23-203-0405 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

Part 2

Dr. SHAHANA T.K.

Professor in Electronics
SOE, CUSAT
CE I Dr. Shahana T.K. 1
Syllabus
• Module I
Introduction to continuous wave modulation: Elements of communication system,
electromagnetic spectrum - need for modulation - amplitude modulation: switching
modulators, envelope detector, sideband and carrier power. DSB-SC: Ring
modulator, coherent detection. Single sideband: time domain representation,
spectra, modulation techniques, demodulation.
• Reference Books:
• Simon Haykin and Michael Moher, Communication Systems, John Wiley & Sons,
5/e, (2017).
• George Kennedy, Electronic communication systems, McGraw Hill,6/e,(2017)

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Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) Modulation:
• Basically DSB-SC modulation consists of the product of the message signal
m(t) and the carrier wave c(t).

• The device used to generate the DSB-SC signal is referred to as a product

modulator.
• DSB-SC modulation is reduced to zero whenever the message signal m(t) is
switched off.
• The modulated signal undergoes a phase reversal whenever the m(t)
crosses zero. (Fig.b)
• the Fourier transform of s(t) is obtained as

where 𝑚 𝑡 ⇋ 𝑀(𝑓)
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 (a) Message signal m(t)

(b) DSB-SC modulated wave s(t)

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CE I Dr. Shahana T.K. 5
• Except for a change in scale factor, the modulation process simply
translates the spectrum of the message signal by 𝑓𝑐 to the right and
by −𝑓𝑐 to the left.
• The transmission bandwidth required by DSB-SC modulation is the
same as that for AM—namely, 2W.
• Advantage of DSB-SC: saving transmitted power, as the carrier is
suppressed.

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Sinusoidal DSB-SC spectrum:

• Consider DSB-SC modulation using a sinusoidal modulating wave of

amplitude 𝐴𝑚 and frequency 𝑓𝑚
• 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑡 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
= cos 2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋(𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚 𝑡]}
2
USB LSB

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• The message spectrum is ……. (1)

• For DSB-SC, the spectrum is ……… (2)

• Substituting (1) in (2),

1 1
𝑆 𝑓 = 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 + 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 +
4 4
1 1
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 + 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚
4 4
Last two terms are the images of first two terms w.r.t. origin.

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Non-linear Modulators: [Ref: [Link]]
• Non-linear devices such as semiconductor diodes or transistors are
used
• One possible scheme:

• The I/O characteristics of a nonlinear device can be approximated as :

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• The summer output in the block diagram:

• Substituting

• The spectrum of 𝑚 𝑡 is centred about origin, while spectrum of

𝑚 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 is centred at ±𝜔𝑐 .
• By passing z(t) through a BPF tuned to 𝜔𝑐 , the first component can be
suppressed and the second component (DSB-SC signal) appears at the
filter output.

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• The circuit acts as a balanced bridge w.r.t. one of the inputs (the
carrier here).
• Such class of modulators are known as Balanced modulators.
• This circuit is balanced w.r.t. only one input (the carrier), so it is called
a single balanced modulator.
• A circuit balanced w.r.t. both inputs is called double balanced
modulator. (Eg: Ring Modulator)

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Switching modulator for DSB-SC:
• The multiplication operation required for modulation can be replaced
by a switching operation using a square pulse train w(t)
• The square pulse train w(t) can be represented by the Fourier series:

• So the product is:

• Therefore, the spectrum of m(t)w(t) consists of multiple copies of

message spectrum M(f), shifted to 0, ±𝑓𝑐 , ±3𝑓𝑐 , ±5𝑓𝑐 , … (with
decreasing weights)

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• For modulation, we need the component 𝑚 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑐 𝑡 only.
• The output is passed through a bandpass filter of bandwidth 2W Hz,
centered at the frequency ±𝑓𝑐 , with 𝑓𝑐 ≥ 2𝑊, (where W is the
message bandwidth)

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Switching Modulator
for DSB-SC

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 • Ring Modulator
a) Circuit diagram
b) When outer diodes are
ON and inner diodes OFF
c) When outer diodes are
OFF and inner diodes ON
Type equation here.

• The four diodes form a ring,

in which they all point in the
same direction.
• The diodes are controlled by
a square wave carrier c(t) of
frequency 𝑓𝑐
• C(t) is applied through two 𝑟𝑓 : 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒
center-tapped transformers 𝑟𝑏 : 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒
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• C(t) is a square wave w0(t)

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• During positive half cycle of the carrier:
 the outer diodes conduct (Connecting terminal a to b and c to d)
the inner diodes are open
• During negative half cycle of the carrier:
 the outer diodes are open
the inner diodes conduct (Connecting terminal a to d and c to b)
• So, the i/p and o/p transformers are coupled with a phase shift of 0𝑜
during positive half cycle and 180𝑜 during negative half cycle
• Thus, o/p s(t) is m(t) during positive half cycle and –m(t) during
negative half cycle.
• It is equivalent to multiplying c(t) by m(t), 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 𝑐(𝑡)

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• Representing square wave carrier as Fourier series:
4 ∞ (−1)𝑛−1
c 𝑡 = σ𝑛=1 cos[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 2𝑛 − 1 ]
𝜋 2𝑛−1

4 1
= [cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − cos 6𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + … ]
𝜋 3
• Hence the ring modulator output is:
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 𝑐(𝑡)
4 4
= 𝑚 𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 𝑚 𝑡 cos 6𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + …
𝜋 3𝜋
• The output does not consists of m(t) and 𝑐(𝑡). So it is balanced w.r.t.
both m(t) and 𝑐(𝑡).
• The ring modulator is referred to as double-balanced modulator.

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COHERENT DETECTION OF DSB-SC:
• Also known synchronous demodulation
• The recovery of the message signal from DSB-SC
- accomplished by first multiplying with a locally generated sinusoidal wave,
and then
- low-pass filtering the product
The local oscillator signal is exactly coherent or synchronized, in both frequency
and phase, with the carrier wave used in the product modulator.

CE I [Link]
Shahana T.K. of Coherent Detector 19
• DSB-SC signal: 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚(𝑡)
• The local oscillator signal is assumed to have a phase difference ∅ w.r.t. the
carrier :

• The product modulator output:

( on applying the trigonometric identity:

)

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• The first term represents a new DSB-SC modulated signal with carrier at 2𝑓𝑐
• the second term is proportional to the message signal m(t)
• m(t) is limited to the interval −𝑊 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ +𝑊
• The first term can be removed by lowpass filtering with cut-off frequency of the
filter greater than W but less than (2𝑓𝑐 − 𝑊)
• The filter output is given by

• The amplitude of this demodulated signal is maximum when ∅ = 0 and minimum

(zero) when ∅ = ± 𝜋Τ2
• The zero demodulated signal, which occurs for ∅ = ± 𝜋Τ2 represents the
quadrature null effect, which is an inherent property of coherent detection.
• As long as the phase error ∅ is constant, the detector output provides an
undistorted version of the message signal m(t).

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• In practice, the phase error ∅ varies randomly with time, due to random
variations in the communication channel.
• So, the detector output vary randomly with time, which is undesirable.
• Therefore, provision must be made in the system to maintain the local oscillator
in the receiver in synchronism, in both frequency and phase, with the carrier
wave used at the transmitter.
• Advantage of DSB-SC: save transmitted power
• Disadvantage: The resulting system complexity for reintroducing a synchronous
carrier at the receiver

The spectrum of output in

the coherent detector

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Single-Sideband (SSB) Modulation:
• In DSB, the same information is transmitted in upper and lower sidebands
• In SSB, to conserve bandwidth, either upper or lower sideband alone is
transmitted.
• SSB generation: Frequency-discrimination method:
The first stage is a product modulator, which generates DSB-SC wave.
The second stage is a BPF, which passes one of the sidebands suppressing the other
• The nearest frequency component of the unwanted sideband is separated
from the desired sideband by twice the lowest frequency component of
the message.
• For generation of SSB, the message spectrum must have an energy gap
centered at the origin.
• This requirement is satisfied for voice signals (energy gap of about 600 Hz
wide: extends from -300 to +300 Hz)

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Frequency-discrimination scheme for SSB generation:

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Theory of SSB:
• consider a DSB-SC modulator using the sinusoidal modulating wave m(t) and
carrier wave c(t):

• The resulting DSB-SC:

• characterized by two side-frequencies, at (𝑓𝑐 +𝑓𝑚 ) and (𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚 )

• Suppressing the second term in above Eqn., the upper SSB modulated wave is
given as:

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• On expanding:

• Similarly, the lower SSB wave at (𝑓𝑐 −𝑓𝑚 ) defined by:

• Combining these two equations, SSB may be written as:

where the plus sign applies to lower SSB and the minus sign applies to upper SSB
• For the generalization, Consider a periodic message signal defined by the Fourier
series

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• Recognizing that the carrier c(t) is common to all the sinusoidal components of
m(t), SSB is given by:

• Considering

• 𝑚(𝑡)
ෝ derived from 𝑚(𝑡) simply by shifting the phase of each cosine term by
− 90𝑜 (using wideband phase-shifter)
• SSB wave:

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• Notes:

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• The BPF to get SSB, must meet three basic requirements:
The desired sideband lies inside the passband of the filter.
The unwanted sideband lies inside the stopband of the filter.
The filter’s transition band is twice the lowest frequency component of the
message.

(a) Spectrum of message signal m(t) (b) Spectrum of SSB signal containing USB

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• SSB Generation: Phase Discrimination Method
• It consists of two parallel paths: the in-phase path and the quadrature
path.
• Each path involves a product modulator.
• The sinusoidal carrier waves applied to the two product modulators
are in phase quadrature
• It requires special attention of the wide-band phase-shifter
• The role of the quadrature path embodying the wide-band phase
shifter is to interfere with the in-phase path to eliminate power in one
of the two sidebands, resulting in either upper SSB or lower SSB.

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CE I Dr. Shahana T.K. 31
COHERENT DETECTION OF SSB:
• Same as that of coherent detector used for DSB-SC
• Multiply SSB signal s(t) with locally generated synchronous carrier and then
lowpass filter it to recover the message m(t)
• Synchronization is met in one of the two ways:
A low-power pilot carrier is transmitted along with SSB
A highly stable oscillator is used at the receiver which is synchronized to the
carrier at transmitter. (Phase errors lead to phase distortion of demodulated
signal .)

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Frequency translation: Mixer
• Mixer consists of product modulator followed by a bandpass filter

• Consider a modulated signal 𝑠1 (𝑡) whose spectrum is centred about

𝑓1 with bandwidth 2W.
• We need to translate it upwards or downward such that carrier
frequency is changed from 𝑓1 to 𝑓2 .

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• Up conversion:
Here 𝑓2 > 𝑓1
The required local oscillator
frequency:
𝑓2 = 𝑓1 + 𝑓𝑙 Spectrum of 𝒔𝟏 (𝒕) at mixer input

𝑓𝑙 = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1

• The unshaded part defines the

wanted modulated signal 𝑠2 (𝑡)

Spectrum of 𝒔′ (𝒕) at product modulator

output

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• Down conversion:
Here 𝑓2 < 𝑓1
The required local oscillator frequency:
𝑓2 = 𝑓1 − 𝑓𝑙
𝑓𝑙 = 𝑓1 − 𝑓2
• The bandpass filter is to pass the wanted modulated signal 𝑠2 (𝑡) to output of the
mixer, eliminating the associated image signal.
• 𝑠1 (𝑡) 𝐴𝑙 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑙 𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑡) cos 2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 x 𝐴𝑙 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑙 𝑡
1
= 𝐴𝑙 𝑚 𝑡 [cos 2𝜋 𝑓1 + 𝑓𝑙 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓1 − 𝑓𝑙 𝑡 ]
2

***********

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