Dr.

Birpal Singh Thenua SYM302; L-3

LECTURE NOTES: 3; SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN

SOCIAL RESEARCH
Introduction to Scientific Method
Any effort directed towards the unfolding of the secrets of animate
and inanimate phenomenon in a systematic manner on the basis of
principles can be described as scientific method. It is a systematic method
to uncover truth on the basis of certain principles. Scientific method
consists of systematic observation, classification, verification, and
interpretation data…. Scientific generalizations are characterized by their
degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability, and general validity. The
scientific method is a tool that helps scientists and the rest of us to solve
problems and determine answers to questions in a logical format. It
provides step-by-step, general directions to help us work through
problems.

F.N. Kerlinger (Foundation of Behavioral Research, 1964) scientific

research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among
phenomena. Royce Singleton and Bruce Straits defined scientific method
as scientific social research consists of the processes of formation and
seeking answers to questions about the social world (Singleton and
Straits 1999). Theodorson and Theodorson defined scientific method as–
building a body of scientific knowledge through observation,
experimentation, generalization, and verification (Theodorson and
Thoedorson 1967).

Manheim Henry (Sociological Research: Philosophy and Methods,

1977) scientific research involves a method characterized by objectivity,
accuracy and systematization. For G. A. Lundberg scientific methods
consist of systematic observation, classification, and interpretation of data.
Now, obviously, this process is one in which nearly all people engage
during their daily lives. The main difference between our day-to-day
generalization and the conclusions usually recognized as scientific
method lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability, and
general validity of the latter. (Lundberg 1942), in a broad sense, the
meaning of scientific method is the observation, classification and
interpretation of facts.

Although, scientific research methods depend on the collection of

empirical facts, yet facts alone do not constitute a science. For meaningful
understanding facts must be ordered in some fashion, analyzed,
generalized, and related to other facts. Thus, theory construction is a vital
part of scientific inquiry.

Essential Assumptions of Scientific Method

 Dr. Birpal Singh Thenua SYM302; L-3

Scientific method is based on certain assumptions. These assumptions of

scientific methods are as follows:

• The scientific method is grounded in empirical evidence, meaning it

depends on observable and measurable data. This reliance on empirical
data ensures that conclusions are based on factual information rather
than speculation or personal beliefs. By systematically gathering and
analyzing data, scientists build knowledge that is objective and reliable.
This approach helps to minimize bias and supports the reproducibility of
findings.

• The scientific method relies on relevant concepts to frame research and

guide investigations. These concepts help define what will be studied,
shaping questions, hypotheses, and interpretations. By using well-defined
and applicable concepts, scientists ensure that their work is meaningful
and grounded in existing knowledge. This focus on relevance allows
findings to contribute to broader understanding and helps link new
research with past studies. In this way, relevant concepts are essential to
clear, coherent, and impactful scientific inquiry.

• The scientific method is committed to objectivity, ensuring that

conclusions are based on unbiased, observable evidence rather than
personal opinions or assumptions. This dedication to objectivity
strengthens the credibility of scientific findings and supports fair, reliable
results. By avoiding subjective influence, science aims to provide
knowledge that is universally valid and reproducible.

• The scientific method assumes ethical neutrality, meaning it seeks to

describe and understand phenomena without making moral judgments.
This approach allows researchers to focus on facts and data without
letting personal values influence their findings. Ethical neutrality ensures
that science remains objective, aiming to uncover truth rather than serve
specific ethical or ideological goals. However, researchers are still
expected to consider the ethical implications of their work responsibly. It
results into probabilistic predictions.

• The scientific method emphasizes transparency by openly sharing its

methodology with others for critical evaluation. This openness allows
peers to scrutinize, replicate, and validate findings, enhancing the
credibility and reliability of scientific knowledge. By making methodologies
accessible, science encourages accountability and helps prevent errors or
biases. This commitment to openness fosters trust and promotes
continuous improvement in research practices.

• The scientific method strives to develop broad, general principles or

scientific theories that explain various phenomena. By formulating these
general axioms, science provides foundational knowledge that can be
widely applied across different contexts. This pursuit of universal theories
helps unify understanding and enables predictions about the natural
world.
 Dr. Birpal Singh Thenua SYM302; L-3

Characteristics of Scientific Method

Scientific methods have a number of characteristics. Some of them are as
follows:

• Observation: Observation is the foundation of scientific methods. It is a

method that employs vision as its main means of data collection. It implies
maximum use of eyes rather than of ears and voice.

• Verifiable evidence: Verification of the observed phenomena is another

important characteristic of scientific methods. Sometime social
phenomena may occur randomly or exceptionally. For scientific study
natural observation of the phenomena is necessary therefore verification
of evidence is required. Other observers can see and check the
phenomena.

• Accuracy: It means correctness of a statement or describing things

exactly as they are. Avoiding form, the unwanted conclusions either by
exaggeration or fantasizing. Accuracy in science refers to the closeness of
a measurement or result to the true or accepted value. High accuracy
ensures reliability and enhances the credibility of findings. Precision in
data collection and analysis is essential for achieving accuracy in scientific
research.

• Precision: For any scientific method the measurement of the phenomena

is necessary. Precision means making exact as necessary, giving exact
number of measurements. In Social science research how, much
precision is needed will depend upon what the situation requires.

• Systematization: Systematization means attempting to find all the relevant

information or collecting all the relevant data in a systematic and well-
organized way therefore the relevant conclusions can be draw.

• Objectivity: Objectivity is considered as a hallmark of the scientific

method. Objectivity means to be free from all the vested interests and
biases. The observation and collection of data must be unaffected from
observers’ values, beliefs, preferences, and preconceptions.

• Critical: Critical scrutiny of the procedures used, and the methods

employed is crucial to a research enquiry. The process of investigation
must be foolproof and free from any drawbacks. The process adopted and
the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

• Rigorous: You must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures

followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate, and
justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly between the physical
and the social sciences and within the social sciences.

• Recording: Recording is one of the important characteristics of scientific

methods as without recording there will be difficulty in dissemination of
scientific knowledge and proving.
 Dr. Birpal Singh Thenua SYM302; L-3

• Controlling Conditions: Controlling means that, in exploring causality in

relation to two variables, you set up your study in a way that minimizes the
effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be achieved to
a large extent in the physical sciences, as most of the research is done in
a laboratory.

• Experiment: Experimentation holds a central role in the scientific method,

serving as a key tool for testing hypotheses and gaining reliable
knowledge. Through experiments, researchers gather evidence that can
confirm or refute ideas, providing a foundation for scientific understanding.
Experiments allow for controlled conditions, making it possible to observe
cause-and-effect relationships with precision. This process is essential for
generating knowledge that is not just theoretical but can be verified and
repeated. Consequently, experiments are fundamental to building credible
and tested scientific knowledge.

• Ethical Neutrality: Ethical neutrality in science means that it does not

judge what is good or bad but focuses solely on describing facts as they
are. Science’s objective is to make accurate, unbiased statements about
phenomena without moral interpretation. This approach helps maintain
objectivity, allowing scientific knowledge to be based purely on evidence.
Ethical neutrality ensures that scientific inquiry remains focused on truth
rather than values.

• Classification: Scientific method classifies collected data / information on

the basis of similarities and differences. It involves organizing data and
observations into categories based on shared characteristics. This
process helps identify patterns, relationships, and distinctions among
different phenomena, making analysis more systematic. By grouping
similar elements, classification enables clearer understanding and aids in
forming generalizations. It's a foundational step in developing theories and
building scientific knowledge.

• Generalization: In science, the goal is to uncover the uniformity of events,

seeking consistent patterns and relationships in nature. Once a pattern is
observed, scientists assume its regularity and formulate generalizations
based on this uniformity. These generalizations help in understanding
broader principles and predicting future occurrences. By identifying and
describing these patterns, science creates theories that apply universally
across similar situations.

Difficulties in Using Scientific Method in front of Sociology

According to some research methodologist scientific method is
more applicable in physical or natural sciences and it has a number of
difficulties while using in social sciences or in sociology. Some of these
difficulties are as follows.

• Society is more dynamic, changeable, and plural. The behavior of its

members is different therefore, it is very difficult to categories it.
 Dr. Birpal Singh Thenua SYM302; L-3

• When human interaction and behavior is studied and analyses by others,

there is a chance of subjectivity.

• Psycho-social nature of human behavior is difficult to measure.

• It is very difficult to predict human interaction and behavior. There is an

uncertainty in it.
Importance of Scientific Method
Sociology, as a systematic study of society and social behavior,
relies heavily on scientific principles to ensure that its findings are
objective, reliable, and replicable. Sociological research is based on the
scientific method. This means that sociologists follow a structured and
methodical approach when studying social phenomena. They begin with a
research question or problem, form hypotheses, collect and analyze data,
and then draw conclusions. Sociology is concerned with the study of only
real phenomena. Unlike speculative or philosophical approaches,
scientific sociology is grounded in empirical observation. Researchers
study actual events, behaviors, institutions, and social interactions that
can be observed, measured, and verified. This focus on the real world
makes sociological findings more applicable and useful for addressing
social issues and informing policy decisions.
Scientific method helps sociologists in the interpretation of cause-and-
effect relationships. One of the key goals in sociological research is to
understand how and why certain social phenomena occur. For instance,
why does crime increase in certain neighborhoods? Or how does
education level influence employment opportunities? Through careful
research design and analysis, the scientific method allows researchers to
identify patterns and establish causal links between variables Scientific
inquiry allows for the examination and re-evaluation of laws. In sociology,
laws or generalizations about human behavior are not fixed forever. They
must be tested continuously against new evidence. The scientific method
provides tools for critically reassessing these laws as society evolves,
helping researchers refine or even replace earlier theories with more
accurate ones. Sociology through science strives for the study of universal
truth. While human behavior is influenced by culture and context, the
scientific method helps us identify patterns that are consistent across time
and space. This pursuit of universal truths adds depth and coherence to
sociological understanding, making it possible to explain phenomena
beyond specific events or locations. Next, we see the quality of
universalism of laws. This means that sociological principles derived
through scientific methods aim to be universally applicable, rather than
bound by particular ideologies or local traditions. By adhering to
objectivity, these laws can be tested and validated across different
societies, strengthening their credibility. Finally, science offers an
indication towards the future based on the study of the present.
Sociologists can use present trends, patterns, and data to make informed
predictions about future social developments. This predictive ability is
valuable not only for academic research but also for policy-making,
planning, and social interventions.
Dr. Birpal Singh Thenua SYM302; L-3

Summing Up
The scientific method is a systematic and logical approach to
discovering how things in the universe work. It begins with observation,
leading to the formulation of questions and hypotheses that can be tested
through experimentation. By collecting and analyzing data, scientists can
determine whether their predictions are accurate or need adjustment. This
process ensures that conclusions are based on evidence rather than
assumptions or opinions. It also allows researchers to remain objective
and critical in their inquiry. The method encourages consistency,
reproducibility, and accuracy, which are essential to building reliable
knowledge. Its structure supports ongoing inquiry, enabling scientists to
refine theories or develop new ones. The scientific method is not a fixed
path, but a flexible framework that can be applied across disciplines. It is a
cornerstone of all scientific investigation and fosters a deeper
understanding of natural and social phenomena.

Moreover, the scientific method plays a critical role in problem-

solving and innovation. From medicine and technology to social science
and education, it allows for data-driven decisions and practical
applications of research. By following its steps-observation, hypothesis,
experimentation, analysis, and conclusion-researchers can address
complex questions methodically. It also supports peer review and public
scrutiny, enhancing the credibility and transparency of research. Through
replication and verification, scientific knowledge evolves and improves
over time. Importantly, the method cultivates critical thinking and curiosity,
encouraging individuals to question, test, and learn. This approach not
only advances science but also helps society progress responsibly and
ethically. In essence, the scientific method is a vital tool for understanding
the world, fostering innovation, and promoting intellectual honesty.

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