousands of
fossil fragments).

2. Genetic evidence: Scientists state that organisms are closely related and are likely to
have a common ancestor if they have:
–– Identical DNA structure
–– Similar sequence of genes
–– Similar portions of DNA with no functions and
–– Similar mutations (mitochondrial DNA)
Species that are closely related have a greater similarity to each other than distant
species.
2. Biogeography: A study of the distribution of organisms in different parts of the world. OR is
the study of where species are found and why they are found there. There are
many different collections of plants and animals in regions of the same line of
latitude, with similar climates and conditions, suggesting such organisms have a
shared ancestor.

4. Modification by descent (homologous structures): Similar structures in

different organisms indicating common ancestry.
Analogous structures = do the same thing –similar function, but different anatomy.
Wings (butterfly external skeleton, bat internal, wings of an insect, bird, bat and

5. Cultural evidence: Cultural evidence from studies of tools and weapons, as well as
language is also used to show similarities and differences between humans and African
apes.

Definition of a biological species and a population and variation

Species: A group of similar organisms that can breed to produce fertile offspring.
Population: A group of organisms of the same species that occupy a particular habitat.
Variation: Genotypic and phenotypic differences among organisms of the same species
Sources or causes of variation
1. Crossing over = in Prophase I of meiosis involves an exchange of genetic material,
leading to new combinations of maternal and paternal genetic material in each new cell
resulting from meiosis.
2. Random arrangement of maternal and paternal chromosomes at the equator =
during metaphase allows different combinations of chromosomes/chromatids to go into
each new cell resulting from meiosis, making them different.
3. Random fertilization = between different egg cells and different sperm cells formed
by meiosis result in offspring that are different from each other.
4. Random mating = between organisms within a species leads to a different set of
offspring from each mating pair.
5. A mutation = changes the structure of a gene or chromosome and therefore the
organism’s genotype. Since the genotype influences the phenotype, it creates organisms
with new, different characteristics from one generation to the next.

Types of variation:
1. Continuous variation = those characteristics where there is a range of inter-mediate
phenotypes, e.g. height
2. Discontinuous variation = those characteristics that fall into distinct categories e.g.,
blood groups
Ideas on evolution in the order of their origin are as follows:
1. Lamarckism
2. Darwinism
3. Punctuated Equilibrium
FOCUS ON SCIENTISTs

Erasmus Darwin Grandfather of Charles Darwin (1731 –1802):

◼Ideas on evolution that were proposed by Erasmus Darwin:
All life developed from simple forms
There are similarities amongst various organisms
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744 –1829):
◼Two ideas of Lamarck in explaining evolution:
Use and disuse
Inheritance of modified characteristics
Alfred Wallace (1823 –1913):
◼Natural selection as an explanation for evolution
Charles Darwin (1809 –1882): Considered as the father of evolution Published his ideas
in On the origin of species by means of natural
selection’
◼Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution law by Natural Selection

Lamarckism (Jean Baptiste de Lamarck –1744–1829) Lamarck used two 'laws' to

explain evolution:
1. 'Law' of use and disuse: As an organism uses a structure or organ more regularly, it
becomes better developed or enlarged. If an organism does not use a structure or organ
frequently, it becomes less developed or reduced in size and may disappear altogether.
2. 'Law' of the inheritance of acquired characteristics: Characteristics developed
during the life of an individual (acquired characteristics) can be passed on to their
offspring.
Reasons for Lamarck's theory being rejected
[Link] is no evidence to show that acquired characteristics are inherited/There is no
evidence that structures used more frequently become more developed or vice versa
2. Lamarck’s theory was deterministic
Darwinism (Charles Darwin –1809–1882)
Observations based on Charles Darwin theory (natural selection) through his
journey when he was collecting the specimens of plant and animals
1. Offspring= Organisms produce a large number of offspring.
2. Variation= There is a great deal of variation amongst the offspring.
3. Competition= Organisms compete each other for available resources such food.
4. Genetics = The allele/gene for the favourable characteristic can be passed on to the
offspring
5. Natural selection = Organisms with characteristics, which make them more suited,
survive and organisms with unfavourable characteristics, which make them less suited,
die.
Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection:
 There is a great deal of variation amongst the offspring.
 Some have favourable characteristics and some do not.
 When there is a change in the environmental conditions or if there is competition,
 then organisms with characteristics, which make them more suited, survive
 whilst organisms with unfavourable characteristics, which make them less suited, die.
 The organisms that survive, reproduce
 and thus, pass on the allele for the favourable characteristic to their offspring.
 The next generation will therefore have a higher proportion of individuals with the
favourable characteristic.
Differences between the theories of Charles Darwin and Lamarck.

Darwinism Lamarckism
natural selection 'Law' of use and disuse
Population as whole change Individual change if they want to.
There is variation No variation
Not all organisms survive All organisms survive
Environment selects or against certain Organisms can change in response to the
variation environment

Differences between natural selection and artificial selection

natural selection artificial selection

The environment or nature is the Humans represent the selective force.
selective force
Selection is in response to suitability to Selection is in response to satisfying human
the environment. needs.
Occurs within a species. May involve one or more species (as in cross
breeding).
It is a cheaper process It is expensive or costly process
It is a slow process It is a faster process
The diagram showing how Lamarck would have explained the development of
longer necks in modern giraffes

=All giraffes had short necks originally.

=These giraffes frequently stretched their necks.
=They did this to reach the leaves that were available only higher up on the trees.
=As a result, their necks became longer.
=The characteristic of long necks acquired in this way was then passed on to the next
generation.
=Eventually all the giraffes had longer necks.
An account showing how Darwin would have explained the development of longer
necks in modern giraffes.
=As a result of genetic variation in the giraffe population
=Some giraffe had longer necks than others.
=As a result of leaves being available only higher up on trees, giraffes competed for these
leaves.
=Giraffes with shorter necks died.
= Giraffes with longer necks survived.
=This is natural selection.
=The allele for longer necks was passed on to subsequent generations.
= Eventually all the giraffes had longer necks.
Punctuated Equilibrium (Niles Edridge and Stephen Jay Gould 1972)

Phyletic gradualism

Time
Punctuated Equilibrium (Eldredge and Gould – 1972)
Punctuated equilibrium is a hypothesis that explains the speed at which evolution takes
place through natural selection:
• According to punctuated equilibrium, evolution is not always gradual as proposed by
Lamarckism and Darwinism.
• Evolution involves long periods of time where species do not change or change very
little (known as equilibrium).
• This alternates with (is punctuated by) short periods of time where rapid changes occur.
• As a result, new species are formed in a short period of time, relative to the long periods
of no/little change.
• This is supported by the absence of transitional fossils (usually termed ‘missing links’)
indicating the period of rapid change.

Artificial selection involving:

 A domesticated animal species
 A crop species
EXAMPLE BELOW
=Organisms of a particular species/any example show a great deal of variation.

=Humans/farmers/scientists select organisms with a particular desirable characteristic and interbreed them
with other organisms that also have the same desirable characteristic

=to improve this characteristic further in the offspring

=They may also choose organisms with different desirable characteristics

=to get offspring with a combination of these desirable characteristics after many generations

Speciation(GENERAL)
Speciation = Formation of new species.
=A population of a particular species may become split by a geographical barrier, e.g. a river.
= As a result, the two parts of the population cannot interbreed.
=There is no gene flow between the two populations.
= Natural selection occurs independently in each population.
=This is due to different environmental conditions.
=As a result, the two populations become genotypically and phenotypically different over a period
of time.
= Even if the two populations mixed at a later time, they will not be able to interbreed again.

=We say that one or both parts of the population have become a new species =
speciation.
Example of Speciation
Figures above shows process of geographic speciation in a population of lizards, separated by a river

Explanation

A population of lizards become split by a geographical barrier/river.

• As a result, the two parts of the population cannot interbreed.
• There is no gene flow between the two populations.
• Natural selection occurs independently in each population due to different environmental
conditions on either side of the river.
• As a result, the two populations become genotypically and phenotypically different over
a period of time.
• Even if the geographical barrier is removed (i.e. the river returns to its normal course at
some later time), the lizards will not be able to interbreed again.
• We say that one or both parts of the lizards population have become a new species.
Speciation through geographic isolation in ONE of the following:
 Galapagos finches
 Galapagos tortoises
 Plants on different land masses (linked to continental drift)
o Baobabs in Africa and Madagascar
o Proteas in South Africa and Australia
 Any example of mammals on different land masses
Differences between gene pool and gene flow
Gene pool = All different allele in a particular population.
Gene flow = The exchange or flow of gene in a population
Differences between Geographical isolation and Geographical barrier
Geographical isolation= The separation of a population into two by a Geographical
barrier such as a river, lake or a mountain
Geographical barrier= A feature of land such as a river, lake or a mountain which may
separate a population into two.
Mechanisms of reproductive isolation (Keeping species separate)
1. Breeding at different times of the year/ temporal isolation.
2. Species-specific courtship behavior/ bahavioural isolation
3. Plant adaptation to different pollinators/mechanical isolation
4. Infertile offspring
5. Prevention of fertilization
Evolution in present times
Any ONE example of natural selection and evolution in present times:
 Use of insecticides and consequent resistance to insecticides in insects
 Development of resistant strains of tuberculosis-causing bacteria (MDR and XDR) to
antibiotics, due to mutations (variations) in bacteria and failure to complete antibiotic
courses
 HIV resistance to antiretroviral medication
 Bill (beak) and body size of Galapagos finches

Example OF EVOLUTION BY PRESENT TIME: Development of antibiotic resistance in a bacteria

population.
=There is a large degree of variation in the bacteria population.
=When the antibiotic was first used, it killed off a large number of bacteria.
=But some bacteria were resistant to the antibiotic and survived
=Those that survived were able to reproduce
=Increasing the population of resistant bacteria
=Continued use of the antibiotic had little effect on the resistant bacteria
= Hence the resistant bacteria increased and non-resistant bacteria decreased

END OF EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION DANK KEA

LEBOGA!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
HUMAN EVOLUTION
Characteristics humans and African apes have in common OR SHARED

4
5

1. Large brain
2 Eyes in front
3 Freely rotating arms
4 Long upper arms
5 Rotation around elbow joints
6 Bare fingertips or nails instead of claws
7 Opposable thumb
8 Upright posture

Comparison between the anatomical characteristics of Humans (Homo sapiens)

and African apes according to the features listed in the first column.
FEATURE Humans(Homo sapiens) African Apes

Cranium Large cranium/brain Small cranium/brain

Brow Ridges Brow ridges are not well Brow ridges well developed
developed
Spine More curved spine (S- Less curved spine (C-shaped
shaped spine) spine)

Pelvic girdle Short, wide pelvis Long, narrow pelvis

Canines Small canines Large canines

Palate shape Small and semi-circular Long and rectangular

Jaws • Small jaws • Large jaws

•Less protruding
jaws/less-prognathous • More protruding jaws/more
prognathous

Cranial ridges No cranial ridge Cranial ridge across the top of

the cranium

Foramen Magnum Foramen magnum in a Foramen magnum in a backward

forward position position
PHYLOGENETIC TREES
• A phylogenetic tree is a diagrammatic representation of the evolutionary relationships
between species.
•OR A phylogenetic tree is a schematic form that shows the evolutionary relationships
within a set of organisms or groups of organisms.
• Phylo = organism’s phylum group and genetic = from the genes/relationship between
the genes
• It should not be confused with pedigree diagrams which is the genetic relationships
between close family members.
When you look at the phylogentic tree above you will see a lot of branches.
• The first branching (speciation event) is at number 1. That is the common ancestor for
all the species in this phylogenetic tree.
• Let us look at the first branch:
• A, B and C have a common ancestor at number 2 and B and C have a common ancestor
at 3.
• B and C are more closely related to each other than to A.
• A, B and C are more closely related to each other than to D, E, and F.

Look at the following example of another phylogenetic tree:

In the diagram above the Austropithecus afarensis is the common ancestor of Homo
habilis and [Link]
• When the line forks into branches, speciation takes place and new species originate.
The organism that existed when the line forked into branches is the common ancestor of
the new species.
• When a line ends, it is the extinction of that specific species.(Refer to DBE textbook
page 292)
• Look at the time line (either on x-axis or y-axis) to see how old an organism is. For
example Homo habilis originated 3mya ago.
Lines of evidence that support the idea of common ancestors for living hominids
including humans:
 Fossil evidence: Evidence from fossils of different ages show that the anatomical
characteristics of organisms changed gradually over time.
 Emphasis on evolutionary trends provided by the anatomical features of fossils of the
following three genera:
o Ardipithecus
o Australopithecus
o Homo
as well as:
o The age of each fossil found/time-line for the existence of the three genera
o The fossil sites where they were found: emphasis on the fossil sites that form a part of
the Cradle of Humankind
o The scientists who discovered them
 Genetic evidence: mitochondrial DNA
 Cultural evidence: tool-making
Out-of-Africa hypothesis
= The Out-of-Africa hypothesis: state that Modern humans were originated in Africa and
then over time they migrated to different parts of the world or other continents
Evidence for the 'Out-of-Africa' hypothesis:
[Link] evidence: information on each of the following fossils that serve as evidence for
the 'Out-of-Africa' hypothesis:
=Ardipithecus (fossils found in Africa only)
=Australopithecus (fossils found in Africa only, including Karabo, Little Foot, Taung Child,
Mrs Ples)
[Link] (fossils of Homo habilis found in Africa only; oldest fossils of Homo erectus and
Homo sapiens found in Africa, while the younger fossils were found in other parts of the
world)
[Link] evidence: mitochondrial DNA that used to trace a female ancestor.
 Timeline for the existence of different species of the genus Homo and significant
features of each of fossil type to show the differences amongst them
 Interpretation of phylogenetic trees proposed by different scientists showing possible
evolutionary relationships as it applies to hominid evolution

DANK KEA LEBOGA!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Summary for important things about human evolution