Unit 3: Sets and Functions

3.3 Binary Relations & Functions — Theory + Solved Exercise 3.3 + Review Exercise 3

Part 1: Theory (Point by Point, with Simple Examples)

1. Relation — the basic idea
• A relation is simply a connection between two things.
Example: (mother, son), (teacher, student), (house, owner) — everyday relations.
• In Maths, a relation connects numbers or objects from one set to another set.
Example: ">" connects (5, 4) because 5 > 4. "square" connects (5, 25) because 5² = 25.

2. Cartesian Product (A × B)
• If A and B are two non-empty sets, A × B is the set of ALL possible ordered pairs (x, y) where x comes from A and y
comes from B.
• Written as: A × B = {(x, y) | x ∈ A and y ∈ B}
Example: A = {shirt, pant}, B = {red, blue}. Every shirt can be paired with every colour: A × B = {(shirt,red),
(shirt,blue),(pant,red),(pant,blue)}.

3. Relation as a subset of A × B
• A relation from A to B is just SOME (any) subset of A × B — you don't have to use every pair.
Example: From the shirt/colour example, "only red items" = {(shirt,red),(pant,red)} is a valid relation — a chosen
subset.

4. Domain and Range

• Domain = set of all first elements (the x-values) actually used in the relation.
• Range = set of all second elements (the y-values) actually used in the relation.
Example: Relation r = {(1,2),(1,3),(2,3)} → Domain = {1,2}, Range = {2,3}.

5. Four ways to show a relation

• Set-builder rule, e.g. r = {(x,y) | y = x + 1}
• Ordered pairs, e.g. {(0,1),(1,2),(2,3)}
• A table (x column, y column)
• A graph (points plotted on x–y axes)
Example: A water tank already has 1 litre, and 1 litre is added every minute. y = x + 1. At x = 3 minutes, y = 4 litres —
this same fact can be shown as a rule, a pair (3,4), a table row, or a plotted point.

6. What makes a relation a Function

• A function is a special relation where EVERY first element is used exactly ONCE — no first element repeats with two
different second elements.
• In plain words: one input must give exactly one output.
Example: Roll-number → Student is a function: one roll number always belongs to exactly one student. But Subject →
Teacher is NOT necessarily a function if one subject is taught by two different teachers.
• Written as f : A → B, read "f is a function from A to B".
• Domain of f = A (all inputs). Range of f = actual set of outputs produced (⊆ B). Co-domain = B (the full set outputs
are allowed to come from).
• If (x, y) is in f, we write y = f(x): "y is the image of x", or "y is the value of f at x".
7. Types of Functions
• Into function: Range ≠ Co-domain (some elements of B are never used as an output).
Example: f : A → B, A = {1,3,5}, B = {2,4,6,8}, f = {(1,2),(3,4),(5,6)}. 8 is never hit → into function.
• One-One (Injective) function: no two different inputs give the same output.
Example: Every student → their own unique CNIC/B-form number. Two different students never share the same number
→ one-one.
• Onto (Surjective) function: Range = Co-domain (every element of B is used at least once).
Example: f : A → B, A = {1,2,3}, B = {2,4,6}, f = {(1,2),(2,4),(3,6)} — every element of B is covered → onto.
• Bijective function: BOTH one-one AND onto — a perfect 1-to-1 pairing between the two sets.
Example: Every seat number in a cinema hall ↔ exactly one ticket-holder, and every seat is filled by exactly one person
→ bijective.

8. Linear and Quadratic Functions

• Linear function: f(x) = mx + c → graph is a straight line.
Example: Fare = 20 + 15×(distance in km) is a linear function: f(x) = 15x + 20.
• Quadratic function: f(x) = ax² + bx + c → graph is a curve (parabola), studied in Unit 10.
Example: Area of a square field of side x is f(x) = x² — a simple quadratic function.

Part 2: Exercise 3.3 — Solved

Q1. For A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, find the following relations in A. State the domain and range of each relation.
(i) {(x, y) | y = x}: Pairs where the two elements are equal:
r = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4)}
Answer: Domain = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Range = {1, 2, 3, 4}
(ii) {(x, y) | y + x = 5}: Pairs from A × A whose sum is 5:
r = {(1,4), (2,3), (3,2), (4,1)}
Answer: Domain = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Range = {1, 2, 3, 4}
(iii) {(x, y) | x + y < 5}: Checking all pairs from A × A with sum less than 5:
r = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (3,1)}
Answer: Domain = {1, 2, 3}, Range = {1, 2, 3}
(iv) {(x, y) | x + y > 5}: Checking all pairs from A × A with sum greater than 5:
r = {(2,4), (3,3), (3,4), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4)}
Answer: Domain = {2, 3, 4}, Range = {2, 3, 4}

Q2. Which of the diagrams represent functions, and of which type?

How to decide (rule used for every diagram):
• Step 1 — Is every arrow starting from a DIFFERENT point (no element on the left sends two arrows)? If yes → it is a
function.
• Step 2 — If it is a function, check: does every right-side element receive an arrow? If yes → onto. If some are missed
→ into.
• Step 3 — Does any right-side element receive more than one arrow? If no two arrows land on the same point AND it is
onto → bijective. If two arrows land on the same point → many-one (not one-one).
Fig (1): One left-hand element sends out two arrows to two different elements → this breaks the function rule. NOT a
function.
Fig (2): Every left element sends exactly one arrow, no two arrows share a landing point, and every right element is
used → Function, and it is Bijective (one-one and onto).
 Fig (3): Every left element sends exactly one arrow (a valid function), but two elements land on the same point on the
right, and one right-hand element is left unused → Function, but many-one and into.
Fig (4): A left-hand element sends out two arrows → NOT a function.
Note: Please match this reasoning against the exact arrows drawn in your own copy of the book — the three-step check
above will always give the correct classification.

Q3. If g(x) = 3x + 2 and h(x) = x² + 1, find:

(i) g(0): g(0) = 3(0) + 2 = 2
(ii) g(−3): g(−3) = 3(−3) + 2 = −9 + 2 = −7
(iii) g(2/3): g(2/3) = 3(2/3) + 2 = 2 + 2 = 4
(iv) h(1): h(1) = (1)² + 1 = 2
(v) h(−4): h(−4) = (−4)² + 1 = 16 + 1 = 17
(vi) h(−1/2): h(−1/2) = (−1/2)² + 1 = 1/4 + 1 = 5/4

Q4. f(x) = ax + b + 1, where a and b are constants. If f(3) = 8 and f(6) = 14, find a and b.
f(3) = 3a + b + 1 = 8 ⟹ 3a + b = 7 ...(i)
f(6) = 6a + b + 1 = 14 ⟹ 6a + b = 13 ...(ii)
(ii) − (i): 3a = 6 ⟹ a = 2
Put a = 2 in (i): 3(2) + b = 7 ⟹ b = 1
Answer: a = 2, b = 1

Q5. g(x) = ax + b + 5, where a and b are constants. If g(−1) = 0 and g(2) = 10, find a and b.
g(−1) = −a + b + 5 = 0 ⟹ b = a − 5 ...(i)
g(2) = 2a + b + 5 = 10 ⟹ 2a + b = 5 ...(ii)
Put (i) in (ii): 2a + (a − 5) = 5 ⟹ 3a = 10 ⟹ a = 10/3
b = 10/3 − 5 = −5/3
Answer: a = 10/3, b = −5/3

Q6. f(x) = 5x + 2. If f(x) = 32, find x.

5x + 2 = 32 ⟹ 5x = 30 ⟹ x = 6
Answer: x = 6

Q7. f(x) = cx² + d, where c and d are constants. If f(1) = 6 and f(−2) = 10, find c and d.
f(1) = c(1) + d = c + d = 6 ...(i)
f(−2) = c(4) + d = 4c + d = 10 ...(ii)
(ii) − (i): 3c = 4 ⟹ c = 4/3
From (i): d = 6 − 4/3 = 14/3
Answer: c = 4/3, d = 14/3

Part 3: Review Exercise 3 — Solved

Q1. MCQs (correct option encircled)
(i) Set builder form of {1, 1/3, 1/5, 1/7, ...}. Testing n = 0,1,2,3,... in 1/(2n+1) gives 1, 1/3, 1/5, 1/7. → (b) {x | x =
1/(2n+1), n ∈ W}
(ii) A = { } (empty set). Its power set has exactly one member — the empty set itself. → (c) {{ }}
(iii) U = {1,2,3,4,5}, A∩B = {3}. U − (A∩B) = {1,2,4,5}. → (a) {1,2,4,5}
(iv) For overlapping sets, n(A−B) = n(A) − n(A∩B). → (d) n(A) − n(A∩B)
(v) If A ⊆ B, n(B−A) = n(B) − n(A). → (d) n(B) − n(A)
(vi) n(A∩B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A∪B) = 30 + 35 − 50 = 15. → (b) 15
(vii) A has 4 elements, B has 3 elements. A×B has 4 × 3 = 12 elements. → (b) 12
 (viii) f(a+1) = (a+1)² − 3(a+1) + 2 = a² + 2a + 1 − 3a − 3 + 2 = a² − a. → (d) a² − a
(ix) 3x + 1 = 28 ⟹ 3x = 27 ⟹ x = 9. → (a) 9
(x) f = {(1,a),(2,b),(3,b)}: two inputs (2 and 3) share output b, so NOT one-one; but Range = {a,b} = B, so it IS onto. →
(b) f is surjective

Q2. Write in tabular form

(i) {x | x = 2n, n ∈ N}: = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...}
(ii) {x | x = 2m+1, m ∈ N}: = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, ...}
(iii) {x | x = 11n, n ∈ W ∧ n < 11}: n = 0,1,2,...,10 → {0, 11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66, 77, 88, 99, 110}
(iv) {x | x ∈ E ∧ 4 < x < 6}: The only number strictly between 4 and 6 is 5, which is odd, not even → { } (empty set)
(v) {x | x ∈ O ∧ 5 < x < 7}: The only number strictly between 5 and 7 is 6, which is even, not odd → { } (empty set)
(vi) {x | x ∈ Q ∧ x² = 2}: x = ±√2, which is irrational, not rational → { } (empty set)
(vii) {x | x ∈ Q ∧ x = −x}: x = −x ⟹ 2x = 0 ⟹ x = 0, and 0 is rational → {0}
(viii) {x | x ∈ R ∧ x ∉ Q′}: Q′ = irrational numbers, so "not irrational" (while being real) means rational → the set of all
rational numbers, Q (cannot be fully listed, but this is its description)

Q3. U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, A = {2,4,6,8,10}, B = {1,2,3,4,5}, C = {1,3,5,7,9}

(i) A′: = U − A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
(ii) B′: = U − B = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
(iii) A∪B: = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10}
(iv) A−B: = {6, 8, 10}
(v) A∩C: A (evens) and C (odds) share nothing → = { } (empty set)
(vi) A′∪C′: A′ = {1,3,5,7,9}, C′ = {2,4,6,8,10} → A′∪C′ = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} = U
(vii) A′∪C: A′ = {1,3,5,7,9} = C, so A′∪C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
(viii) U′: = { } (empty set — complement of the universal set)

Q4. Using Venn diagrams, find the single set equal to each of the following (draw A, B
inside U as overlapping circles and shade to confirm):
(i) A′: the region of U outside circle A
(ii) A∩U: = A (intersecting with everything just gives A back)
(iii) A∪U: = U (union with everything gives the whole universal set)
(iv) A∪∅: = A (union with an empty set changes nothing)
(v) ∅∩∅: = ∅ (empty set)

Q5. Use Venn diagrams to verify:

(i) A − B = A ∩ B′: Shading "A but not B" and shading "A intersected with (not B)" both give the identical region →
verified true.
(ii) (A−B)′ ∩ B = B: Algebraically: (A−B)′ = A′∪B, so (A′∪B)∩B = (A′∩B)∪B = B, since A′∩B is already inside B.
Shading confirms the result is exactly circle B → verified true.

Q6. Verify the following properties for the given sets:

(i) Associativity of Union: A∪(B∪C) = (A∪B)∪C
(ii) Associativity of Intersection: A∩(B∩C) = (A∩B)∩C
(iii) Distributivity of Union over Intersection: A∪(B∩C) = (A∪B)∩(A∪C)
(iv) Distributivity of Intersection over Union: A∩(B∪C) = (A∩B)∪(A∩C)

(a) A = {1,2,3,4}, B = {3,4,5,6,7,8}, C = {5,6,7,9,10}

(i) A∪(B∪C) = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} = (A∪B)∪C ✓
 (ii) A∩(B∩C) = ∅ = (A∩B)∩C ✓
(iii) A∪(B∩C) = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7} = (A∪B)∩(A∪C) ✓
(iv) A∩(B∪C) = {3,4} = (A∩B)∪(A∩C) ✓

(b) A = ∅, B = {0}, C = {0,1,2}

(i) A∪(B∪C) = {0,1,2} = (A∪B)∪C ✓
(ii) A∩(B∩C) = ∅ = (A∩B)∩C ✓
(iii) A∪(B∩C) = {0} = (A∪B)∩(A∪C) ✓
(iv) A∩(B∪C) = ∅ = (A∩B)∪(A∩C) ✓

(c) A = N, B = Z, C = Q (since N ⊆ Z ⊆ Q)
(i) A∪(B∪C) = Q = (A∪B)∪C ✓
(ii) A∩(B∩C) = N = (A∩B)∩C ✓
(iii) A∪(B∩C) = Z = (A∪B)∩(A∪C) ✓
(iv) A∩(B∪C) = N = (A∩B)∪(A∩C) ✓
All four properties hold true in every case.

Q7. Verify De Morgan's Laws: U = {1,...,20}, A = {2,4,6,...,20}, B = {1,3,5,...,19}

A∪B = U, so (A∪B)′ = ∅

A′∩B′ = B∩A = ∅ = (A∪B)′ ⟹ Law 1 verified ✓

A′ = B and B′ = A (since A, B split U exactly into evens and odds)

A′∪B′ = B∪A = U = (A∩B)′ ⟹ Law 2 verified ✓

A∩B = ∅, so (A∩B)′ = U

Q8. P = {x | x = 5m, m∈N} (multiples of 5), Q = {x | x = 2m, m∈N} (multiples of 2). Find
P∩Q.
P∩Q = numbers that are multiples of BOTH 5 and 2 = multiples of 10
Answer: P∩Q = {x | x = 10k, k∈N} = {10, 20, 30, 40, ...}

Q9. From suitable properties, deduce: (i) A∩(A∪B) = A∪(A∩B) (ii) A∪(A∩B) =
A∩(A∪B)
By the Absorption Law: A∩(A∪B) = A (since every element of A is automatically in A ∪B)
By the Absorption Law: A∪(A∩B) = A (since A∩B is already fully contained inside A)
Since both expressions separately simplify to A, they are equal to each other — both (i) and (ii) are verified.

Q10. If g(x) = 7x − 2 and s(x) = 8x² − 3, find:

(i) g(0): = 7(0) − 2 = −2
(ii) g(−1): = 7(−1) − 2 = −9
(iii) g(−5/3): = 7(−5/3) − 2 = −35/3 − 6/3 = −41/3
(iv) s(1): = 8(1)² − 3 = 5
(v) s(−9): = 8(81) − 3 = 648 − 3 = 645
(vi) s(7/2): = 8(49/4) − 3 = 98 − 3 = 95

Q11. f(x) = ax + b, where a and b are constant numbers. If f(−2) = 3 and f(4) = 10, find
a and b.
f(−2) = −2a + b = 3 ...(i)
f(4) = 4a + b = 10 ...(ii)
(ii) − (i): 6a = 7 ⟹ a = 7/6
 From (i): b = 3 + 2a = 3 + 7/3 = 16/3
Answer: a = 7/6, b = 16/3

Q12. Consider the function defined by k(x) = 7x − 5. If k(x) = 100, find the value of x.
7x − 5 = 100 ⟹ 7x = 105 ⟹ x = 15
Answer: x = 15

Q13. g(x) = mx² + n, where m and n are constant numbers. If g(4) = 20 and g(0) = 5,
find m and n.
g(0) = n = 5
g(4) = 16m + n = 20 ⟹ 16m + 5 = 20 ⟹ 16m = 15 ⟹ m = 15/16
Answer: m = 15/16, n = 5