23-203-0405 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

Dr. SHAHANA T.K.

Professor in Electronics
SOE, CUSAT
Syllabus
• Module I
Introduction to continuous wave modulation: Elements of communication system,
electromagnetic spectrum - need for modulation - amplitude modulation: switching
modulators, envelope detector, sideband and carrier power. DSB-SC: Ring
modulator, coherent detection. Single sideband: time domain representation,
spectra, modulation techniques, demodulation.
Module II
Angle modulation: concept of instantaneous frequency- relationship between FM
and PM - power and bandwidth – Carson’s rule. FM generation –direct, indirect
method- narrowband and wideband FM. FM demodulation –slope detection.
Comparison of AM and FM. Superheterodyne analog AM/FM receivers-
Characteristics of receivers – sensitivity, selectivity, image frequency.

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• Module III

Probability theory & Random processes: concept of probability: conditional

probability and Baye’s theorem- random variables-statistical averages-correlation-
central limit theorem. Characterization of random process - autocorrelation and
power spectral density- transmission of random processes through LTI system.

• Module IV

Noise: external, internal- signal-to-noise ratio – noise figure –noise calculations –

equivalent noise temperature,-noise figure in cascaded networks. White noise,
filtered white noise, noise equivalent bandwidth, Narrow band noise. Effect of
noise in Systems: Linear and angle modulation systems, threshold effect and
threshold extension, pre-emphasis and de-emphasis filtering.

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• Text books:

1. Simon Haykin and Michael Moher, Communication Systems, John Wiley & Sons,
5/e, (2017).
2. B. P. Lathi and Zhi Ding, Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems,
Oxford University Press, 4/e,(2017)
• References:
1. George Kennedy, Electronic communication systems, McGraw Hill,6/e,(2017)
2. Taub & Schilling, Principles of Communication Systems, Tata McGraw Hill,
3/e,(2007)
3. Wayne Tomasi, Electronic Communications Systems (Fundamentals through
Advanced), Pearson Education, 5/e,(2008)

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 Module I
Introduction to Continuous Wave modulation
• Elements of communication system:
The communication process involves transmission of information from one
point to another – through a succession of processes
• Generation of message signal
• Description using aural, visual or electrical symbols
• Encoding of symbols
• Transmission
• Decoding and reproduction of original symbols
• Recreation of an estimate of original message
- definable degradation due to imperfections in the system

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3 basic elements in every communication system:
 Transmitter
 Channel
 Receiver

General block diagram of a communication system:

Noise Received info.
(Estimate of original
message)
Transmitted Received
Info. signal signal
Source Transmitter Channel Receiver User

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• Transmitter:
to reformat and reshape the signal so that the channel will not
distort it much.
boost the power of the signal
• Channel:
The channel is the physical transmission medium over which the
communication is sent.
wired or wireless
will distort and attenuate the transmitted signal - will add noise
to the transmitted signal
• Receiver:
Reconstructs a recognizable form of original signal.
“Undoing” the shaping and formatting from the transmitter

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Two basic modes of Communication
1. Broadcasting
-single powerful transmitter and many receivers
-Signals flow in one direction only (eg. Radio, TV)
2. Point-to-point communication
-over a link between a single Txr and a Rxr
-bidirectional flow of information (eg. Telephone)

Wired channels: Telephone channels, coaxial cables, optical fiber cables

Wireless channels: wireless broadcast channels, mobile radio channels,
satellite channels

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ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• The total span of frequencies and the corresponding wavelengths
used in communication system is called electromagnetic spectrum.
• EM waves: Oscillations that propagate through free space with
velocity of light (3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠)
• Transverse in nature : Oscillations perpendicular to direction of
propagation
• Consists of electric and magnetic fields mutually perpendicular to
each other and also to direction of propagation
• All communication systems send information from one point to
another by transmitting electromagnetic energy – can be as a voltage
or current through wires, or as radio emission through air or space, or
as light

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• The simplest and the most important law for all EM waves:
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ν
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = i.e. λ=
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓
• Propagation velocity: The speed at which a wave travels (ν), depends
on the medium through which it is travelling.
• The fastest Propagation velocity is the speed of light, c = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
• Propagation velocity is less in any medium other than vacuum.

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Introduction to CE Dr. Shahana T.K. 11
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Name of band Frequency range

Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) 30 Hz-300 Hz

Voice Frequency (VF) 300 Hz – 3 kHz

Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 kHz- 30 kHz

Low Frequency (LF) 30 kHz-300 kHz

Medium Frequency (MF) 300 kHz – 3 MHz

High Frequency (HF) 3 MHz- 30 MHz

Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 MHz- 300 MHz

Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz – 3 GHz

Super High Frequency (SHF) 3 GHz- 30 GHz

Extremely High Frequency (EHF) 30 GHz-300 GHz

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MODULATION
Definition:
The process in which some characteristics of a high frequency carrier
wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal.
Classified as:
CW modulation-high frequency sine wave as carrier
Pulse modulation- periodic sequence of rectangular pulses as carrier.

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Sinusoidal signal represented as:
𝑒 = 𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙)
Where e = inst. value of the carrier
E = Maximum amplitude
𝜔= angular frequency
𝜙= Phase relation w.r.t. some reference

Any of the 3 parameters, amplitude, frequency or phase angle of the

carrier may be varied by modulating signal giving rise to AM, FM, or PM
respectively.

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Introduction to CE Dr. Shahana T.K. 16
Need for Modulation:
• To reduce the height of transmitting and receiving antenna
• comparable to quarter wavelength of frequency used (eg. 5 km at 15 kHz
where as only 75 m at 1 MHz)
• To isolate individual stations
• Without modulation, signals from different transmitters (20 Hz – 20 kHz) get
inseparably mixed up
• To increase the coverage area
• As frequency increases, Energy also increases.
• To reduce attenuation
So, Higher frequencies are used for Modulation

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 Amplitude Modulation:
• The purpose of communication system is to transmit information-
bearing signals through a communication channel from transmitter to
receiver.
• Base band : band of frequencies representing the original message
signal – Modulating wave
• Modulation: Shift of baseband frequencies into other frequency
range suitable for transmission (at transmitter)
• The result of modulation process is the modulated wave
• Demodulation: Corresponding shift back to the original frequency,
after reception (at receiver)

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• Block diagram of Modulator and Demodulator

• Amplitude Modulation (AM) definition:

-The process in which amplitude of the carrier wave c(t) is varied
linearly with the modulating signal m(t), keeping frequency and phase
angle constant.

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• Let sinusoidal carrier be:
Where 𝐴𝑐 is the max. amplitude and 𝑓𝑐 is the frequency of the carrier.
The phase is assumed zero here, for simplicity.
• AM wave can be described as:

Where 𝑘𝑎 is a constant called amplitude sensitivity, measured in

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 −1 and m(t) is the message signal in volts.
• Figure shows m(t) and corresponding AM signal s(t) for two values of
𝑘𝑎 and carrier amplitude 𝐴𝑐 =1.
• The envelope of s(t)has essentially the same shape as that of m(t).

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Introduction to CE Dr. Shahana T.K. 21
• Two requirements for a good AM wave:

1. 𝑘𝑎 m(t) < 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡 (as in Fig b)

So, 1+ 𝑘𝑎 m(t) is positive, and envelope of s(t) can be written as 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 ].
When 𝑘𝑎 m(t) > 1, the carrier wave becomes overmodulated and results in
carrier phase reversal whenever 1+ 𝑘𝑎 m(t) crosses zero. (as in Fig c).
- Overmodulation leads to envelope distortion and needs to be avoided.
- 𝑘𝑎 m(t) multiplied by 100 is referred to as the percentage modulation.

2. The carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 ≫ 𝑊, where W is the message bandwidth

(the highest frequency component of message m(t) )

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• For AM: 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)…………… (1)
• Taking Fourier transform, we get

………………….(2)
• Let m(t) be a bandlimited signal in the interval −𝑊 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 𝑊, with
spectrum M(f) as in Fig.a.
• From equation (2) the spectrum S(f) of AM wave is as shown in Fig.b.

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• Spectrum consists of two delta functions at ±𝑓𝑐 weighted by 𝐴𝑐 /2 , and two
versions of baseband spectrum translated in frequency by ±𝑓𝑐 and scaled
in amplitude by 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑐 /2
• For positive frequencies, the portion of the spectrum lying above the
carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 is referred to as the upper sideband, whereas the
symmetric portion below 𝑓𝑐 is referred to as the lower sideband.
• For positive frequencies, the highest frequency component of AM wave
equals 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑊, and the lowest frequency component equals 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑊.
• The difference between these two frequencies defines the transmission
bandwidth 𝐵𝑇 , which is twice the message bandwidth.
𝐵𝑇 = 2𝑊

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FOURIER TRANSFORM:
• Decomposes x(t) into its frequency components

• Inverse FT: reconstructs the signal x(t) from its frequency components

• Fourier transform pairs:

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 1 𝑗𝜔 𝑡
• 𝑥 𝑡 = cos 𝜔0 𝑡 = [𝑒 0 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔0 𝑡 ]
2

• In terms of frequency,
1
𝐹. 𝑇. {cos 𝜔0 𝑡 } = δ(f − 𝑓0 + δ(f + 𝑓0 )]
2

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Single-tone modulation:
• Consider a modulating wave m(t) that consists of a single tone or
frequency component 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡), where 𝐴𝑚 is the amplitude
of the sinusoidal modulating wave and 𝑓𝑚 is its frequency (Fig a)
• The sinusoidal carrier wave has amplitude 𝐴𝑐 and frequency 𝑓𝑐 (Fig.b).
• The corresponding AM wave is therefore given by
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) ……………………… (1)
where 𝜇 = 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 is called the modulation factor (modulation index), or the
percentage modulation when it is expressed numerically as a percentage.
• 𝜇 must be kept below unity, to avoid overmodulation (envelope distortion)

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Introduction to CE Dr. Shahana T.K. 28
• Let 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 denote the maximum and minimum values of the
envelope of the modulated wave, respectively.
• Then

• And the modulation factor (modulation index) is

• Expressing the product of the two cosines in Eq. 1 as the sum of two
sinusoidal waves

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• Thus the spectrum of an AM wave, for the special case of sinusoidal
modulation, consists of delta functions ±𝑓𝑐 , 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑓𝑚 and −𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑓𝑚 as shown in
Fig. (c)

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Total power in AM:
• Total power in AM wave:
2 2 2
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐵
𝑃𝐴𝑀 = + + (all voltages are rms values)
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
2
2
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟 (𝐴𝑐 Τ 2) 𝐴𝑐 2
Power in carrier: 𝑃𝑐 = = =
𝑅 𝑅 2𝑅
2 2
𝑉𝑈𝑆𝐵 (𝜇𝐴𝑐 Τ2 2) 𝜇 2 𝐴𝑐 2
Power in USB: 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = = =
𝑅 𝑅 8𝑅
2 2
𝑉𝐿𝑆𝐵 (𝜇𝐴𝑐 Τ2 2) 𝜇 2 𝐴𝑐 2
Power in LSB: 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = = =
𝑅 𝑅 8𝑅
𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 2 𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇2 𝜇2 𝜇2
∴ 𝑃𝐴𝑀 = + + = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅 4 𝑐 4 2
𝜇2
∴ 𝑃𝐴𝑀 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2
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• the ratio of the total sideband power to the total power in the
𝑃𝑆𝐵 𝜇2
modulated wave: = 2
𝑃𝐴𝑀 (2+𝜇 )
• If 𝜇=1, (i.e. 100 percent modulation), then only one-third of the total
power is present in the two sidebands.
𝐴𝑚
• Another expression for modulation index: 𝜇 =
𝐴𝑐

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SWITCHING MODULATOR: (AM generation)
• Amplitude modulation is accomplished by using non-linear device.

Circuit diagram Idealized transfer characteristics

• It is assumed that amplitude of c(t) is large enough and diode acts as an

ideal switch.
• We may approximate the transfer characteristics of diode-load resistor
combination as a piecewise-linear characteristics.

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• The input voltage 𝑣1 𝑡 is the sum of carrier and message signal.
𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚(𝑡)
where 𝑚(𝑡) ≪ 𝐴𝑐
• The resulting load voltage 𝑣2 𝑡 is
𝑣1 𝑡 , 𝑐 𝑡 > 0
• 𝑣2 𝑡 ≈ ቊ ………………… (A)
0, 𝑐 𝑡 <0
• So, 𝑣2 𝑡 varies periodically between values of 𝑣1 𝑡 and zero, at rate
equal to the carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 .
• We have thus replaced the non-linear behaviour of diode by an
approximately equivalent piecewise-linear time-varying operation.
• We may express eqn (A) as 𝑣2 𝑡 ≈ [𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑚(𝑡)]𝑔𝑇0 (𝑡) …… (B)
where 𝑔𝑇0 (𝑡) is a periodic pulse train of duty cycle one-half and
period 𝑇0 = 1ൗ𝑓𝑐
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 Periodic pulse train

• Representing 𝑔𝑇0 (𝑡)as its Fourier series,

∞
1 2 (−1)𝑛−1
𝑔𝑇0 𝑡 = + ෍ cos[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 2𝑛 − 1 ]
2 𝜋 2𝑛 − 1
𝑛=1
• Substituting in eqn (B), we find that 𝑣2 𝑡 consists of two components
2
1) The component [for n=1, in the summation first term is: cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡))]
𝜋
𝐴𝑐 4
[1 + 𝑚 𝑡 ]cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡),
2 𝜋𝐴𝑐
4
is the desired AM wave with amplitude sensitivity 𝑘𝑎 =
𝜋𝐴𝑐

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2) The unwanted components, the spectrum of which contains delta
functions at 0, ±2𝑓𝑐 , ±4𝑓𝑐 ,… and which occupy frequency intervals of
width 2W centered at 0, ±3𝑓𝑐 , ±5𝑓𝑐 , ….

The unwanted components are removed by a bandpass filter of mid-

band frequency 𝑓𝑐 and bandwidth 2W, provided 𝑓𝑐 > 2𝑊.

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Envelope Detector: (AM demodulation)
• Demodulation is the inverse of modulation.
• Demodulation is to recover the original modulating wave from the
incoming modulated wave.
• A simple and highly effective circuit for the demodulation of an AM
wave is called the envelope detector,
• Two practical conditions are to be satisfied for proper functioning:
1. The AM wave is narrowband, which means 𝑓𝑐 ≫ 𝑊
2. The percentage modulation in the AM wave is less than 100 %.

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Introduction to CE Dr. Shahana T.K. 38
• Operation:
• On a positive half-cycle of the input signal:
- the diode is forward-biased
- the capacitor C charges rapidly to the peak value of the input signal.
• When the input signal falls below this value:
- the diode becomes reverse-biased
- the capacitor C discharges slowly through the load resistor
• The discharging process continues until the next positive half-cycle.
• When the input signal becomes greater than the voltage across the capacitor, the
diode conducts again and the process is repeated.
• Assume that the diode is ideal, presenting resistance 𝑟𝑓 when forward-biased and
infinite resistance in the reverse-bias.

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• The charging time constant 𝑟𝑓 + 𝑅𝑠 𝐶 must be short compared
with the carrier period 1ൗ𝑓𝑐
1
• i.e. 𝑟𝑓 + 𝑅𝑠 𝐶 ≪ ,
𝑓𝑐

so that capacitor C charges rapidly and follows applied voltage

up to the positive peak when the diode is conducting.
• On the other hand, the discharging time constant 𝑅𝑙 𝐶 must be long
enough to ensure that the capacitor discharges slowly through the
load resistor between positive peaks of the carrier wave
• but not so long, that the capacitor voltage can follow the decreasing
part of the envelope also.

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 1 1 1
• So, ≪ 𝑅𝑙 𝐶 ≪ (W= )
𝑓𝑐 𝑊 𝑡𝑚

where W is the message bandwidth.

The result is that the capacitor voltage is nearly the same as the
envelope of the AM wave.

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Virtues, Limitations, and Modifications of Amplitude
Modulation:
The biggest virtue is the ease with which it is generated and reversed
So, AM system is relatively inexpensive to build
• The two primary communication resources:
transmitted power and
channel bandwidth (they should be used efficiently)
• AM suffers from two major practical limitations:
1. AM is wasteful of transmitted power.
2. AM is wasteful of channel bandwidth

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POWER:
• In the AM wave, the carrier component is independent of the
information-bearing signal
• The transmission of the carrier wave therefore represents a waste of
power
• With µ =1, two-third of the total power is in the carrier and is wasted.
The sideband power which is only one-third is carrying information.
• So in AM, only a fraction of the transmitted power is useful.

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BANDWIDTH:
• The upper and lower sidebands are symmetrical about the
carrier frequency;
hence, given the amplitude and phase spectra of either
sideband, we can uniquely determine the other.
• So, only one sideband is necessary for transmission of
information
• The communication channel therefore needs to provide only the
same bandwidth as the message signal.
• But AM requires a transmission bandwidth equal to twice the
message bandwidth.

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• To overcome these limitations of AM, three modifications of amplitude
modulation
1. Double sideband-suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation:
• The transmitted wave consists of only the upper and lower sidebands.
• Transmitted power is saved through the suppression of the carrier wave
• But the channel bandwidth requirement is the same as before (i.e., twice the
message bandwidth).
2. Single sideband (SSB) modulation:
• The modulated wave consists of only one sideband (USB or LSB)
• SSB is the optimum form of CW modulation as it requires the minimum
transmitted power and minimum channel bandwidth
• Disadvantages: increased complexity as carrier is to be re-inserted at the receiver
for demodulation

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3. Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation:
• The carrier and One sideband is passed and just a trace, or vestige, of the other
sideband is retained.
• The required channel bandwidth is slightly in excess of the message bandwidth
by an amount equal to the width of the vestigial sideband.
• Suited for the transmission of wideband signals such as television signals that
contain significant components at extremely low frequencies.
• Used in commercial television broadcasting

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