EVOLUTION (Biol 402) LECTURE NOTES

CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction
The planet earth came into existence sometime between 4 and 5 billion years ago. Life
evolved on planet earth about 3.5 billion years ago. Since then, approximately 15 million
different species of organisms have evolved. But only about two million have been identified
so far. In this lesson we will learn how life of these, at first originated on earth and how such
a vast variety of organisms, popularly known as biodiversity, evolved through variation and
natural selection.

Modern biologists constantly study, ponder and deliberate the patterns, mechanisms and pace
of evolution, but they do not debate evolution's occurrence. The fossil record and the
diversity of extant organisms, combined with modern techniques of molecular biology,
taxonomy and geology, provide exhaustive examples and powerful evidence for genetic
variation, natural selection, speciation, extinction and other well-established components of
current evolutionary theory. Scientific deliberations and modifications of these components
clearly demonstrate the vitality and scientific integrity of evolutionary theory.

The diversity of life on earth is the outcome of evolution: an unpredictable and natural
process of temporal descent with genetic modification that is affected by natural selection,
chance, historical contingencies and changing environments.

Evolutionary theory is significant in biology, among other reasons, for its unifying properties
and predictive features, the clear empirical testability of its integral models and the richness
of new scientific research it fosters. Scientific evidence supports the central conclusion of
evolutionary theory, that life on Earth has evolved and that species share common ancestors.

1.1 Definition and scope of evolution

Evolution is the compelling theory that explains the origin of species and the history of life
on Earth. Species could change over time and that these changes could lead to new
organisms. Changes acquired by an organism as a result of adaptation to environmental
conditions during that organism’s lifetime could be inherited by future generations.

Like all scientific theories, the validity and value of evolutionary biology are based on
rigorous and continual analysis and interpretation of accumulating evidence. Today there is a
broad consensus among scientists on the facts of evolution—that the history of life on Earth
has been one of continual change over billions of years. Although modern knowledge of
molecular biology and genetics offers additional evidence and support for evolution, as with
other fields, many questions remain open for study.
 Evolution: is the process in which significant changes in the inheritable traits of a
species occur over time.
Strong evidence for a changing Earth began with a careful examination of fossils. Fossil
evidence provided important scientific insights into the past, as a record of both the great
diversification of species and the extinction of many others. As well as the fossil record, the
geographic distribution of living species began to give scientists valuable clues to patterns of
evolution. Fossils offer evidence of environmental change. Evolution has direct applications
in the health sciences, agriculture, industry, and conservation.

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1.2 Why We Study Evolution?

The natural world holds many puzzles and surprises. For example, the origin of species and
the history of life on Earth? Mysteries in nature give rise to a multitude of questions. To
answer these questions, biologists rely on an understanding and application of the theory of
evolution. Scientists have identified more than a million different species, past and present,
on Earth, and millions more await study. Despite the extraordinary diversity, all life forms are
fundamentally similar at the cellular and molecular level. How have cells transformed into
the current diversity of life? How are fossilized life forms related to living organisms?
Solving such puzzles is one of the evolutionary science greatest achievements.

Geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky expressed the significance of evolutionary theories when

he said, “Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.” To appreciate the
significance of evolution, it is important to study the evidence that supports the theory as well
as the mechanisms by which it operates. Evolutionary biology is a modern science that
provides answers to questions about the past. Evolution is both a beautiful concept and an
important one, more crucial nowadays to human welfare and to our understanding of the
world than ever before.

CHAPTER TWO

2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTION

2.1 Evolutionary and non-evolutionary ideas before Darwin

For centuries, scientists have been gathering and piecing together evidence to solve the
puzzle of the origin and history of life on Earth. They have made careful observations,
formulated and tested hypotheses, analysed data from diverse sources, and drawn inferences
to develop the theory that is now generally accepted as the solution to the puzzle of evolution.
Today, most people understand that the world is a dynamic environment in which change is
both natural and unavoidable,

By the 19th century, the scientific community had accumulated sufficient evidence for
general agreement that Earth was very old and that life forms on Earth had undergone and
continued to undergo changes. However, not until 1859 did scientists formulate a viable
explanation for the mechanism of evolution.

Immutable: unchanged and unchanging, believed (before evolutionary theory became

accepted) to be characteristic of life forms

Eighteenth-century scientists were starting to understand pieces of the evolution mystery by

drawing on early physical evidence from the fossil record. Geology offered the foundation for
new and tentative, but scientific, hypotheses of the age of Earth and the origins of life. In
1795, Scottish geologist James Hutton proposed a theory he called actualism to contrast with
Cuvier’s catastrophism. Hutton explained the geological formation of landforms as the result
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of slow processes, such as erosion, that were on going and observable in his day. Building on
Hutton’s ideas, Sir Charles Lyell revolutionized geology with his principles of
uniformitarianism. In his now-famous Principles of Geology, published in 1830, Lyell made
the following arguments:

• Earth has been changed by the same processes in the past as can be observed occurring in
the present.
• Geological change is slow and gradual rather than sudden and catastrophic.
• Natural laws and processes are constant and eternal, and they operated with the same kind
of intensity in the past as they do in the present.

 Actualism: the theory that the same geological processes occurring in the present
also occurred in the past.
 Uniformitarianism: the theory that Earth’s surface has always changed and
continues to change through similar, uniform, and very gradual processes

A leading naturalist, Georges Buffon, proposed that species could change over time and that
these changes could lead to new organisms. Carl Linnaeus, the founder of biological
nomenclature, and Erasmus Darwin, a well-respected physician and poet who was the
grandfather of Charles Darwin, both proposed views similar to those of Buffon. Linnaeus
proposed that a relatively few species had formed many new species through hybridization
and interbreeding.

A student of Buffon made significant contributions to the 19th-century debate on evolution.

Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck was the first prominent
biologist to recognize the key role played by the environment in evolution. Lamarck reasoned
that for species to survive over long periods of time, they must be able to adapt to changing
environmental conditions. Lamarck believed in the evolutionary change and improvement of
individual species.

Table 2. 1. Early Ideas about Evolution

Scientist Contribution to development of theory of evolution

Sir Charles Lyell (1797–1875) Suggested Earth had undergone and continues to undergo
slow, steady, and very gradual changes
Comte Georges Louis Leclerc Suggested that similar organisms may have a common
de Buffon (1707–1788) ancestor proposed that all life may have a single source
Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802)
Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine was the first scientist to recognize that the environment
de Monet, Chevalier displays a key role in the evolution of species. He further
Lamarck (1744–1829) postulated the theory of inheritance of acquired traits

Earliest Evolutionary Processes

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• Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago. By about 4 billion years ago, less dense
compounds had cooled to form a solid crust, water vapour had condensed, and ocean basins
had filled.
• Early anaerobic conditions on Earth likely resulted in the formation and polymerization of
many small organic molecules.
• Some RNA molecules act as catalysts for various reactions, including their own replication.
As such, they are likely candidates for the first hereditary molecular systems.
• Both lipid and protein compounds likely formed liquid-filled semi-permeable vessels
spontaneously. These vessels have some of the same properties as cells.
• The first cells, which evolved at least 3.8 billion years ago, resembled modern prokaryotic
cells. After photosynthetic prokaryotic cells evolved, at least 3 billion years ago, oxygen gas
began to accumulate in Earth’s atmosphere.

2.2 The Modern Synthesis (Neo-Darwinism)

Darwin’s theory of ‘Origin of Species’ by natural selection’, explains the process of evolution through
useful variation and natural selection. Neo-Darwinism is the modern interpretation of Darwinism
based on natural selection, mutation and reproductive isolation.

 Neo-Darwinism: is the modern interpretation of Darwinism based

on natural selection, mutation and reproductive isolation.
i. Natural Selection
Darwin to propose the theory of natural selection in his book “Origin of Species”. The theory of
natural selection is based on following points:
1. Rapid Multiplication: Every organism has enormous ability to reproduce to continuance of
the species. All animals and plant tend to multiply in geometrical progression.
2. Limited natural resources: Inspite the enormous capacity of an organism to reproduce,
the number of individual species remain constant. It is due to increase in population in animal
or plant requires more space and food. The amount of these basic material is limited in
universe. Hence, it does not allow the population of organism beyond the limit and an
equilibrium is reached.
3. Struggle for existence: Due to shortage of food, water and space, there is severe
competition among the off spring for existence. In order to achieve basic needs, organisms
compete with each other and it is known as struggle for existence. The struggle for an
individual can be of 3 types:
(i) Intraspecific Struggle: The competition of the individuals of the same species. For
example, fight between two dogs for a piece of meat. War is another example of intraspecific
struggle among different human.
(ii) Interspecific Struggle: The competition of the individuals of the different species. For
example, tiger attacks on deer for food.
(iii) Environmental Struggle: Every individual struggle against the change in environment
such as temperature, humidity, level of water, rain, climate etc.

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4. Variation: Each and every individual varies in several aspects to other individual. Even
the offsprings produced by parents also differ in many aspects. The two individuals can be
different from each other in their behavior, color, size, strength etc.
5. Natural Selection: Due to variation among different individual, they struggle towards
their existence with different potentials. The variation in an individual may allow him to
survive and complete its life cycle comfortable. Another factor is ability to adopt into the
changed environment. Both Darwin and Wallace, recognized the environment as the principal
factor for natural selection. Nature selects the fittest.
6. Inheritence of useful variations: The individual survived due to unique variation, mate
and produces their off spring to complete their life-cycle. As a result, they transfer the useful
variations to the next generations and allow the individual to multiply. Darwin believed that
any variation which can help the individual to survive and help to favouable for struggle will
be inherited. He considerd the variation which may be acquired or inheritable.
7. Formation of new Species: As a result of struggle and natural selection, only the
individual fits to the environmental conditions will survive and complete its life-cycle. As a
result, the number of these individual will increase over the course of time compared to the
less favorable organism. In addition, the variation favoring will be inherited to the next
generation whereas unfavorable variation will be discarded. Due to continuous selection, a
new organism will appear which will be different from their ancestral form.

An English Scientist, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) explained the mechanism of evolution

through his theory of natural selection. He is still regarded as ‘the father of evolution’
because of two very significant contributions.
He suggested:
(i) that all kind of organisms are related through ancestry and
(ii) he suggested a mechanism for evolution and named it natural selection.

According to Darwin when the environment changes, new adaptations get selected in nature
and after many generations sufficient characteristics will have been changed so as to alter the
species into a new one (origin of species). With progress in genetics the sources of variation
were discovered and Darwin’s original theory of Natural Selection modified. This new theory
was termed Neo-Darwinism or Modern Synthetic Theory.

According to this theory:

1. The unit of evolution is ‘population’ which has its own gene pool. Gene pool is the group
of all different genes of a population.
2. Heritable genetic changes appear in the individuals of a population. These heritable
changes or variations occur due to small mutations in the genes or in the chromosomes and
their recombination.
3. Natural selection selects the variations which help in adapting to the environment.
4. A change in the genetic constitution of a population selected by natural selection is
responsible for evolution of a new species, since through interaction of variation and Natural

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Selection more offspring with favourable genetic changes are born. This is called ‘differential
reproduction’.
5. Once evolved, Reproductive Isolation helps in keeping species distinct.

ii. Variation
Variation arises in an individual member of a population, and if favourable, spreads into the
population through “differential reproduction” by the action of natural selection.
Variations may occur by:
1. Mutation, which is a sudden genetic change. It may be a change in a single gene (genic
mutation or point mutation) or may affect many genes (chromosomal mutation).
2. Genetic recombination, which occurs in sexually reproducing organisms at every
reproduction. The chromosomes and thus genes of the parents mix at random during zygote
formation. That is why offspring of same parents are different from each other as they have
different combinations of parental genes. Variation is also brought about when crossing over
occurs during gamete formation.
3. Gene flow; is when there is chance mixing of genes of closely related species through
sexual reproduction.
4. Genetic drift; occurs in small populations when a part breaks off from a large population.
Only representative genes of the large population are present which undergo change at a right
time and the small population may evolve into a new subspecies or species.
(iii) Reproductive Isolation
Once new species arise from the parental species due to the effect of variation and natural
selection, reproductive barriers prevent the two species from exchanging genes through
reproduction. Isolation helps in formation of new species and also in keeping species distinct.
Reproductive isolation operates in the following ways:
Ecological isolation: The two species are unable to mate as they live in geographically
different areas.
Seasonal isolation: Mating is prevented because the reproductive organs mature at different
times.
Ethological (Behavioral) isolation: The songs in birds of two species or the coloration of
two fishes are so different that female of one species is able to recognize only the male of its
own species.
Mechanical isolation: The male and female organs for mating differ in different species and
prevent their union.
Physiological isolation: The sperms of one species are not able to survive in the female tract
of another species.

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Zygotic and developmental Isolation: If all the above mechanisms fail and a “hybrid
zygote” (zygote from mating of two different species) is formed, it dies after some time. If
the hybrid zygote survives it dies during development.
Hybrid sterility: Mule, the offspring of a female horse and male donkey is a good example.
It leads a normal life but is sterile and cannot reproduce.
F2 breakdown: In rare cases, all the above mechanisms fail and a hybrid (offspring of
parents belonging to different species) is fertile, it can reproduce only for one generation.

2.3 Development within the modern synthesis (1960s – present)

Like all scientific theories, the validity and value of evolutionary biology are based on
rigorous and continual analysis and interpretation of accumulating evidence. Today there is a
broad consensus among scientists on the facts of evolution—that the history of life on Earth
has been one of continual change over billions of years. Although modern knowledge of
molecular biology and genetics offers additional evidence and support for evolution,

Strong evidence for a changing Earth began with a careful examination of fossils. Fossil
evidence provided important scientific insights into the past, as a record of both the great
diversification of species and the extinction of many others.

CHAPTER THREE
3. THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
3.1 Special creation theory
In place of evolution by natural selection, creationists postulate the existence of a
supernatural "God," "Creator" or "Intelligence" who created the Earth and all of the living
organisms on it and in it. They claim that this super-natural agent produced the Earth and its
life within a period of thousands of years.

Special creation theory suggests that, the existence of a supernatural "God," or

"Creator" who created the Earth and all of the living organisms on it and in it.

Creationist scientists do not know how God created, what processes He used, for God used
processes which are not now operating anywhere in the natural universe. This is why we refer
to divine creation as special creation. We cannot discover by scientific investigations
anything about the creative processes used by God. Instead, creationists maintain that the
Creator used catastrophic or supernatural means to His end. The Noahic Flood is an example
of such a supernatural catastrophe.

 Origin of life: the appearance of simplest primordial life from

nonliving matter.

The main trouble with catastrophist theories is that;

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i. there is no way of subjecting them to empirical test

ii. it is not be correctable.
iii. It is so unchanging

3.2 Spontaneous generation theory

From earliest times, people had believed in spontaneous generation—that living organisms
could develop from nonliving matter. Even the great Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) thought some
of the simpler invertebrates could arise by spontaneous generation. At that time, the age old
idea of “Spontaneous Generation theory” was the dominant one. The idea that organism
originate directly from non-living matter. (Life from non-living) also called as abiogenesis (a
– not; bio – life; genesis – origin).Eg : Maggots were developed spontaneously via
recombination of matters in rotting materials.(ex meat)

Spontaneous generation theory suggested that, living organisms could develop from
nonliving matter.
 Evolution of life: the gradual formation of complex organisms
from simpler ones.

Disproval of Spontaneous Generation theory

This view finally was challenged by the Italian physician Francesco Redi (1626–1697), who
carried out a series of experiments on decaying meat and its ability to produce maggots
spontaneously. Redi placed meat in three containers. One was uncovered, a second was
covered with paper, and the third was covered with fine gauze that would exclude flies. Flies
laid their eggs on the uncovered meat and maggots developed. The other two pieces of meat
did not produce maggots spontaneously. Thus the generation of maggots by decaying meat
resulted from the presence of fly eggs, and meat did not spontaneously generate maggots as
previously believed.
Flies Maggots
open

Gauze

Parchment

Figure 3.1 : Redi’s Experiment to disprove the theory of abiogenesis.

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Also Louis Pasteur (1822 – 1895) disproved Spontaneous generation theory. He performed
“gooseneck experiment”. The nutrient of flask was heated and the untreated – unfiltered air
could pass in or out, but the germs settled in the gooseneck and no microbes were observed in
the nutrient solution. His concept of germs theory of disease (means germs are responsible
for the disease not the inert mater) ends the SG theory.

Figure 3: Diagram of Pasteur’s swan neck tube experiment.

3.3 Steady-state theory
Steady-state theory view that the universe is always expanding but maintaining a constant
average density, with matter being continuously created to form new stars and galaxies at the
same rate that old ones become unobservable as a consequence of their increasing distance
and velocity of recession. A steady-state universe has no beginning or end in time, and from
any point within it the view on the grand scale—i.e., the average density and arrangement of
galaxies—is the same. Galaxies of all possible ages are intermingled.

The theory was first put forward in 1948 by British scientists Sir Hermann Bondi, Thomas
Gold, and Sir Fred Hoyle. It was further developed by Hoyle to deal with problems that had
arisen in connection with the alternative big-bang hypothesis. Observations since the 1950s
(most notably, those of the cosmic microwave background, which was predicted by the big-
bang model) have produced much evidence contradictory to the steady-state picture and have
led scientists to overwhelmingly support the big-bang model.

3.4 Cosmozoan theory

This theory was proposed by Richter in 1865. According to this theory life has reached the
planet earth from other heavenly bodies such as meteorites in the form of highly resistant
spores of some microorganisms. The spores of some microorganisms are called cosmozoa or
panspermia because they are preserved inside meteorites coming to the earth from the outer
space.
These meteorites struck the barren earth to release the cosmozoa and they developed into
different creatures on the earth. This theory lacks evidence.

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 Cosmozoan theory: states that life has reached the planet earth from other heavenly
bodies such as meteorites in the form of highly resistant spores of some
microorganisms.
3.5 Biochemical evolution:
All organisms have cell as the basic unit of life. The cell is made of biomolecules common to
all organisms. Among several theories put forth to explain the origin of life, the theory of
Chemosynthetic theory of origin of life is the one which proposed by A.I. Oparin.
Life might have originated at first on earth through a series of combinations of chemical
substances in the distant past and it all happened in water.
􀁺 The earth originated about 5 billion years ago.
􀁺 It was initially made up of hot gases and vapours of various chemicals.
􀁺 Gradually it cooled down and a solid crust was formed.
􀁺 The early atmosphere contained ammonia (NH3), water vapour (H2O), hydrogen (H2),
methane (CH4). At that time there was no free oxygen. This sort of atmosphere (with
methane, ammonia and hydrogen) is still found on Jupiter and Saturn.
􀁺 Heavy rains fell on the hot surface of earth, and over a very, very long period the water
bodies appeared that still contained hot water.
􀁺 Methane and ammonia from the atmosphere dissolved in the water of the seas.
􀁺 In this water, chemical reactions occurred and gave rise to amino acids, nitrogenous
bases, sugars and fatty acids which further reacted and combined to give rise to
biomolecules of life such as proteins and nucleic acids.

However, organisms sharing same chemical characteristics show closer evolutionary

relationships.

The ancient atmosphere

Earth, when it formed some 4.6 billion years ago, was extremely hot. Heat generated by
asteroid impacts, internal compression, and radioactivity melted most of the rocky material.
Dense materials composed of such heavy elements as iron and nickel, formed Earth’s inner
core, while less dense materials formed a thick mantle. The least dense rock, composed
mostly of lighter elements, floated on the surface and cooled to form a crust.

Hot gases formed Earth’s primitive atmosphere. When, after some 500 million to 800 million
years, the asteroid bombardment slowed and surface temperatures cooled below 100°C, vast
quantities of water vapour condensed. Hundreds of years of torrential rains pooled in surface
depressions to form ocean basins. The atmosphere of primordial Earth would have contained
large amounts of nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and water vapour. Other
hydrogen compounds—such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and methane—would have been
present. It is probable, though not certain, that this early atmosphere also contained hydrogen
gas.
Oxygen gas is highly reactive and, with the high temperatures present then, would have
combined with many other elements to form oxides; for this reason, the atmosphere would

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have contained little, if any, free oxygen gas. The surface of Earth would have been exposed
to many intense sources of energy: radioactivity, intense ultraviolet light, visible light, and
cosmic radiation from a young Sun; heat from volcanic activity; and electrical energy from
violent lightning storms.
The chlorophyll–bearing units of life for the first time started using solar energy for
production of food as well as for the first time started liberating free oxygen into the
atmosphere. Early atmosphere of earth had no free oxygen, the forms until then could at best
be only “anaerobic”. Chlorophyll–bearing organisms later released free oxygen which gave
greater possibilities for life to evolve.

Stanely Miller Experiment

The Miller and Urey experiment is considered as one of the successful approach to uncover
the hidden evidence regarding how the life was originated fundamentally. This experiment
was conducted in 1952 by Stanley Miller and Harold Urey at the University of Chicago. An
outcome of this simple experiment is consider as a breakthrough that made organic
compounds out of inorganic ones by applying a form of energy. Their idea was based on
simulation of hypothetical conditions on the early Earth as to test the biochemical origins of
life.
They set up an experiment with an air-tight apparatus in which four gases (NH4, CH4, H2
and H2O) were subjected to an electric discharge for one week. On analyzing the liquid, they
found a variety of organic substances in it, such as amino acids, urea, acetic acid, and lactic
acid.
Urey and Miller were said that “conditions on the primitive earth favored chemical reactions
that synthesized organic compounds from inorganic precursors.” This is considering being
classical experiment on the origin of life. UV radiation or electric discharge is synthesizing
new organic molecules but this presence of oxygen is either destroying these molecules or not
allowing condensation reactions. Hence, organic evolution is not possible in the current earth
atmosphere.

The Nature of Earliest organism

The oldest known fossils of cells on Earth—accurately dated to 3.465 billion years ago—
were found in Western Australia in layered formations called stromatolites. These
microscopic fossils resemble present-day anaerobic cyanobacteria. Even the world’s oldest-
known sedimentary rock formations located in Greenland—dating to 3.8 billion years ago—
show chemical traces of microbial life and activity.

 Stromatolites: are shaped rock formations that result from the fossilization of mats of
ancient prokaryotic cells and sediment

Although the oldest fossil bacteria resemble photosynthetic cyanobacteria, which use oxygen,
The very first prokaryotic cells would certainly have been anaerobic, as the atmosphere
would then have contained little or no free oxygen. These first prokaryotic organisms would

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likely have relied on abiotic sources of organic compounds. They would have been
chemoautotrophic, obtaining their energy and raw materials from the metabolism of such
chemicals in their environment as hydrogen sulfide, released at high temperatures and in
large quantities from ocean-floor vents. These organisms would have adapted to living under
harsh conditions of extreme heat and pressure and may have resembled present-day thermo
philic archae bacteria.

Fig: 3.2 The phylogenetic tree /tree of life/ --traces the pattern of descent of all life over millions of
years into three major branches: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eucarya.

As the first cells reproduced and became abundant, these chemicals would have gradually
become depleted. Any cell that was able to use simple inorganic molecules and an alternative
energy source would have had an advantage. Fossil evidence suggests that, by 3 billion years
ago, photosynthetic autotrophs were doing just that.

Although the first photosynthetic organisms may have also used hydrogen sulfide as a source
of hydrogen, those that used water would have had a virtually unlimited supply. As they
removed hydrogen from water, they would have released free oxygen gas into the atmosphere
—a process that would have had a dramatic effect. The accumulation of oxygen gas, which is
very reactive, would have been toxic to many of the anaerobic organisms on Earth. While
these photosynthetic cells prospered, others would have had to adapt to the steadily
increasing levels of atmospheric oxygen or perish. Some of the oxygen gas reaching the
upper atmosphere would have reacted to form a layer of ozone gas, having the potential to
dramatically reduce the amount of damaging ultraviolet radiation reaching Earth. At the same
time, the very success of the photosynthetic cells would have favoured the evolution of many
heterotrophic organisms.

These early life forms and evolutionary stages produced the necessary conditions to support
the dramatic on Earth powered and supplied by energy from the sun and the chemical
products of [Link] of life

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 Chemoautotrophic: an organism capable of synthesizing its own organic molecules

with carbondioxide as a carbon source and oxidizing an inorganic substance as an
energy source

Endosymbiosis is likely responsible for the evolution of both aerobic and photosynthetic
eukaryotic cells. The evolution of both aerobic heterotrophic and aerobic photosynthetic
eukaryotic cells likely occurred through endosymbiosis. Heterotrophic eukaryotic cells could
have evolved into various protists and, later, into fungi and animals, while photosynthetic
eukaryotic cells could have been the ancestors of photosynthetic protists and, eventually,
plants.

 Endosymbiosis: is relationship in which a single-celled organism lives within the

cell(s) of another organism.

CHAPTER FOUR
4. EVIDENCES FOR THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION
4.1 Paleontology, Fossils, Geological time scale, Dating methods

Evidences from Paleontology

Paleontology is the study of fossils. Fossils are the remains or traces of animal and plant life
of the past, found embedded in rock either as petrified hard parts or as moulds, casts or
tracks. The fossils of the earliest era in the geological time scale were those of bacteria, then
invertebrates and then successively of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and lastly of birds and
mammals and among mammals primitive fossils of humans are the most recent.

Today’s fossil record comprises more than 250 000 identified species, a number thought to be
only a tiny fraction of all species that have lived on Earth. Less than 1% of species in the
fossil record are living today. In addition, fossils contained in shallower deposits were more
likely to resemble living species. Each layer seemed to contain many distinct species not
found in layers above or below it.

 Palaeontology: the scientific study of fossil remains.

The most common and easily recognized fossils are such hard body parts as shells, bones,
and teeth. Fossils also include impressions of burrows, footprints, and even chemical remains.
Fossils are commonly formed when the bodies of organisms become trapped in sediments,
which become compressed into strata, or layers, and eventually harden into sedimentary rock.

 Fossils: any preserved remains or traces of an organism or its activity.

 Fossilization: the process by which traces of past organisms become part of

sedimentary rock layers or, more rarely, hardened tar pits, volcanic ash, peat bogs, or
amber.

Geological time scale

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Geological time scale is the use of the radioactive dating has allowed the determination of
fossils found in different sedimentary rock samples. It has allowed to calculate the presence
of different organisms preserved in the rock samples in the form of fossils. In addition, it
helped scientist to predict that earth is almost 4-5 billion year old and life appeared on earth
almost 4000 millions year ago. Since then the earth’s history has been divided into 5 different
time frame known as eras. Few of these eras are divided into the periods and which inturn
split up into the epochs. The different Eras are as follows:
1. Archeozoic (4600-3500 million years): it is the first era and begins with the formation of
earth and presence of solar system. There is no fossil form available from this era.
2. Proterozoic (3000-1000 million years): it is the second era and begins with the origin of
prokaryotes, primitive metazoans and eukaryotes. Reports are available about scanty fossils
in this era.
3. Palaeozoic (570-280 million years): it is the third era and known as era of ancient life. It
saw the appearance of invertebrate, fishes, amphibian etc. Reports of spore bearing plants,
tree ferns and origin of conifers is available. Reports are available about scanty fossils in this
era.
4. Mesozoic (225-135 million years): The appearance of tooth birds, therian mammals,
reptiles and dominance of dinosaurs. In addition, placental mammals are also found. Reports
of cycads and flowering plants is available.
5. Cenozoic (Modern era): This is the modern era and it witnessed the dominance of present
age man, modern mammals, birds, fishes and insects.

Dating methods
Today the layers of rock can be accurately dated by strata and by radioactive decay methods
Radioisotopes are atoms that undergo radioactive decay rates can be measured very
accurately. The decay of radioactive materials changes a parent isotope into a daughter
isotope of the same element or of a different element. Each radioisotope decays at its own
constant rate, measured in a unit called a half-life. A half-life is the time it takes 50% of a
sample of a parent isotope to decay into a daughter isotope.

 Dating method: is the process of determination of age of fossils.

The age of fossils can be determined by following methods-

1. Relative Dating Methods: In early days, mechanism of absolute dating was not present
and as a result relative dating technique was used to determine the age of rock and fossils. In
this technique, the position and erosion rate of rock in particular environment measured.
Older rocks are situated in deeper had ancient fossils and superficial rocks had fossils of
recent fossils.
2. Absolute Dating Methods: These methods are using spontaneous decay of unstable
radioactive nuclei into stable radioactive nuclei at a constant and known rate. Absolute dating
technique uses radioactive nuclei in three different techniques:
(i) Uranium-Lead Technique: This technique was introduced by Baltwood in 1907. Rocks
contain uranium (U238) in the form of mineral zircon. It has a half-life of 4.5 billion years

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which means it will take 4,500,000,000 years to decay 50% uranium. So determination of
content of uranium and lead in a rock or fossil can be used to determine the age of rock or
fossil.
(ii) Carbon (C14) Dating Technique: This method was introduced by [Link] in 1950.
Radioactive carbon (C14) in found naturally in rock. C14 has a half-life of 5600 years and
C14 decay gives nitrogen (N14). Carbon dating technique can be used to measure fossil age
up to 25,000 years old.
(iii) Potassium-Argon Technique: Radioactive Potassium (K40) is usually found in the rock
of all kinds. Its life is 1.3x109 years and disintegrate to form Argon.

 Radiometric dating: is calculation of the age of rock—and of embedded fossils or

other objects—through the measurement of the decay of radioisotopes in the rock.

Table 4.1 Radioisotopes Used in Radiometric Dating

Parent isotope Daughter isotopes Half-life Effective dating range
(years) (years)
14C (carbon 14) 14N (nitrogen 14) 5730 100 to 100 000
235U (uranium 235) 207Pb (lead 207) 713 million 10 million to 4.6 billion
40K (potassium 40) 40Ar (argon 40) and 1.3 billion 100 000 to 4.6 billion
40Ca (calcium 40)

4.2 Geographical Distribution (Biogeographical evidences)

Biogeography, for instance, offered a great pageant of peculiar facts and patterns. Anyone
who considers the biogeographical data, Darwin wrote, must be struck by the mysterious
clustering pattern among what he called "closely allied" species—that is, similar creatures
sharing roughly the same body plan. Such closely allied species tend to be found on the same
continent (several species of zebras in Africa) or within the same group of oceanic islands
(dozens of species of honeycreepers in Hawaii, 13 species of Galápagos finch), despite their
species-by-species preferences for different habitats, food sources, or conditions of climate.
Adjacent areas of South America, Darwin noted, are occupied by two similar species of large,
flightless birds (the rheas, Rhea americana and Pterocnemia pennata), not by ostriches as in
Africa or emus as in Australia. South America also has agoutis and viscachas (small rodents)
in terrestrial habitats, plus coypus and capybaras in the wetlands, not—as Darwin wrote—
hares and rabbits in terrestrial habitats or beavers and muskrats in the wetlands.

Why should "closely allied" species inhabit neighboring patches of habitat? And why should
similar habitat on different continents be occupied by species that aren't so closely allied?
"We see in these facts some deep organic bond, prevailing throughout space and time,"
Darwin wrote. "This bond, on my theory, is simply inheritance." Similar species occur nearby
in space because they have descended from common ancestors.

4.3 Classification

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Classification means identifying similarities and differences between different kinds of

organisms and then placing similar organisms in one group and different kinds of organisms
in different groups. Taxonomy may thus be defined as the science of classification of
organisms into categories, maintaining certain rules. Early taxonomists classified organisms
according to morphological features only.
 Taxonomy: is the science of classification of organisms into categories, maintaining
certain rules.
While classifying an organism, it is assigned to categories which show its evolutionary
relationship with other groups of organisms. The various taxonomic categories are given
below:
Species: Group of individuals of one kind which can interbreed to produce fertile offsprings.
Genus: Group of species resembling each other in several features indicating common
ancestry.
Family: Group of genera (singular-genus) resembling each other. e.g. Felis domestica (the
cat) and Panthera tigris (the tiger), both belong to the family Felidae.
Order: Includes families showing similar characteristics.
Class: Includes related orders.
Phylum: Includes related classes.
The various phyla belong to their respective kingdoms.

Classification is essential for studying organisms and communicating about them. There are
hierarchical taxonomic categories which reveal evolutionary relationships of an organism.
4.4 Plant and Animal Breeding

How did the majority of organisms come to require oxygen? The answer requires knowing
that plant photosynthesis splits water molecules and releases oxygen. Once this metabolic
process evolved, Earth’s atmosphere changed from one composed of methane, ammonia,
carbon monoxide, and other reducing gases into an oxidizing atmosphere like the one we
breathe today.

Table 4.2. Six examples of how plant evolution changed the physical and biological world
(1) Evolution of Photosynthesis Transformed a reducing atmosphere into an oxidizing
atmosphere; provided heterotrophs food.
(2) Evolution of Land Ameliorated the terrestrial landscape; paved the way for the
Plants colonization of the land by animals; shaped water and nutrient
soil cycles.
3) Evolution of Wood Sequestered carbon dioxide; provided lightweight building
material that amplified the three- dimensionality of terrestrial
communities; shaped ecosystems by virtue of forest fires.
(4) Evolution of Flowering Permitted the storage of seeds by early humans thereby
Plants and Endosperma fostering the transition from a hunting- gathering society to an
agrarian society.
(5) Fossilization of Plants Fostered the Industrial Revolution.
and Coal Formation

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(6) Diversification of Secondary Continues to provide numerous pharmaceuticals.

Plant Metabolic Products

The evidence for this claim is extensive and will be presented in greater detail when we
discuss the origin and early evolution of life. For now, it is sufficient to recognize that the
evolution of plants has literally changed the world, and that no one can claim to understand
evolution unless they understand plant biology.

4.5 Comparative Anatomy and Morphology

The comparative study of various organs in different groups of vertebrates exhibit common
features which show that they evolved from a common ancestor.

1. Evidences from Morphology

Though organisms of different species and groups are quite different from each other, they
still retain certain common features. Morphological evidences for evolution are derived from;
(i) Homologous and analogous organs
(ii) Vestigial organs
(iii) Connecting links

Homologous Organs
Homologous organs are the organs which are similar in structure and origin but may look
very different and perform different functions.
– Forelimbs of vertebrates are a good example of homologous organs. They are built on the
same fundamental plan yet they appear different and perform different functions.
– In each case the forelimb consists of humerus, radius and ulna, carpals, metacarpals and
phalanges. This basic similarity in the structure of the apparently different forelimbs of
different kinds of vertebrates is due to the fact that all these limbs have evolved from a
common type called the pentadactyl (five-fingered) limb.
 Homologous Organs: structures that share a common origin but may serve different
functions in modern species (e.g., dolphin flippers and human hands).

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Man cheetah whale bat

Fig: 4.3 Homology and adaptation in bones of the forelimbs of some

vertebrates

The homologous organs, therefore, prove that different kinds of organisms came into
existence through evolution.
Analogous organs
The structures which are functionally similar but structurally different are called analogous
organs. The wing of an insect and that of a bird or bat or pterodactyl are examples of
analogous organs. The function of the wing is the same (for flying) but the insect wing has no
structural resemblance with that of the vertebrates.

Fig: 4.4 Analogy between wing of insect and Wing of bird

 Analogous organs: structures similar in function but not in origin or anatomical
structure (e.g., wings of birds and bees)

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Vestigial Organs

Vestigial organ is any small degenerate or imperfectly developed (non-functional) organ or

part which may have been complete and functional in some ancestor

body hair in male wisdom tooth appendix

tail of vertebrate
Fig: 4.5 Some vestigial organs in human body

 Vestigial organ: is any small non-functional organ which may have

been complete and functional in some ancestor.

The only rational explanation for the presence of these non-functional organs is that they
have been inherited from ancestors in which they were functional.

Connecting Links
The animals or plants which possess characters of two different groups of organisms are
known as connecting links. The connecting links establish continuity in the series of
organisms by proving that one group has evolved from the other.
 Connecting Links: The animals or plants which possess characters of two different
groups of organisms.
Example 1: Euglena: Euglena has dual character of plant and animals. It can perform
photosynthesis through specialized chloroplast and it can perform contractile vacuole, mouth
and binary fission just like animal.
Example 2: Egg laying mammals: Egg laying mammals are the connecting link between
reptiles and mammals. For example, duck-billed platypus. They have few mammalian
characters such as hair, mammary glands, diaphragm whereas it lays eggs with yolk and egg
shell similar to reptiles
Example 3: fossil bird Archaeopteryx, which was a connecting link between reptiles and
birds. This bird had a beak with teeth and a long tail (with bones) like the lizards. It had
feathers on the wings and on the body like the birds.

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Connecting link clearly highlight the fact that different organisms are evolved together from a
common ancestor.
4.6 Adaptive Radiation
Simpson (1953) who gave the first modern definition of the AR concept:
“Adaptive radiation strictly speaking refers to more or less simultaneous
divergence of numerous lines all from much the same ancestral adaptive
type into different, also diverging adaptive zones”.
 Adaptive radiation: simultaneous divergence of numerous lines all
from much the same ancestral adaptive type into different, also
diverging adaptive zones

Simpson put into words the two biological phenomena generally

considered to be the main features of AR:

(i) the emergence from a common ancestor and in a short time lapse of
many new species and (ii) the ecological and phenotypic diversification of
these species in a wide range of environments.

Simpson was strongly convinced that the diversity of life was mainly
generated by AR, combined with the geographic isolation that may
produce duplicate adaptive types in different lineages occurring in
different regions. He identified three factors that would hypothetically
facilitate the colonization of new adaptive zones: first, physical access
(“be at the right place”), second, ecological access (availability of an
“empty niche” or a niche with underexploited resources), and third, the
intrinsic capacity of the group to adapt to a newly colonized zone (referred
to as evolutionary access).

4.7 Evidences from Embryology

Comparative study of the embryology of different organisms shows stricking similarities
between them.
􀁺 similar stages of early development (morula, blastula or gastrula) in all the animals;
􀁺 the embryos of all vertebrates are similar in shape and structure in their early stages. This
resemblance is so close that it is difficult to tell them apart.
􀁺 All the vertebrates start their life from a single cell, the zygote.
􀁺 All of them during their life history, pass through two-layered blastula and three layered
gastrula stage and then through fish like stage with gill-slits.

 Embryology: is the study of development of an organism

All the different aspects of embryology strongly support the fact that the different classes of
vertebrates had common ancestors.
fish salamander tortoise chick rabbit man

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Fig: 4.6 Series of vertebrate embryos in comparable stages of their development

4.8 Evidences from Biochemistry and Molecular Biology

In modern times we have added a massive amount of molecular evidence that supports
evolutionary theory similarities and differences in biochemistry correlates with assumed
evolutionary relationships the more closely related an animal is the more similar its
biochemistry:
eg. DNA, antibodies, protein structure
eg. nematode worm shares 40% of its DNA with us
eg. chimpanzees and humans share 98% of their DNA
eg. all humans share 99% of our DNA
eg. closer relatives 99.5%

However, organisms sharing same chemical characteristics show closer evolutionary

relationships. For example (i) human blood proteins are most similar to those of the
chimpanzee among all apes, or (ii) only plants and some algae have chlorophyll so they are
more closely related. Similarity in chemical constituents between organisms is termed as
molecular homology or biochemical homology and are used in recent times, to establish
evolutionary relationships and form the basis of systematics.

CHAPTER FIVE
5. THE MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION (THE GENETIC BASIS OF EVOLUTION)
POPULATIONS AND DEMES
5.1 Genetic variation
Geneticists study changes in the inheritable traits of organisms. Such traits that distinguish
individuals from one another represent genetic diversity, which varies from species to
species.

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All individuals of the same species possess a common genome with the sole exception of sex
chromosomes, when present. However, each will have a different genotype, the combination
of alleles at specific loci. Differences in genotypes and environmental influences account for
differences among the phenotypes of individuals. These different phenotypes are then acted
on by natural selection. An understanding of the genetic origin and diversity of phenotypes
provides important insights into the mechanisms of evolution.

Organisms with larger genomes have the potential for greater genetic diversity and present
more targets for mutation. The size of genomes, however, does not provide an accurate
comparison of a species genetic diversity. Geneticists report that many genomes of
eukaryotic organisms, for instance, comprise DNA that is not transcribed. Some noncoding
sequences in the genome of humans, as well as other organisms, may be repeated as many as
500 000 times. Some species, such as maize or wheat, (known as polyploids) have more than
two copies of each chromosome, resulting in multiple, often identical, copies of the same
genes.

Regardless of the total quantity of DNA present, most species, other than some
microorganisms, have large numbers of different genes—usually numbering in the thousands.
Species that possess a greater number of genes have the potential for increased genetic
diversity. Similarly, the greater the number of different alleles for these genes, the greater the
extent of genetic variation there will be within a species and from individual to individual.
Genetic diversity within a population increases enormously through sexual reproduction, as
the various alleles from two parents recombine in each offspring.

Generally Genetic Variation;

• The quantity of DNA and the number of genes are highly variable among species.
• Variation within a species is a result of the variety and combinations of alleles possessed by
individuals.
• Sexual reproduction results in the random recombination of often thousands of different
alleles and results in a high degree of genetic diversity within most populations.

5.2 Sources of genetic variation

Without genetic variation the basic of evolutionary change cannot operate. There are three
primary sources of genetic variations:
1. Mutations – changes in the DNA: In most situations, evolutionary change is based on
the accumulation of many mutations. A mutation is a change in DNA, the hereditary
material of life. Any change in its DNA could cause a change in all aspects of its life.
Mutations are random; it may or may not be useful to the organisms. Not all
mutations matter for evolution. Somatic mutations occur in non-reproductive cells and
can’t be passed on. Only those that can be passed on to the offspring (called germ line
mutations) matter to large scale evolution.
2. Gene Flow – any movement of genes from one population to another.

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3. Sex – can introduce new gene combinations into a population.

4. Genetic drift occurs in small populations when a part breaks off
from a large population. Only representative genes of the large
population are present which undergo change at a right time and
the small population may evolve into a new subspecies or species.

 Genetic drift: Changes in the frequencies of alleles in a population

that occur by chance, rather than because of natural selection.
5.3 Gene pool
The gene pool is all the different alleles that are present in a population. All the different
variations of the gene make up the gene pool.
You can compare the size of the gene pool between populations or in the course of time.
When there are more gene variants present in a population, the gene pool is big. It can get
bigger because of mutations or introduction of individuals of the same species from a
different population.
 Gene pool: All the genes in a population at a particular time.

The size of the gene pool is a direct measure of the amount of genetic variation.

If the gene pool of a population gets smaller you are stating that the amount of genetic
variation of a population goes down. Low genetic variation causes the population to be
vulnerable to changes in the environment and stochasticity. When a population has a low
variation, there are fewer genes to select on if the environment changes.

5.4 Allele Frequency

Genetic drift changes to allele frequency as a result of chance; such changes are much more
pronounced in small populations. When populations are small, chance can play a significant
role in altering allele frequencies.

Significantly, in small populations, genetic drift can lead to fixation of alleles, thereby
increasing the incidence of homozygous individuals within a population and reducing its
genetic diversity.

Evolution occurs when the allele frequencies of a population change over time. Genetic drift
and gene flow produce changes in allele frequencies and affect genetic diversity.

5.5 Genotypic frequency

For organisms that have two parents (called diploid organisms), reproduction is a bit more
complicated. Each individual has two copies of DNA, one from each parent, and will pass on
a single copy to each offspring (the other parent contributes the other copy). At each location
in the genome, a diploid organism has two alleles, and one or the other will randomly end up
in each gamete. When offspring are produced, the relative frequency of different genotypes
produced will be a function of the frequency of the different alleles in the population.
Heritable variation is necessary for evolution by natural selection. The pattern of the existing

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variation (something that can be measured) can tell scientists about whether evolution is
occurring.
The frequency in the population of a particular gene relative to other genes at its locus. It
expressed as a proportion (between 0 and 1) or percentage (between 0 and 100 percent).
 Genotypic frequency: The frequency in the population of a particular gene relative to
other genes at its locus.
To understand how allele and genotypic frequencies change under various evolutionary
forces, scientists study what happens when none of these forces is at work. Under such
conditions, the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium states that allele frequencies don’t change and
predicts what the frequency of genotypes should be in a population. This equilibrium states
that if you know the frequency of the alleles in a population, you can figure out the frequency
of the genotypes in the next generation if (1) mating is random and (2) no evolutionary forces
are changing the allele frequencies in the next generation.

5.6 The Hardy-Weinberg Equation

This is a concept related to both genetics and evolution and was proposed by G. H. Hardy and
W. Weinberg. A population of sexually reproducing organisms in which genes combine at
random due to random mating is called panmictic. In other words, a panmictic population is
one in which mating partners are not specifically selected. For example, we humans usually
do not look for specific blood group when a marriage is arranged so we are panmictic with
respect to blood types.

The Hardy Weinberg Principle states that in a panmictic population if there is no pressure of
mutation, selection, genetic drift etc. then the relative frequency of any pair of genes remains
constant, generation after generation. For example, a gene has two alleles, p and q in the
population and no mutation or selection etc. takes place, then the frequency of these two
alleles will remain constant generation after generation. This can be mathematically
represented as:

(p+q)2 =1 or p2 +2pq+q2 =1

Applying the Hardy–Weinberg Principle

Consider the example where f(AA) = 0; f(Aa) = 1; f(aa) = 0

1. Calculate the observed allelic frequencies: f(A) = p = f(AA) + ½ f(Aa) = 0 + ½ (1) = 0.5
f(a) = q = 1- p = 1 – 0.5 = 0.5
2. Compute the expected genotypic frequencies based on H-W: f (AA) = p2 = (0.5)2 = 0.25
f (Aa) = 2pq = 2(0.5)(0.5) = 0.5 f (aa) = q2 = (0.5)2 = 0.25

5.7 Factors producing gene pool change in populations

 Non-random Breeding

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1. Positive assortative mating – individuals with similar phenotypes

mate preferentially (decreases heterozygosity)
2. Negative assortative mating – individuals with different phenotypes
mate preferentially
3. Inbreeding – mating between related individuals occurs more
frequently than predicted by chance (decreases heterozygosity)
a) Measured in terms of the coefficient of inbreeding (F)
b) Analysis using pedigrees
c) In a closed population, founded by a small number of individuals,
there will be a decrease in heterozygosity over time because some
lineages (and genes) will die out. The more individuals there are in the
population, the longer is takes for this to occur. The decrease in
heterozygosity is counteracted by mutation and migration.
4. Outbreeding– mating between related individuals occurs less
frequently than predicted by chance
 Random Genetic Drift (Sewall Wright Effect)

Sewell Wright (1889–1988) was a key founder of the science of population genetics, and his
shifting-balance hypothesis is one of the coolest hypotheses about how evolution might work
in certain circumstances. This hypothesis says natural selection and genetic drift can work
together to allow populations to reach higher fitness.

Sewell Wright’s key insight (one of his many key insights — he’s one of the hot shots of
post-Darwinian evolutionary biology) was suggesting that genetic drift is the mechanism that
lets a population move from one fitness peak (one really great genotype) to another because,
unlike natural selection, genetic drift lets populations wander around low-fitness parts of the
adaptive space. In his hypothesis, a small population could descend (genetically speaking)
into an adaptive valley (an area of low fitness) and then climb a different, higher, adaptive
peak as a result of natural selection. Essentially, a small population has a chance of hitting the
genetic jackpot and ending up on a high adaptive peak.
SUMMARY
5.8 Founder Effect (principle)

When a few individuals from a large population leave to establish a new population, the
resulting genetic drift is a founder effect. The allele frequencies of the new population will
not be the same as those of the original population and may deviate further as the new
population expands. Founder effects seem to be common in nature, such as when a few seeds
carried by a bird or by winds to a distant volcanic island may germinate and rapidly establish
a large population. With self-pollinating plants, an entire population can be established from
a single fertile seed. Founder effects can also be seen in human populations.

Members of the Amish community in Pennsylvania are all descendants of about 30 people
who emigrated from Switzerland in [Link] of the founders had a rare recessive allele that
causes unusually short limbs. The frequency of this allele in the current Amish population is
about 7%, compared to a frequency of 0.1% in most populations.
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 Founder effect: genetic drift that results when a small number of individuals separate
from their original population and find a new population.

Founder effects have been documented in the wild. In 1982, Peter Grant and Rosemary Grant
from Queen’s University witnessed the establishment of a new population of large ground
finches (Geospizamagnirostris) in the Galapagos Islands. The Grants had been studying
Darwin’s finches on one island, Daphne Major, and had observed juvenile large ground
finches visiting the island every year for 10 years. In 1982, however, three males and two
females remained on the island to breed. In early 1983, they produced 17 young birds, which
became the founders of a new population. The population that they established as remained
ever since. Careful measurements of inheritable traits by the Grants indicated that the
founding population has a different genetic composition from that of the original large
population of Geospizamagnirostris from which the founders came.

5.9 Genetic Load

Genetic load of a population in CROW'S sense (CROW 1958) refers to the amount by which
population fitness is decreased through natural selection acting on genotypic differences. It
may either be expressed in terms of selective values or Malthusian parameters depending on
whether the continuous or discrete model is used to describe generation time (cf. KIMURA
1958).

 Genetic Load: the amount by which population fitness is decreased through natural
selection acting on genotypic differences

Kinds of genetic load:

(i) Mutational load results from elimination of harmful mutations.

(ii) Segregational load arises when heterotic genes (overdominance load) or a meiotic drive
mechanism (distortional load) is involved.
(iii) Dysmetric load, term proposed by HALDANE (unpublished), refers to a load which may
be created when there is a “division of labor” between genotypes.
(iv) Internal vrs. external load; The former refers to the decrease of fitness relative to the
optimum genotype and thus relates to intragroup selection, while the latter refers to
that relative to the optimum condition and therefore relates to intergroup selection.
(v) Substitutional (evolutional load) is a cost of natural selection (cf. HALDANE, 1957) which
is required in the process of substituting one allele by another through natural selection.

Principle of minimum genetic load:

This is a hypothesis that in the course of evolution important genetic parameters tend to be
adjusted in such direction that the total genetic load will be minimized. More specifically, the
spontaneous mutation rate and degree of dominance of mutant genes may be adjusted such
that the sum of the mutational and the segregational load

5.10 Gene Flow

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Populations that are close together in space are more likely to exchange genes with each other
than populations that are farther away.

Gene flow, the idea that genes can move from one population to another, is a key concept in
evolution. Gene flow is when there is chance mixing of genes of closely related species
through sexual reproduction.

 Gene flow: is the movement of alleles from one population to another through the
movement of individuals or gametes

When organisms migrate, leaving one population and joining another, they alter the allele
frequencies of both. Such gene flow occurs frequently in most wild populations.. Gene flow
can also occur when individuals of adjacent populations mate without moving permanently.
In these ways, genetic information is shared between populations. Unlike genetic drift, gene
flow tends to reduce differences between populations.

5.11 Selection

Selection: - differential survival and reproduction of individuals in a population due to trait

differences (variation in fitness that can be passed from one generation to next)
change in allelic and genotype frequencies
important for evolution

 Selection: - differential survival and reproduction of individuals in a population due

to trait differences.

5.12 Natural selection and its role in evolution

The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

a. all living things consist of a unique combination of chemicals organized in unique
ways. Variations occur in every species no two individuals of a species are alike
b. species’ populations are able to adapt to gradually changing environments the same
species in different parts of the world have different tolerances and slightly different
characteristics to survive the local conditions in which it lives
eg. flower and gardening catalogues vs local growers still they are the same species: they
interbreed naturally where they come into contact
c. Most of these variations have a genetic basis. They can be passed on to their offspring
d. each species produces more offspring than will survive into maturity
eg. if not, 1 bacterial cell ! 36 hours would cover earth 3-4 ft deep
eg. fruit fly ! in 7 months would produce enough offspring to equal the mass of the earth

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e. those individuals whose variations best fit their environment will be more likely to
survive and reproduce fitness = ability to reproduce organisms with less favourable
variations will be less likely to survive
"There is a “struggle for existence” “with “survival of the fittest”
f. by a process of natural selection, evolution sorts through these numerous variations
within a population and “chooses” the most fit combination as the environment slowly
changes and certain

 Natural selection: the process whereby some individuals, as a result of possessing

specific traits leave more descendants than other individuals that lack these traits.

5.13 Selection Models

5.14 Intensity of selection pressure
The selection intensity represents the mean of the selected proportion in phenotypic standard
deviations.
The selection intensity is abbreviated as i. In formula:
i = S / σP
so
S = i * σP

5.15 Artificial Selection

From ancient times, man is selecting good breed animals and plant for their use. In addition,
they are performing cross breeding of these species to develop newer breed with desirable
characters. The scientist supporting the Darwin’s theory explained the evolution through
natural selection to give rise to newer species, just like following similar mechanism as
artificial selection by man. They further added that natural selection is a slow process but
much more complex compared to the artificial selection procedure.

 Artificial selection: refers to the selective process when humans are acting as a
selective agent.

The process of artificial selection isn’t exactly identical to what happens in the natural
environment because humans can get pretty creative in their animal and plant breeding. A
particular breeding endeavor, for example, could require a cocktail of approaches: perhaps a
little directional selection, just a touch of genetic drift, and a dash of in-breeding followed by
some more selection. The result is that allele frequencies of the domestic population change,
but it’s not strictly identical to the natural process.

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CHAPTER SIX
6. SPECIATION

6.1 Species concept (morphological/ taxonomical vs biological species concepts)

What is a Species?
A biological species, are the members of groups or populations that interbreed or have the
ability to interbreed with each other under natural conditions. Thus, members of different
species are reproductively isolated from one another. Populations of different species will
have no gene flow between them.

 Species: members of interbreeding groups or populations that are reproductively

isolated from other groups and evolve independently

Species can be differentiated on a biological basis by identifying their reproductive isolating

mechanisms; for species that reproduce sexually, genetic isolation results from reproductive
isolation. Although not applicable to such asexual organisms as prokaryotic organisms, some
fungi and plants, and even some vertebrates, this method of differentiation is practical for
most other species. Mechanisms that isolate populations through reproduction offer a
significant key to speciation.

Speciation
Evolution is nothing more than changes in gene frequencies in a group of organisms through
time. Accumulate enough of these genetic changes in one population of a particular species,
and that population could evolve into a new species. This process, whereby members of one
species become another species, is called speciation, and it’s one of the most fascinating
areas of evolutionary biology.

Natural selection, which favours beneficial variations, is able to account for the adaptations
exhibited by individuals within populations. These same selective mechanisms are able to
account for speciation—the formation of entirely new species—and, from there, the evolution
of new groups of living organisms. Evolutionary changes that occur at the species level are
referred to as microevolution.

 Speciation: is the evolution of new species.

The Components of Speciation

Speciation usually doesn’t happen overnight. It’s a gradual process that involves these 3
components:
i. Reduction in gene flow (the exchange of genes between adjacent, or nearby
populations): The mating and reproduction that go on within a species does a pretty effective
job of keeping all the genes between populations mixed and, therefore, keeping these

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populations genetically homogenous. As long as the genes can be easily exchanged between
populations, the two populations can’t diverge genetically. Mating keeps mixing the genes
back together. For speciation to occur there needs to be a reduction in gene flow.
ii. A decrease in the genetic similarities among populations within a species: Once
populations aren’t being mixed together, they can become more dissimilar as a consequence
of the different evolutionary trajectories experienced by the two populations.
iii. The development of reproductive isolation between the two populations:
Reproductive isolation can happen via two mechanisms.
• The accumulation of differences can, by itself, lead to a reduction in the ability to
interbreed. The different populations are just too different.
• When the populations have diverged to the extent that the offspring of such matings are less
fit, natural selection acts to prevent mating between individuals of the two populations.

6.2 Modes of speciation (allopatry, sympatry, parapatry, etc)

[Link] speciation takes place when a part of the population becomes geographically
separated (geographical isolation) from the parental population. For example a group of
birds lives at the base of the mountain, some members fly up and get geographically
isolated. Variation and natural selection act differently on the two because the environment
in which the two live is different. Gradually genetic changes render them to be
reproductively isolated.

 Allopatric speciation: the evolution of populations into separate species as a result of

geographic isolation.

[Link] speciation: In parapatric speciation, the two populations aren’t physically

separated; instead, they abut each other. Because they’re within mating distance, something
other than a physical barrier must be causing the reduction in gene flow between these
populations.

In parapatric speciation, selection is strong enough to reduce the likelihood that genes from
one environment will make it in the gene pool of a population living in a different
environment. Further evolution of reproductive characters (like different flowering times, for
example) decreases gene flow between populations even more. In the mine-waste example,
the two populations are adjacent, and pollen blows back and forth, yet the offspring that
result from matings between the two populations are not likely to contribute their genes to the
next generation. Different selective regimes in the two environments have resulted in a
reduction in gene flow between the two populations, which will only increase the degree to
which the two populations diverge.

iii. Sympatric speciation: Sympatric speciation occurs without the organisms in the two
populations being physically separated at all. No physical barrier prevents gene flow (as
in allopatric or allopatric speciation by founder effect speciation), and no spatial
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discontinuity exists (as in parapatric speciation). In sympatric speciation, it is some detail

of the environment that results in a reduction of gene flow between the two populations.
 Sympatric speciation: the evolution of populations within the same geographic area
into separate species

6.3 Rate of speciation (gradualism versus punctuated equilibrium)

There are two accepted models of speciation that have given rise to the
biodiversity
1. Phyletic Gradualism model: Two species from common ancestor
gradually become more and more structurally different acquiring
adaptations unique to each other.

 Theory of gradualism: is a theory that attributes large evolutionary changes in

species to the accumulation of many small and ongoing changes and processes

2. Punctuated equilibrium: A new species arises through major

changes in the beginning and then remain constant for long periods
before changing again. This model was suggested by palaeontologists
(scientists who study fossils), Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould

 Theory of punctuated equilibrium: is a theory that attributes large evolutionary changes to

relatively rapid spurts of change followed by long periods of little or no change.

6.4 Development of reproductive isolating mechanisms (pre- and post-zygotic)

A reproductive isolating mechanism is any behavioural, structural, or biochemical trait that

prevents individuals of different species from reproducing successfully together. Some result
from traits belonging to the species themselves, while others result from environmental
factors.
 A reproductive isolating mechanism: is anything that prevents individuals of
different species from reproducing successfully together.

1. Pre-zygotic isolating mechanisms

Anything that could prevent the sperm and egg from coming together is considered to be a
prezygotic isolating mechanism, such as the following:

There exists a wide range of prezygotic mechanisms that prevent fertilization, thereby
maintaining species isolation.
Three such mechanisms prevent mating.
Ecological isolation: Species that occupy separate habitats or separate niches of the same
habitat do not encounter one another to reproduce.
Temporal isolation: Reproductive timing differences.

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Behavioural isolation: A distinct mating ritual by one species may prevent members of
another species from recognizing or selecting a mate.

Physical incompatibilities between the two sexes and Inability of the sperm and egg to fuse
also prevent mating.
 Pre-zygotic mechanisms: is reproductive isolating mechanisms that prevent
interspecies mating and fertilization.

Table 5.1 Pre-zygotic Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms

Mechanism Example
Prevention of mating
Ecological isolation Ground squirrel species occupy different habitats. Woodchucks
(ground hogs), for example, live in fields at lower elevations while
marmots live in alpine meadows.
Temporal isolation Similar plant species may bloom at different times of the day (e.g.,
day- and night-blooming cacti) or in different seasons (e.g., spring-
and summer-blooming irises).
Behavioural Each species may use different signals for attracting a mate. The
isolation mating behaviour of male jumping spiders is an elaborate dance in
which they shake their legs and wave their palps. Females of different
species do not respond to the dance.
Prevention of fertilization
Mechanical isolation Pollen sacs in a lady’s slipper orchid become attached to an insect,
but they are not removed by any other kind of flower (Figure 4).
Gametic isolation Giant clams release sperm and eggs into open water; gametes
recognize one another by molecular markers.

Two pre-zygotic mechanisms restrict fertilization.

a) Mechanical isolation, or structural differences in reproductive organs can prevent
copulation. For instance, as a result of the complex shape of the penis in certain
arthropod species, many closely related species cannot interbreed with them.
b) Gametic isolation may prevent fertilization at a molecular level. In coral reefs, many
species with external fertilization may release their gametes simultaneously, so
trillions of sperm and eggs may enter the shallow water at one time. Sperm and eggs
of the same species recognize each other by molecular markers. In other cases, the
male gamete cannot survive inside the female, as often occurs with internal
fertilization in animals and with germinating pollen tubes in plants.

2. Post-zygotic isolating mechanisms

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Post-zygotic isolating mechanisms are those that come into play even though individuals
from the two diverging groups do mate. As a result of different evolutionary trajectories, the
parents are different enough that they don’t produce fertile offspring (or any offspring,
perhaps). Therefore, post zygotic mechanisms ensure reproductive isolation of a gene pool by
preventing allele exchange between the parental species. Post zygotic isolating mechanisms
include;

_ Spontaneous abortion of hybrid embryos: The offspring are never born.

_ Low offspring viability: The offspring die, often before reproducing.
_ Offspring sterility: The offspring themselves can’t reproduce. (As far as one’s fitness
goes, producing sterile offspring is exactly the same as producing no offspring at all.)

 Post zygotic mechanisms: is reproductive isolating mechanisms that prevent

maturation and reproduction in offspring from interspecies reproduction.

Table 5.2 Post zygotic Isolating Mechanisms that Prevent Hybrids from Reproducing

Mechanism Result
zygotic mortality No fertilized zygotes or embryos develop to maturity.

hybrid inviability Hybrid offspring are unlikely to live long.

hybrid infertility Offspring of genetically dissimilar parents are likely to be strong but
sterile. An example is the mule

SUMMARY
• A species can be defined as all members of groups or populations that interbreed or have
the ability to interbreed with each other under natural conditions.
• The formation of new species is a result of the evolution of one or more reproductive
isolating mechanisms. Such mechanisms prevent or restrict mating, fertilization, or
successful development of zygotes.
• Geographic barriers are an important cause of the reproductive isolation of two
populations by allowing accumulation of differences in mating systems, etc.
• Once two populations become reproductively isolated, they no longer share mutations and
subsequent selection processes.
• Significant evolutionary changes that occur in either population will result indifferences
between the two gene pools, creating separate species.

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CHAPTER SEVEN
7. HUMAN EVOLUTION
7.1 The taxonomic position of humans in the animal kingdom

Human belongs to order primates. Other members of the same order were lemurs, lorises,
tarsiers, monkey and apes. Human are closer to the ape, which in turn, are closer to the older
world monkey. Together, human, monkey and ape belongs to suborder anthropoidea

The primates appeared about 65 million years from the shrew link small insectivores. The
shrew was long tailed squirrel-like creatures, similar to present day shrews. It gives rise to
primitive primates such as lemurs and tarsiers. These primates are collected termed as
prosimians, the animals appeared before monkey and apes.
Humans belong to the kingdom Animalae and classification of humans is given as an
example to describe the manner in which living organisms are classified.
Kingdom : Animalae (Animals)
Phylum : Chordata (Animals with notochord/ backbone)
Class : Mammalia (Animals that suckle their young ones.)
Order : Primates (Mammals with larger brains and binocular vision)
Family : Hominidae (Humans and human like ancestors)
Genus : Homo (Fossilmen and modern man)
Species : [Link] (Modern man)

7.2 Extinct and extant hominids

Human evolution began about 60 million years ago with the earliest primates: mammals with
long snouts, sharp teeth, and large eyes. They probably lived in trees, feeding mostly on
insects. Gradually, these ancestral mammals evolved at least three notable traits:

• More-flattened molars those were better suited to a plant diet.

• Grasping hands and feet with opposable first digits that were obvious advantages in an
arboreal habitat, enhancing movement and agility and, accompanied by a greater range of
shoulder movement, providing the potential to brachiate (i.e., swing hand over hand along a
branch or vine).
• Forward-directed eyes that provided binocular vision and depth perception, critical for
making accurate decisions when moving quickly among trees.

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During the next 20 million to 30 million years, these mammals evolved into prosimian and
anthropoid organisms. The prosimian lineage gave rise to the present-day lemurs, lorises,
pottos, and tarsiers, characterized by very large eyes, nocturnal activities, and, often, a long
tail for balancing. The anthropoid lineage has given rise to the present-day monkeys, apes,
and humans. Almost all anthropoid organisms are diurnal and most feed mainly on fruits and
leaves. They have evolved an enlarged brain for processing the information they receive from
their enhanced senses, such as colour vision and sensitive touch in their digits. Most live in
complex social groups, and have a prolonged period of caring for their young.

 Anthropoid: the higher primates, including all extinct and living monkeys, apes, and
humans.

About 25 to 30 million years ago, the anthropoid lineage split a number of times to give rise
to the Old World and New World monkeys and the hominoids. Present day Old World
monkeys include both arboreal and ground-dwelling species. They have nostrils that are close
together and directed forward and have tails that are not prehensile.

Early ancestors of New World monkeys migrated to what is now South America, where they
evolved in isolation. Present-day species are readily distinguishable from other primates, as
they are exclusively arboreal and have widely separated flared nostrils and prehensile tails.
Present-day hominoids—that is, gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, two species of chimpanzee,
and humans—all lack tails. Although gibbons and orang-utans are arboreal, the others are
mostly ground dwelling. Hominoid primates have longer front limbs than hind limbs and
larger brains relative to body size than do monkeys.
 Hominoids: the apes, humans, and extinct members of their clade

7.3 Important hominid features

Using skull size and shape, jaw muscles, and limb length can help researchers distinguish
between one hominid species and another, as follows:

Ratio of forelimb to hind-limb length: Humans’ arms are proportionally much shorter than
the arms of chimpanzees, and scientists find different fossil hominids with different arm-
length ratios.
As bipedal locomotion (walking upright) developed, forelimb length shortened. (If you want
to get persnickety, as scientists tend to do, you can say that forelimbs aren’t really arms until
the organism is walking on its hind legs — hence, the use of the term forelimbs.) Forelimb
length is a good way to evaluate which group a fossil belongs to because it’s relatively
constant for individuals of different ages. The absolute lengths of forelimbs and hind-limbs
change as the individual grows, but the ratio of the lengths is consistent over a range of
individual sizes.

Skull shape: Humans have proportionally much larger brains than do the other apes.

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The form and arrangement of teeth (dentition): Humans have markedly different dentition
from other apes. We do a lot of our food processing with our hands rather than with our teeth,
and we lack the powerful jaw muscles and large teeth that are characteristic of the rest of the
primates (a group including the apes and other things like monkeys).
7.4 The evolutionary relationships among the hominids
Table 7-1 Hominid Species
Name Years on Earth (Based on Fossil Finds)
A. anamensis 4.2 to 3.9 million years ago
A. afarensis (Lucy) 3.6 to 2.9 million years ago
A. africanus 3 to 2 million years ago
A. aethiopicus 2.7 to 2.3 million years ago
A. boisei 2.3 to 1.4 million years ago
A. robustus 1.8 to 1.5 million years ago
H. rudolphensis 2.4 to 1.8 million years ago
H. habilis 2.3 to 1.6 million years ago
H. ergaster 1.9 to 1.4 million years ago
H. erectus 1.9 to 0.3 million years ago (and possible 50,000 years ago)
H. heielbergensis 600,000 to 100,000 years ago
H. neanderthalensis 250,000 to 30,000 years ago
H. sapiens 100,000 years ago to today

Humans share a very wide range of physical and behavioural traits with other hominoids and
exhibit dramatic genetic similarity to them. The key distinguishing features of humans
include bipedal motion (and such related anatomical features as a wide pelvis and curved
vertebral column); a greatly enlarged brain; the use of complex language; and the
construction and use of complex tools. By comparison, the great apes have a narrow pelvis,
smaller brain, and use only simple tools. Although they demonstrate complex social
interactions, the great apes do not use a structured language. Until recently, there was fierce
scientific debate over the evolutionary relationship of hominoids.

A range of evidence now indicates that the earliest ancestor of gibbon species appeared more
than 10 million years ago, followed by the evolution of the orangutan lineage.

Emergence of Humans
In Darwin’s day, no fossils had been discovered of early humans, prehumans, or great apes,
except for a few fragments of Neanderthal skulls. However, the careful comparison of
similarities between living great apes and humans had led Darwin to suggest that “man still
bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin.” Darwin also correctly
predicted that fossils of early human ancestors would be found in Africa.

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The current fossil record shows that, rather than a step-by-step lineage from ancient ape to
human, the hominid clade has a rich history of many branching lineages and related species.
The hominid clade includes all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of humans
and apes. Hundreds of specimens indicate that at least six different species of
australopithecines lived in Africa between 4.2 and 1.0 million years ago. An even more
ancient species, Ardipithecus ramidus, recently dated at 5.2 to 5.8 million years, represents
one of the oldest known bipeds. The fossil remains of australopithecines, along with the
remarkable trace fossils in Laetoli, Tanzania—a set of 69 footprints dated to 3.7 million years
ago—show that human ancestors evolved the ability to walk upright long before they had
large brains. Very recent evidence from fossils of A. afarensis and a later species (A.
africanus) suggests that both may have been knuckle walkers, a trait previously thought to be
unique to chimpanzees and gorillas.

The selective advantage gained by bipedal motion is uncertain—possibilities include greater

speed and efficiency, enhanced ability to gather and carry food, as well as to see over tall
grass. About 3 million years ago, it is thought that an australopithecine ancestor gave rise to
the subsequent ancestors of two lineages. Although the precise relationships among them
remain unclear and controversial, one branch probably gave rise to a number of robust
species with heavy jaws and relatively small brains, while the other ultimately gave rise to the
first members of the genus Homo.

As more fossils have been found, palaeontologists have been able to propose a hypothetical
phylogenetic tree for humans. The oldest fossils of Homo—all found in Africa—date from
2.4 to 1.6 million years ago. They are generally classified as Homo habilis, although they
may represent two different species (i.e.,H. habilis and H. rudolfensis).

The cranial capacity of H. habilis skulls found to date suggests that they had a brain size of
about 600 cm3 to 750 cm3, proportionately smaller jaws and teeth, and longer legs than
australopithecine ancestors. Palaeontologists believe that H. habiliswas the first human
ancestor to use stone tools routinely.

Although the number and precise kinship of early Homo species is uncertain, it is widely
accepted that H. habilis, or a closely related species, gave rise about 1.6 million years ago to
H. erectus (or H. ergaster), a species that used a variety of stone tools and fire. This species
shows a strong trend toward current human features: brain size averaging about 1000 cm3, a
rounded head, and smaller teeth. The fossil record to date suggests that, close to 2 million
years ago, H. erectus gradually spread out from Africa into Europe and Asia as far as China
and Java. Within the last 600 000 years, H. erectus may have evolved into two or three
species of early humans—H. heidelbergensis, H. neanderthalensis, and H. sapiens—although
distinctions among and classification of these groups remain controversial.

What is known for certain is that, by 130 000 years ago, H. sapiens first appeared in Africa
when H. neanderthalensis was already living in parts of Europe and eastern Asia. Heavily

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built individuals with large brains, Neanderthals were skilled at fashioning tools, they
performed burial ceremonies, and, as suggested by fossil evidence, they may have been
capable of complex speech.
Lucy in the sky with diamonds: Australopithecus afarensis
This famous fossil, called Australopithecus afarensis (A. afarensis, for short) is commonly
known as Lucy. Named for Lucy in the Beatles song “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds,”
which was playing at the time, Lucy was such an important find because a large part of her
skeleton was found together, which gave paleontologists a fair bit of confidence in describing
the species.

Lucy was found in 1974, but her species lived from about 2.9 million to 3.6 million years
ago. She was about 31⁄2 feet tall and weighed 60 pounds. She was bipedal. At the time of her
discovery, Lucy was the earliest bipedal hominid that had been discovered. The relative
length of her forelimbs is intermediate between that of apes and people.

7.5 Migration of hominids out of Africa

Human beings originated in Africa. The evidence: Most hominid fossils are found only in
Africa, and for those species with a wider distribution, the oldest specimens are always found
in Africa. In addition, humans’ most closely related living relative (both genetically and as
placed on the tree of life, the chimpanzee, lives in Africa. Not enough to convince you? The
existing genetic variation in the human population provides another line of evidence.

Coalescence: Sharing a single ancestor

According to the concept of coalescence, all the genes in a given population have a single
common ancestor-some individual in the past from whom they are all descended.
Coalescence is the result of random processes whereby some individuals leave descendents
and others don’t.

Think of families in which different members have had different numbers of children.
Perhaps one sibling has no children, and another sibling has many. In this way, random forces
pile up through time. After enough time has passed, with some members having children and
others not, eventually all the existing individuals will be descended from one ancestor.
Scientists have discovered that this is essentially what happened, and they dubbed this
common ancestor, because she is the one woman from whom all humans descended,
“Mitochondrial Eve.”

By sequencing information from the mitochondrial DNA and the Y-chromosomes (see the
nearby sidebar “Of mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomes” for details on why these bits
were used), scientists know the following:

_ Humans probably originated in and spread through Africa first, with a small group leaving
Africa and colonizing the rest of the world, although some scientists disagree about whether a

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single group left Africa and colonized the rest of the world or whether two different periods
of emigration from Africa occurred.

_ The mitochondria of all living humans descend from one woman who lived in Africa
perhaps 200,000 years ago. Because this one woman has been named “Mitochondrial Eve,”
many people misunderstand the findings, thinking that the name means that only one woman
existed in the beginning — essentially, the Biblical Eve. What the name really means,
however, is that only one out of however many women were alive at that time gave rise to all
living humans.
7.6 The origin of Homo sapience (single origin versus multiregional origin views)

Homo Sapiens or Modern Man: The modern man was supposed to appear around 25,000
years ago and started spreading all over the world around 10,000 years ago. He has modified
slightly morphological changes, such as thining of skull bones, lower crainial capacity (1300-
1600cm3) and development of 4 curves in vertebral column. He lacks efficient mechanism of
bitting, power of smell, feeble eight sight and hearing ability. But modern man compensated
these things with the development of sophisticated tools and techniques. This has made him
the most dominant animals on earth. He understand the importance to agriculture and
domestic animals.

When you think about human evolution, you may think immediately about the fossil record.
Although fossils are extremely important parts of the evidence we humans have for
understanding our own origins, other vital lines of evidence exist as well:

Phylogenetic reconstructions: A phylogenetic reconstruction is essentially a visual

representation of the genealogy of a group of species. This image can provide insight into
where humans fit in the tree of life.

Human DNA studies: By looking at our DNA, researchers can get intriguing information
about the patterns of migration of Homo sapiens (humans) that help them sort out different
hypotheses about where humans originated. They can’t get this info just by looking at fossils,
which aren’t always clear.

Neanderthal DNA studies: It’s possible now to obtain DNA from one of our closest
relatives: the Neanderthals. By comparing modern human DNA with Neanderthal DNA,
scientists gain a better understanding of our relationship to this extinct species of hominid.

 HOMINID: Modern humans and their extinct relatives, going back to the most
common recent ancestor with the chimpanzee lineage.

SUMMARY
• Human evolution has followed the same pattern as that of other life forms on Earth.
• The fossil record for humanity is a branching tree of different species.

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• The hominid clade includes a diverse group of bipedal species, each adapted to different
environments and niches.
• Only a single member of this recent clade remains, of which you are a member: Homo
sapiens.
• Of the two theories for the existence of H. sapiens around the world, the one most supported
by genetic evidence proposes that the species evolved in Africa and migrated to other
continents, displacing the hominids who were there before them.

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