Chapter 1

Properties of Fluids
INTRODUCTION
Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behavior of the fluids
(liquids or gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science deals with the
static, kinematics and dynamic aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid
statics. The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called
fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in motion,
that branch of science is called fluid dynamics.

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Density or Mass Density: Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ration of
the mass of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. It
is denoted the symbol ρ (rho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic metre,
it.e. kg/m3. The density of liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases
changes with t he variation of pressure and temperature.
Mathematically, mass density is written as
Massoffluid
ρ= .
Volumeoffluid
The value of density for water is 1 gm/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3.

Specific Weight or Weight Density: Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the
ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid
is called weight density and it is denoted by the symbol w.
Thus mathematically,
Weightoffluid ( Massoffluid ) × Accelerationduetogravity
w= =
Volumeoffluid Volumeoffluid
Massofflui d × g
=
Volumeoffluid
 Massoffluid 
= ρ×g Q = ρ
 Volumeoffluid 

w = ρg
The value of specific weight or weight density (w) for water is 9.81 × 1000 Newton/m3 in
SI units.

Specific Volume: Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied
by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is called specific volume.
Mathematically, it is expressed as

1
 Volumeoffluid 1 1
Specific volume = = =
Massoffluid Massoffluid ρ
Volume
Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as m3/kg. It is
commonly applied to gases.

Specific Gravity: Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density
(or density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid. For liquids,
the standard fluid is taken water and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air. Specific
gravity is also called relative density. It is dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the
symbol S.
Weightdensity (density )ofliquid
Mathematically, S ( forliquids ) =
Weightdensity (density )ofwater
Weightdensity (density )ofgas
S ( forgases) =
Weightdensity (density )ofair
Thus weight density of a liquid = S × Weight density of water
= S × 1000 × 9.81 N/m3
= S × Density of water
= S × 1000kg/m3.

VISCOSITY
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement
of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When tow layers of a fluid, a
distance ‘dy’ apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say u +du, the
viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid
layers.
The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer
causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is proportional to the rate
of change of velocity with respect to y. It is denoted by symbol τ called Tu.
du
Mathematically, τα
dy
du
or τ =µ
dy
where µ (called mu) is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of
du
dynamic viscosity or only viscosity. represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear
dy
deformation or velocity gradient.
τ
From equation (1.2), we have µ=
du
dy
Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear
strain.

Kinematic Viscosity: It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and
density of fluid. It is denoted by the Greek symbol (v) called ‘nu’. Thus, mathematically,

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 Vis cos ity µ
v= =
Denssity ρ
The units of kinematic viscosity is obtained as
Unitsofµ Force × Time Force × Time
v= = =
Unitsofρ Mass Mass
( Length) 2 × 3
( Length) Length
Length
Mass × × Time ∴ Force = Mass × Acc.
(Time) 2  
=  Length 
 Mass   = Mass × 
   Tme 2

 Length 
( Length) 2
= .
Time
In MKS and SI, the unit of kinematic viscosity is metre2/sec or m2/sec while in CGS
units it is written as cm2/s.. in CGS units, kinematic viscosity is also known stoke.
2
 1  2 −4
Thus, one stoke cm / s = 
2
 m / s = 10 m / s
2

 100 
1
Centistokes means = stoke .
100

Newton’s Law of Viscosity: If states that the shear stress ( τ ) on a fluid element
layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is
called the co-efficient of viscosity. Mathematically, it is expressed as given by equation
(1.2) or as given by equation (1.2) or as
du
τ =µ .
dy
Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids and the fluids
which do not obe the above relation are called Non-Newtonian fluids.

Variation of Viscosity with Temperature: Temperature affects the viscosity. The

viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of temperature while the viscosity of gases
increases with the increase of temperature. This is due to reason that in liquids the
cohesive forces predominates the molecular momentum transfer, due to closely packed
molecules and with the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces decreases with the
result of decreasing viscosity. But in case of gases the cohesive force are small and
molecular momentum transfer predominates. With the increase in temperature, molecular
momentum transfer increases and hence viscosity increases. The relation between
viscosity and temperature for liquids gases are:
 1 
(i) For liquids, µ = µ 0  
2 
 1 + αt + β t 
Where µ = Viscosity of liquid at t0 C, in poise
µ0 = Viscosity of liquid at 00 C, in poise
α,β = are constants for the liquid
For water, µ 0 = 1.79 ×10 −3 poise, α = 0.03368 and β = 000221.
(ii) For a gas, µ = µ 0 + αt − βt 2

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Where for air µ 0 = 000017, α = 000000056, β = 1189 × 10 −9 .

Types of fluids: The fluids may be classified into the following five types:
1. Ideal fluid. 2. Real fluid,
3. Newtonian fluid, 4. No-Newtonian fluid, and
5. Ideal plastic fluid.

1. Ideal Fluid: A fluid, which is incompressible and is having no viscosity, is known as

an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have
some viscosity.

2. Real Fluid: A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is known as real fluid. All the fluids, in
actual practice, are real fluids.

3. Newtonian Fluid: A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly, proportional to the
rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as a Newtonian fluid.

4. Non- Newtonian Fluid: A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not proportional to the
rat of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as a Non-Newtonian fluid.

5. Ideal Plastic Fluid: A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and
shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as
ideal plastic fluid.

Fig 1.

COMPRESSIBILITY
Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity, K which is defined
as the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain.
Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in Fig.2

Let V = Volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder

p = Pressure of gas when volume is V
Let the pressure is incrased to p+dp, the volume of gas decreases from V to V-dV
Then increase in pressure = dp kgf/m2
Decrease in volume = dV

Volumetric strain = -dV/V

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-ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of pressure
Bulk modulus K = Increase in pressure/Volumetric strain
=dp/(-dV/V) = (-dp/dV)V
Compressibility is given by = 1/K
Relationship between K and pressure (p) for a gas
The relationship between bulk modulus of elasticity (K) and pressure for a gas for tow
different processes of compressions are as:
(i) Isothermal Process: If the changes in density occurs at constant temperature,
then the process is called isothermal and the relationship between pressure (p) and
density ( ρ) of a gas as
P
= Constant
ρ
pV = constant
Differentiating the above equation, we get (and V both are variables)
pdV + Vdp = 0 or pdV = -Vdp or p = -Vdp/dV
Substituting this value in equation, we get
K=p
(ii) Adiabatic process: If the change in density occus with no heat exchange to and
from the gas, the process is called adiabatic. And if no heat is generated within the
gas due to friction, the relationship between pressure and density is given by
P
= Constant
ρk

where, k = Ratio of specific heat of a gas at constant pressure and constant

volume = 1.4 for air
Differentiating, we get
pd(Vk) + Vk(dp) = 0
p k Vk-1 dV + Vkdp = 0
pkdV + Vdp = 0
pkdV = - Vdp
pk = -Vdp/dV
Hence from equation, we have
K = pk,
Where,
K = Bulk modulus and k = Ratio of specific heat

SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY

Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in
contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact
surface behaves like a membrane under tension. The magnitude of this force per unit
length of the free surface will have the same value as the surface energy per unit area. It is
denoted by Greek letter σ (called sigma). In MKS units, it is expressed as kgf/m, while in
SI units as N/m.
Consider three molecules A, B C, of a liquid in a mass of liquid. The molecule A is
attracted in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the liquid. Thus the
resultant force acting on the molecule A is zero. But the molecule B, which is situated
near the free surface, is acted upon by upward and downward forces which are
unbalanced. Thus a net resultant force on molecule B is acting in the downward direction.
The molecule C, situated on the free surface of liquid, does experience a resultant

5
downward force. All the molecules on the free surface experience a downward force.
Thus, the free surface of the liquid acts like a very thin film under tension of the surface
of the liquid acts as though it is an elastic membrane under tension.

Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet: Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of

radius ‘r’. On the entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force due to surface tension will
be acting.
Let ơ = Surface tension of the liquid
p = Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside
pressure intensity)
d = Dia. of droplet.
Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one half (say left half) will
be
(i) tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut
portion as shown (b) and this is equal to
= σ × Circumference
= σ × πd
π
P× d 2 = (σ × πd )
4
σπd 4σ
∴ P= =
π 2 d
d
4

Surface tension on a hollow bubble: A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two
surfaces in contact with air, one inside and other outside. Thus two surfaces are subjected
to surface tension. In such case, we have
π
P× d 2 = 2 × (σ × πd )
4
2σπd 8σ
∴ P= =
π d
d2
d

Surface tension on a liquid jet: Consider a liquid jet of diameter d and length L as
shown in fig
Let p= Pressure intensity inside the liquid jet above the outside pressure
σ = Surface tension of the liquid
Consider the equilibrium of the semi jet we have,
Force due to pressure = p x are of semi jet
=pxLxd
Force due to surface tension = σ x 2L
Equating the forces, we have
p x L x d = σ x 2L
σ × 2 L 2σ
∴ P= =
L×d d

Capillarity: Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface

in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held

6
vertically in the liquid. The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall
of the liquid surface is known as capillary depression. It is expressed in terms of cm or
mm of liquid. Its value depends upon the specific weight of the liquid, diameter of the
tube and surface tension of the liquid.

Expression for Capillary Rise: Consider a glass tube of small diameter‘d’ opened at
both ends and is inserted in a liquid, say water. The liquid will rise in the tube above the
level of the liquid.
Let h = height of the liquid in the tube. Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of
liquid of height h is balanced by the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube. But the
force at the surface of the liquid in the tube is due to surface tension.
Let σ = Surface tension of liquid
Ө= Angle of contact between liquid and glass tube.
The weight of liquid of height h in the tube
= (Area of tube × h) × ρ × g
π
= d 2 × h× ρ × g
4
Where ρ = Density of liquid
Vertical component of the surface tensile force
= (σ × Circumference) × cos Ө
= σ × πd × cos θ
For equilibrium, equating (1.17) and (1.18), we get
π
d 2 × h × ρ × g = σ × πd × cos θ
4
σ × πd × cos θ 4σ cos θ
h= =
π 2 ρ×g×d
d ×ρ×g
4
The values of Ө between water and clear glass tube is approximately equal to zero
and hence cos Ө is equal to unity. Then rise of water is given by
4σ
h=
ρ × g×d

Expression for Capillary Fall: If the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of
mercury in the tube will be lower than the general level of the outside liquid as shown in
fig .
Let h = Height of depression in tube
Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the mercury inside the tube. First one, is
due to surface tension acting in the downward direction and is equal to x d x cos
Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting upward and is equal to intensity of
pressure at a depth ‘h’ x area

π
= P× d2
4
π
= ρg × h × d2 {Q P = ρgh}
4
Equating the two, we get
π
σ × πd × cos θ = ρgh × d2
4

7
 4σ cos θ
∴ h=
ρgd
Volume of θ for mercury and glass tube is 1280.

Problems
1. Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid
which weighs 7 N.

Solution:
1  1 
Volume = 1 litre = m 3 Q1 litre = m 3 or1 lite = 1000 cm 3 
1000  1000 
Weight = 7 N.
Weight 7N
(i) Specific weight = = = 7000 N/m 3 . Ans.
Volume  1  3
 m
 1000 
w 7000
(ii) Density (ρ) = = kg / m 3 = 713.5kg / m 3 . Ans.
g 9.81

(iii) Specific Gravity =

Density of liquid 713.5
=
Density of Water 1000
{
Q Density of water = 1000 kg/m 3 }
= 0.7135

2. Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of specific
gravity =0.7

Solution:
Volume = 1 litre
1000 3
= 1 × 1000cm 3 = 6
m = 0.01m 3
10
Sp. Gravity, S= 0.7
(i) Density (ρ)
Density (ρ) = S × 1000kg / m 3 = 0.7 × 1000 = 700kg / m 3 . Ans.
(ii) Specific weight (w)
w=ρ×g
= 700 × 9.81N / m 3 = 6867 N / m 3 . Ans.
(iii) Weight (W)
Weight
We know that specific weight =
Volume
W W
or w= or 6867 =
0.001 0.001
∴ W = 6867 × 0.001 = 6.867 N . Ans.

8
 3. Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m3. The shear stress
at a point in oil is 0.2452 N/m2 and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per
second.
Solution:

Mass density, ρ = 981 kg/m3

Shear stress, ι = 0.2452 N/m3
du
Velocity gradient, = 0.2 s
dy
du
Using the equation τ = µ or 0.252 = µ × 2.0
dy
0.2452
∴ µ= = 1.226 Ns / m 2
0.200
Kinematic viscosity v is given by
µ 1.226
∴ v= = = .125 × 10 − 2 m 2 / sec
ρ 981
= 0.125 × 10 −2 × 10 4 cm 2 / s = 0.125 × 10 2 cm 2 / s
= 12.5cm 2 / s = 12.5 stoke . Ans. {Q cm 2 / s = Stoke}
4. Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.05 poise and
kinematic viscosity 0.035 stoke.
Solution:

0.05
Viscosity, µ= 0.05 poise = Ns/m 2
10
Kinematic viscosity, v = 0.035 stokes
= 0.035 cm2/s {Q Stoke = cm / s}
2

= 0.035 × 10 −4 m 2 / s
µ 0.05 1
Using the relation v = , we get 0.035 × 10 − 4 = ×
ρ 10 ρ

0.05 1
∴ ρ=
× = 1428.5kg / m 3
10 .035 × 10 − 4
Density of liquid 1428.5
∴ Sp. gr. of liquid = = = 1.4825 = 1.43 Ans.
Density of water 1000
5. Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and
specific gravity 1.9
Solution:

Kinematic viscosity v = 6 stokes = 6 cm2/s = 6×10-4 m2/s

[Link]. of liquid = 1.9
Let the viscosity of liquid =µ
Density of the liquid
Now [Link]. of a liquid =
Density of water
Density of liquid
or 1. 9 =
1000

9
 kg
∴ Density of liquid = 1000 ×1.9 = 1900
m3
µ
∴ Using the relation v = , we get
ρ
µ
6 ×10 − 4 =
1900
−4
Q µ = 6 ×10 ×1900 = 1.14 Ns / m 2
= 1.14 ×10 = 11.40 poise . Ans.
3
6. The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by u = y − y 2 in
4
which u is the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate.
Determine the shear stress at y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.6
poise.
Solution:

3
u= y − y2
4
du 3
∴ = − 2y
dy 4
du 3
At y = 0.15, = − 2 × 0.15 = 0.75 − 0.30 = 0.45
dy 4
8.6 Ns  Ns 
Velocity, µ = 8.6 poise = 2
Q10 poise = 1 2 
10 m  m 
du 8.6 N N
Using equation, τ =µ = × 0.45 2 = 0.3875 2 Ans.
dy 10 m m
7. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a the pressure of the liquid is
increased from 70 N/cm2. The volume of the liquid 0.15 per cent.
Solution:

Initial pressure = 70 Ncm2

Final pressure = 130 N/cm2
∴ dp = Increase in pressure = 130 – 70 = 60N/cm2
Decrease in volume = 0.15%
d∀ 0.15
∴ − =+
∀ 100
Bulk modulus, K is given by equation as
dp 60 N / cm 2 60 × 100
K= = = = 4 × 10 4 N / cm 2 Ans.
d∀ .15 .15
−
∀ 100

8. What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid which is compressed in a

cylinder from a volume of 0.0125 m3 at 80 N/cm2 pressure to a volume of 0.0124
m3 at 150 N/cm2 pressure?
Solution:

10
 Initial volume, ∀ = 0.0125m 3
Final volume = 0.0124 m3
∴ Decrease in volume, d∀ = .0125 − .0124 = .0001m 3
d∀ 0001
∴ − =+
∀ 0125
Initial pressure = 80 N/cm2
Final pressure = 150 N/cm2
∴ Increase in pressure, dp = (150 − 80 ) = 70 N / cm 2
Bulk modulus is given by equation as
dp 70
K= = = 70 × 125 N / cm 2
d∀ .0001
−
∀ .0125
= 8.75 × 103 N/cm2. Ans.
9. The surface tension of water in contact with air at 200 C is 0.0725 N/m. The
pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 002 N/cm2 greater than the outside
pressure. Calculate the diameter of the droplet of water.
Solution:

Surface tension, σ = 0.0725 N/m

Pressure intensity, p in excess of outside pressure is
N
p = 0.02 N / cm 2 = 0.02 × 10 4
m2
Let d = dia. of the droplet
4σ 4 × 0.0725
Using equation, we get p = or 0.02 × 10 4 =
d d
4 × 00725
∴ d= = .00145m = .00145 ×1000 = 1.45mm. Ans.
0.02 × (10)
4

10. Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside
pressure is 2.5 N/m2 above atmospheric pressure.
Solution:

Dia. of bubble, d= 40 mm = 40 × 10-3 m

Pressure in excess of outside, p = 2.5 N/m2
For a soap bubble, using equation, we get
8σ 8×σ
p= or 2.5 =
d 40 × 10 −3
2.5 × 40 × 10 −3
σ= N / m = 0.0125 N / m Ans.
8
11. The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm 10.32 N/cm2
(atmospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface
tension is given as 0.0725N/cm2 of water.
Solution:

Dia. of droplet, d = 004 mm = .04 × 10-3 m

Pressure outside the droplet = 10.32 N/cm2
= 10.32 × 104 N/m2
Surface tension, σ=0.0725 N/m

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 The pressure inside the droplet, in excess of outside pressure is given by equation
4σ 4 × 0.0725
or p= = = 7250 N / m 2
d .04 ×10 −3
7250 N
= 4 2 = 0.725 N / cm 2
10 cm
∴ Pressure inside the droplet = p + Pressure outside the droplet
= 0.725 + 10.32 = 11.045 N/cm2 Ans.
12. Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed
vertically in (a) water and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions σ = 0.0725 N/m for
water and σ = 0.52 N/m for mercury in contact with air. The specific gravity for
mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of contact = 1300.
Solution:

Dia. of tube, d = 2.5 mm = 2.5 × 10-3 m

Surface tension, σ for water = 0.0725 N/m
σ for mercury = 0.52 N/m
sp. [Link] mercur = 13.6
∴ Density = 13.6 × 1000 kg/m3
(a) Capillary rise for water (θ = 0)
4σ 4 × 0.0725
Using equation, we get h= =
ρ × g × d 1000 × 9.81 × 2.5 × 10 −3
= .0118 m = 1.18 cm. Ans.
(b) For mercury
Angle of constant between mercury and glass tube, θ = 1300
4σ cos θ 4 × 0.52 × cos 130 0
Using equation, we get h= =
ρ × g × d 13.6 ×1000 × 9.81× 2.5 × 10 −3
= -.004 m = - 0.4 cm. Ans.
The negative sign indicates the capillary depression.

13. Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter

when immersed in (i) water, and (ii) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is
200 C and the values of the surface tension of water and mercury at 200C in
contact with air are 0.073575 N/m and 0.51 N/m and 0.51 N/m respectively. The
angle of contact for water is zero that for mercury 1.300. Take density of water at
200C as equal to 998 kg/m3.
Solution:

Dia. of tube, d = 4 mm = 4 × 10-3 m

The capillary effect (i.e., capillary rise or depression) is given by equation as
4σ cos θ
h=
ρ × g×d
where σ=surface tension in kgf/,
θ = angle of contact, and ρ = density
(i) Capillary effect for water
σ = 0.073575 N/m, θ = 00
ρ = 998 kg/m3 at 200C

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 4 × 0.073575 × cos 0 0
∴ h= −3
= 7.51×10 −3 m = 7.51mm. Ans.
998 × 9.81× 4 ×10
(ii) Capillary effect for mercury
σ = 0.51 N/m, θ =1300
ρ = [Link]. × 1000 = 13.6 × 1000 = 13600 kg/m2

4 × 0.51 × cos 130 0

∴ h=
13600 × 9.81 × 4 × 10 − 3
= -2.46 × 10-3 m = -2.46 mm Ans.
The negative sign indicates the capillary depression.

HIGHLIGHTS
1. The weight density or specific weight of a fluid is equal to weight per unit volume. It
is also equal to
2. Specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density.
du
3. The shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient. Mathematically, τ = µ
dy
µ
4. Kinematic viscosity V is given by V =
p
5. Poise and stokes are the units of viscosity and kinematic viscosity respectively.
6. To concert the unit of viscosity from poise to MKS units, poise should be divided by
98.1. And to convert poise into SI units, the poise should be divided by 10.

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