Chapter 2
Pressure and its Measurement
FLUILD PRESSURE AT A POINT
Consider a small area dA in large mass of fluid. If the fluid is stationary, then the
force exerted by the surrounding fluid on the area dA will always be perpendicular to the
surface dA. Let dF is the force acting on the area dA in the normal direction. Then the ration
dF
of is known as the intensity of pressure or simply pressure and this ratio is represented by
dA
p. hence mathematically the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is
dF
p=
dA
If the force (F) is uniformly distributed over the area (A), then pressure at any point is
given by
F Force
p= =
A Area
∴ Force or pressure force, F = p × A .
The units of pressure are : (i) kgf/cm2 in MKS units, (ii) Newton/m2 or N/m2 and
N/mm is SI units. N/m2 is known as Pascal and is represented by Pa. Other commonly used
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or pressure are:
kPa = kilo pascal = 1000 N/m2
bar = 100 kPa = 105 N/m2.
PASCAL’S LAW
It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is equal in
all directions. This is proved as:
Consider an arbitrary fluid element of wedge shape in a fluid mass at rest. Let the
width of the element is unity an Px, Py and Pz are the pressures or intensity of pressure
acting on the face AB, AC and BC respectively. Let angle ABC = θ
. Then the forces acting on the element are:
1. Pressure forces normal to the surfaces.
2. Weight of element in the vertical direction.
The forces on the faces are:
Forces on the face AB = px × Area of face AB
= px × dy× 1
Similarly force on the face AC = py × ∆x ×1
Force on the face BC = pz × ds×1
AB × AC
Weight of element = ×1× w , where w = weight density of fluid.
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Resolving the forces in x- direction, we have
( )
p x × dy × 1 − p x (ds ×1) sin 90 0 − θ = 0
or p x × dy × 1 − p z ds ×1 cos θ = 0
But from Fig. 2.1 ds cos θ = AB = dy
∴ p x × dy ×1 − p z × dy ×1 = 0
or px = pz
1
Similarly, resolving the forces in y – direction, we get
dx × dy
p y × dx ×1 − p z × ds ×1 cos(90 0 − θ ) − × 1× w = 0
2
dxdy
or p y × dx − p z ds sin θ − ×w = 0.
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But ds sin θ = dx and also the element is very small and hence weight is negligible.
∴ p y dx − p z × dx = 0
or py = pz
From equations (2.1) and (2.2), we have
px = p y = pz
Since the choice of fluid element was completely arbitrary, which means the pressure
at any point is the same in all directions.
ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM PRESSURES
The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. In one system, it is
measured above the absolute zero or complete vacuum and it is called the absolute pressure
and in other system, pressure is measured above the atmospheric pressure and it is called
gauge pressure. Thus:
1. Absolute Pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to
absolute vacuum pressure.
2. Gauge pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a
pressure measuring instrument, in which are atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The
atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.
3. Vacuum Pressure is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.
The relationship between the absolute pressure.
Mathematically:
(i) Absolute pressure
= Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
or Pabs = Patm + PGauge
(ii) Vacuum pressure
= Atmospheric pressure – Absolute pressure.
Note. (i) The atmospheric pressure at sea level at 150C is 101.3 kN/m2 in SI unit. In
case of MKS units, it is equal to 1.033 kgf/cm2.
(ii) The atmospheric pressure head is 760 mm of mercury or 10.33 m of water.
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices:
1. Manometers 2. Mechanical Gauges.
Manometers. Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure
at a point in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the
fluid. They are classified as:
(a) Diaphragm pressure gauge, (b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge,
(c) Dead-weight pressure gauge, and (d) Bellows pressure gauge.
Single Column Manometer. Single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube
manometer in which a reservoir having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times)as
compared to the area of the tube is connected to one of the limbs (say left limb) of the
manometer. Due to large cross-sectional area of the reservoir, for any variation in pressure, th
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change in the liquid level in the reservoir will be very small which may be neglected and
hence the pressure is given by the height of liquid in the other limb. The other limb may be
vertical or inclined. Thus there are two types of single column manometer as:
1. Vertical Single Column Manometer.
2. Inclined Single Column Manometer.
1. Vertical Single Column Manometer.
Let X-X be the datum line in the reservoir and in the right limb of the manometer,
when it is not connected to the pipe. When the manometer is connected to the pipe, due to
high pressure at A, the heavy liquid in the reservoir will be pushed downward and will rise in
the right limb.
Let ∆h = Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir
h2 = Rise of heavy liquid in right limb
h1 = Height of centre of pipe above X-X
PA = Pressure at A, which is to be measured
A = Cross-sectional area of the reservoir
α = Cross-sectional area of t he right limb
S1 = Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe
S2 = Sp. gr. of heavy liquid in reservoir and right limb
ρ1 = Density of liquid in pipe
ρ2 = Density of liquid in reservoir
Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb.
∴ A × ∆h = a × h2
a × h2
∴ ∆h =
A
Then pressure in the right limb above Y-Y.
= ρ 2 × g × (∆h + h2 )
Pressure above X-X in the right limb = ρ g × g × h + ρ 2 × g × y + ρ g
Where pg = Pressure at B.
Equating the two pressure, we have
ρ 1 g (h + x ) + PA = ρ g × g × h + ρ 2 gy + PB
∴ PA − PB = ρ g × g × h + ρ 2 gy − ρ 1 g (h + x )
= h × g (ρ g − ρ 1 ) + ρ 2 gy − ρ 1 gx
∴ Difference of pressure at A and B = h × g (ρ g − ρ 1 ) + ρ 1 gx
A and B are at the same level and contains the same liquid of density ρ1. then
Pressure above X-X in right limb = ρ g × g × h + ρ 1 × g × x + PB
Pressure above X-X in left limb = ρ 1 × g × (h + x ) + PA
Equating the two pressure
ρ g × g × h + ρ 1 gx + PB = ρ 1 × g × (h + x ) + PA
∴ PA − PB = ρ g × g × h + ρ 1 gx − ρ 1 g (h + x )
= g × h(ρ g − ρ 1 ) .
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HIGHLIGHTS
1. The pressure at any point in a fluid is defined as the force per unit area.
2. The Pascal’s law states that intensity of pressure for a fluid at rest is equal
in all directions.
3. Pressure variation at a point in a fluid at rest is given by the hydrostatic
law which states that the rate of increase of pressure in the vertically
downward direction is equal the specific weight of the
dp
fluid, = w = p × g.
dZ
4. The pressure at any point in a incompressible fluid (liquid) is equal to the
product of density of fluid at that point, acceleration due to gravity and
vertical height from free surface of fluid, p = p × g × Z
5. Absolute pressure is the pressure in which absolute vacuum pressure is
taken as datum while gauge pressure is the pressure in which the
atmospheric pressure is taken as datum, Pabs = Patm + Pgauge.
6. Manometer is a device used for measuring pressure at a point in a fluid.
7. Manometers are classified as (a) Simple manometers and (b) Differential
manometers.
8. Simple manometers are used for measuring pressure at a point while
differential manometers are used for measuring the difference of
pressures between the two points in a pipe, or two different pipes.
9. A single column manometer (or micrometer) is used for measuring small
pressure, where accuracy is required.