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REAL ANALYSIS
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by Balwan Mudgil Sir
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Chapter - 1
The Real Number System
1.1 Set theory
Def . Set : We shall not attempt a formal definition of a set. For those whose taste run more to the
formal and abstract side, we can consider a set as a primary concept which we do not define. A set is
well defined collection of distinct objects. By well defined, we mean there is no confusion regarding
inclusion or exclusion of objects. The objects of a set are called the members or elements of the set
and their membership is defined by the certain conditions. Sets are usually denoted with capital letters
and the members of the set are denoted by small letters. Suppose, S be the set and x is a member of S,
then we will write x S .
Following notations will be used for some of the specific sets that are commonly used :
The set of all natural numbers.
The set of all integers.
The set of all rational numbers.
The set of all irrational numbers.
The set of all real numbers.
Def. Subset : If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B, then A is called a subset of B
and it is denoted by A B .
Def. Superset : If A is a subset of B means A is contained in B, we can also say that B contains A or B
is superset of A, it can be written as B A .
Def. Equality of sets : Two sets A and B are equal, if every element of A belongs to B and every
element of B belongs to A. Symbolically, it is written as A B .
Def. Proper set : If every element of the set A is an element of the set B and B contains at least one
element which does not belong to A, i.e., if A B and A B , then we can say that A is proper subset
of B and it is denoted by A B . e.g., 2,3,6, 4 is proper subset of 4,3,2,6,5,8 .
Def. Universal set : We consider all the sets to be the subsets of a given fixed set known as universal
set. It is denoted by U or X.
Def. Finite set : If a set consist of finite number of elements, it is called a finite set.
e.g., 7,9,11 is a finite set.
Def. Infinite set : If a set consist of an infinite number of elements, it is called infinite set.
2
e.g., , etc.
Def. Power set : The power set of A denoted by P( A) , is defined as the set X : X A . Thus, P( A)
is the collection of all possible subsets of A.
Def. Null set : A set consisting of no points is called the empty set or null set. It is denoted by or {}.
Def. Singleton set : A set consisting of a single element is called a singleton set.
e.g., 1 ,2 ,a etc., are singleton sets.
Def. Pairwise Disjoint sets : A family An of sets is said to be pairwise disjoint, if
At As , t , s s.t. t s .
Def. Union : The union of two sets A and B denoted by A B , is defined as the set
x : x A or x B . It means the set of points which belongs to one of the sets A and B i.e., which
belongs to A or to B or to both.
Def. Intersection : The intersection of two sets A and B denoted by A B , is defined as the set
x : x A and x B . It means the set of points which belongs to both A and B.
If A B , it means there is no common element in A and B. In this case, the sets A and B are said
to be disjoint.
Def. Complement of a set : The complement of a set A is denoted by AC or A ' i.e., the set of all
points in the universal set U which do not belong to A. Symbolically, it can be written as
AC U A x : x U and x A i.e., for any x A ' x A .
Def. Difference of sets : The difference A B between two sets A and B is the set of points in A
which do not belong to B, i.e., A B A BC .
Def. Symmetric difference of sets : The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is denoted by
A B . It is defined as A B A B B A .
Results :
If A, B, C be any sets, then
1. Commutative laws : (i) A B B A (ii) A B B A
2. Associative laws : (i) A B C A B C (ii) A B C A B C
3. Distributive laws : (i) A B C A B A C (ii) A B C A B A C
4. De-Morgan‟s laws : (i) A B ' A ' B ' (ii) A B ' A ' B '
5. (i) A B C A B A C (ii) A B C A B A C
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1.2 The Algebraic and Order properties of
Algebraic Properties of : On the set of real numbers there are two binary operations, denoted
by and , called addition and multiplication, respectively. These operations satisfy the following
properties :
1. Addition is closed : a b a, b
2. Addition is associative : a b c a b c a, b, c
3. Existence of additive identity : There exists an element „0‟ in such that
a 0 a 0 a a . This element „0‟ is called additive identity of .
4. Existence of additive inverse : For a , there exists b such that a b 0 b a . This
element b is called additive inverse of a.
5. Addition is commutative : a b b a a, b
6. Multiplication is closed : a b a, b
7. Multiplication is associative : a (b c) (a b) c a, b, c
8. Existence of multiplicative identity : There exists an element 1 such that
a 1 a 1 a a . This element „1‟ is called multiplicative identity of .
9. Existence of multiplicative inverse : For any a , a 0 , there exists b such that
a b 1 b a . This element is called multiplicative inverse of a.
10. Multiplication is commutative : a b b a a, b
11. Multiplication is distributive over addition :
a (b c) a b a c and a b c a c b c for all a, b, c
Remarks :
1. In the terminology of abstract algebra we say that the set of real numbers is a field.
2. We usually denote a b by ab .
Results :
1. Additive identity in is unique.
2. Multiplicative identity in is unique.
3. If a then a 0 0 .
4. Additive inverse of an element a is unique and so we can denote the additive inverse of a by
a .
4
5. Multiplicative inverse of any non zero element a is unique and so we can denote the
1
multiplicative inverse of a by .
a
6. If ab 0 then a 0 or b 0 .
Remarks :
1. The operation of subtraction is defined by a b a b .
a 1
2. The operation of division is defined by a where b 0 .
b b
3. By a 2 we mean a a . Similarly by a n1 we mean a n a .
n
1 1 1
4. By a we mean . Similarly if n then by a n we mean .
a a
5. We define a 0 1 .
p
Def. Rational Number : A real number x is said to be a rational number if x where p, q
q
and q 0 .
Def. Irrational Number : A real number is said to be an irrational number if it is not a rational
number.
Result 1. A real number is a rational number iff its decimal representation is either terminating or non
terminating but recurring.
Result 2. A real is an irrational number iff its decimal representation is non terminating and non
recurring.
Order Axioms in R : In the set of real numbers , the followig axioms are satisfied (known as order
axioms).
1. Law of Trichotomy : For a, b exactly one of the following holds :
(i) a 0 (ii) a 0 (iii) a 0
2. Monotone Law of addition : If a 0 and b 0 then a b 0 .
3. Monotone Law of multiplication : If a 0 and b 0 then ab 0 .
In view of the above axioms, (, , ) is called ordered field. Similarly, (, , ) is also an
ordered field.
Result 1. Let a, b, c then following properties hold :
(i) If a b and b c then a c .
(ii) If a b then a c b c .
(iii) If a b and c 0 then ac bc .
(iv) If a b and c 0 then ac bc .
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Result 2. (i) If a and a 0 then a 2 0 .
(ii) 1 0
(iii) If n then n 0 .
Result 3. If a such that 0 a for every 0 then a 0 .
Result 4. If a, b such that ab 0 then either a 0 , b 0 or a 0, b 0 .
Result 5. If a, b such that ab 0 then either a 0 , b 0 or a 0, b 0 .
Result 6. If a 0, b 0 then a b a 2 b2 a b .
Result 7. Arithmetic-Geometric Mean inequality : If a and b are positive real numbers then
ab
ab .
2
Result 8. General Arithmetic-Geometric Mean inequality : If a1, a2 ,...., an are positive real
1
a1 a2 .... an
numbers then a1a2 ....an n .
n
Def. Intervals : Let a and b be two real numbers with a b .
(i) The set x : x , a x b is called a closed interval and is denoted by [a, b], a and b are
called the end points of the intervals. a is called the left end point while b is called the right end
point. Thus, in a closed interval, both the end points belong to the interval.
(ii) The set x : x , a x b is called an open interval and is denoted by (a, b) . In an open
interval, the end points do not belong to the interval.
Remark : The interval which is open from one side and closed from another side is called semi-open
or semi-closed interval e.g., (a, b] or [a , b)
Def. Length of an Interval : For each interval with end points a and b (a < b) , b a is called the
length of the interval. Clearly, each of the intervals a, b ,(a, b), [a, b),(a, b] has the same length b a .
Def. Finite and Infinite Intervals : An interval is said to be finite or infinite according as its length is
finite or infinite. Thus, the intervals a, b ,(a, b), [a, b),(a, b] are finite because b a is finite. The
intervals [a, ),(a, ),(, a],(, ) are infinite.
Note :
1. Every interval is an infinite set but every infinite set need not be an interval.
2. A finite interval is also an infinite set because the word finite only signifies that the length of the
interval is finite.
6
Exercise 1.2
1. (i) Show that if x, y are rational numbers, then x y and xy are rational numbers.
(ii) Prove that if x is a rational number and y is an irrational number then x y is an irrational
number. If in addition x 0 then show that xy is an irrational number.
2. (i) If a b and c d , prove that a c b d .
(ii) If 0 a b and 0 c d , prove that 0 ac bd .
3. (i) Show that if a 0 then 1/ a 0 and 1/ 1/ a a .
1
(ii) Show that if a b then a a b b .
2
4. Let a, b, c, d be numbers satisfying 0 a b and c d 0 . Give an example where ac bd and
one where bd ac .
5. If a, b , show that a 2 b2 0 if and only if a 0 and b 0 .
6. If 0 a b , show that a 2 ab b2 . Show by example that it does not follow that a 2 ab b2 .
7. If 0 a b , show that (i) a ab b and (ii) 1/ b 1/ a .
8. Find all real numbers x that satify the following inequalities.
(i) x 2 3x 4 (ii) 1 x 2 4
(iii) 1/ x x (iv) 1/ x x 2
9. If a is such that 0 a for every 0 , then a 0 .
10. Let a, b and suppose that for every 0 we have a b . Show that a b .
2
1 1
11. Prove that a b a 2 b 2 for all a, b . Show that equality holds if and only if a b .
2 2
12. (i) If 0 c 1 show that 0 c2 c 1 .
(ii) If 1 c , show that 1 c c 2 .
13. (i) If c 1 , show that c n c for all n and that c n c for n 1 .
(ii) If 0 c 1, show that c n c for all n and that c n c for n 1 .
14. If a 0, b 0 and n show that a b if and only if a n bn . [Hint : Use Mathematical
induction.]
15. (i) If c 1 and m, n show that c m c n if and only if m n .
(ii) If 0 c 1 and m, n show that c m c n if and only if m n .
16. Assuming the existence of roots, show that if c 1 , then c1/ m c1/ n if and only if m n .
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1.3 Absolute value
Def. Modulus of a real number : The modulus (or absolute value or numerical value) of a real
x if x0
number x is denoted by |x| and is defined by x
x if x0
Results : Let x, y be any two real numbers , then
(i) x 0 x and x 0 if and only if x = 0 (ii) x x
(iii) x x 2 (iv) x y x y (v) x y x y
2
(vi) xy x y (vii) x k k x k
(viii) A subset S of R is bounded iff there exists a real number k > 0 such that x k x S .
Def. Ordered pair : Order pair is an element of the form a, b . The element a is called first element
and the element b is called the second element of the ordered pair.
Def. Equality of ordered pairs : Let a, b and c, d be any two ordered pairs, then
a, b c, d a c, b d
Def. Cartesian Product : Let A and B be two sets. Then, A B x, y : x A, y B is known as
Cartesian product of A and B. In general A B B A where B A y, x : y B, x A
Properties of Cartesian product : Let A, B, C and D are sets. Then,
(i) A B C A C B C
(ii) A B C A C B C
(iii) A B C A C B C
(iv) A B A or B
(v) A C B C, C A B
(vi) A B B A A or B or A B
(vii) A B C D A C B D
(viii) A A A A
(ix) A A B A
(x) If A contains n elements and B contains m elements, then A B contains n m elements.
8
Exercise 1.3
1. If a, b and b 0 show that :
(i) a a 2 (ii) a / b a / b
2. If a, b show that a b a b if and only if ab 0 .
3. If x, y, z and x z show that x y z if and only if x y y z x z . Interpret this
geometically.
4. Show that x a if and only if a x a .
5. If a x b and a y b show that x y b a . Interpret this geometrically.
6. Find all x that satisfy the following inequalities :
(i) 4 x 5 13 (ii) x 2 1 3
7. Find all x that satisfy the equation x 1 x 2 7 .
8. Find all values of x that satisfy the following equations :
(i) x 1 2 x 1 (ii) 2 x 1 x 5
9. Find all values of x that satisfy the following inequalities. Sketch graphs.
(i) x 2 x 1 (ii) 3 x 2 x
10. Find all x that satisfy the following inequalities.
(i) x 1 x 1 (ii) x x 1 2
11. Sketch the graph of the equation y x x 1 .
12. Find all x that satisfy the inequalities 4 x 2 x 1 5 .
13. Find all x that satisfy both 2 x 3 5 and x 1 2 simultaneously.
14. Determine and sketch the set of pairs x, y in that satisfy :
(i) x y (ii) x y 1 (iii) xy 2 (iv) x y 2
15. Determine and sketch the set of pairs x, y in that satisfy :
(i) x y (ii) x y 1 (iii) xy 2 (iv) x y 2
16. Show that if a, b then
(i) max a, b
1
2
a b a b and min a, b a b a b .
1
2
(ii) min a, b, c min min a, b, c
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17. Show that if a, b, c then the „middle number‟ is mid a, b, c
min max a, b ,max b, c ,max a, c .
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.4 Functions
Def. Function : Let A and B be two nonempty sets. A rule of correspondence f : A B is said to be
a function if each element of A has a unique image in B.
Domain, co-domain and range of a function : Let f : A B be a function, then set A is called the
domain, B is called the co-domain and the set of values of f is called the range of f and is written as
f ( A) . Clearly, f ( A) B .
Equality of two functions : Two functions f and g are equal if
(i) domain of f domain of g.
(ii) f ( x) g ( x) x .
Types of functions :
1. Constant function : If k is a fixed real number, then f ( x) k x is called a constant function.
2. Identity function : The function f : A A defined by f x x x A is called identity
function.
3. One-one (injective) function : A map f : A B is called injective or one-one, if
f (a1) f (a2 ) a1 a2 or equivalently a1 a2 f (a1) f (a2 ) .
4. Onto (surjective) function : A map f : A B is called surjective map or onto map, if b B,
a A such that f a b .
5. Bijective function : A map f : A B is called a bijective function if f is both one-one and onto.
6. Many-to-one function : If two or more distinct elements in A have the same image i.e., if
f ( x) f ( y) implies x y , then f : A A is called many-to-one function.
7. Composition of functions : Let f : A B and g : B C , then composition of functions f and g is a
mapping from A C given by mapping g f : A C such that g f x g f ( x) x A .
Evidently, domain of g is equal to the co-domain of f.
10
Properties of map :
1. If f : A B is a bijective function, then f f 1 I B and f 1 f I A where I A and I B are
identity mappings of sets A and B, respectively.
2. If f : A B , g : B C and h:C D , then h g f h g f
3. Inverse of a bijective map is a bijective map.
4. Composition of any two injective maps is injective.
5. Composition of two surjective maps is surjective.
6. Composition of two bijective maps is bijective.
7. Let f : A B and g : B C be maps. Then,
(i) if g f is surjective, then g is surjective.
(ii) if g f is injective, then f is injective.
(iii) if g f is bijective, then g is surjective and f is injective.
8. A map f : A B is injective iff f can be left cancelled in the sense that f g f h g h . A
map f : A B is surjective iff f can be right cancelled in the sense that g f h f g h
1
9. Let f : A B and g : B C be bijective maps. Then g f f 1 g 1
Results :
1. Let f : X Y be a map and A X . Then, A f 1 f ( A) . Also, A f 1 f ( A) , A X
if f is injective.
Proof : If x A, then f x f A and hence x f 1 f A A f 1 f A
Now, let f is one-one and x f 1 f A f x f A f x f a for some a A
Since f is one-one, therefore f x f a x a A f 1 f A A
A f 1 f A if f is one-one.
2. Let f : X Y be a map and B Y . Then, f f 1( B) B . Also, B f f 1( B) , B Y if f
is surjective.
Proof : Let y f f 1 ( B) , then y f ( x) for some x f 1 ( B) . But then y f ( x) B
f f 1 B B
Now, suppose that f is onto and y B . Then, there exist x X such that f ( x) y .
Hence, x f 1 B f ( x) f f 1 B B f f 1 B
f f 1 B B if f is surjective.
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3. Let f : X Y be a map. Let X1 and X 2 be subsets of X. Then,
(i) f X1 X 2 f X1 f X 2
Proof : Since X1 X1 X 2 f X1 f X1 X 2 ……(1)
Also, X 2 X1 X 2 f X 2 f X1 X 2 ……(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
f X1 f X 2 f X1 X 2 ……(*)
Now, let y f X1 X 2 , then there exists x X1 X 2 such that y f x
Since x X1 X 2 , therefore either x X 1 or x X 2 or both.
If x X 1 , then y f ( X1 ) and hence y f ( X1 ) f ( X 2 )
If x X 2 , then y f ( X 2 ) and hence y f ( X1 ) f ( X 2 ) .
If x X 1 and y X 2 , then y f ( X1 ) f ( X 2 )
In all the cases, y f ( X1 ) f ( X 2 )
f ( X1 X 2 ) f ( X1 ) f ( X 2 ) ……(**)
From (*) and (**), we get
f ( X1 X 2 ) f ( X1 ) f ( X 2 )
(ii) f X1 X 2 f X1 f X 2
Proof : Since X1 X 2 X1 , therefore f ( X1 X 2 ) f ( X1 ) ……(1)
Also, X1 X 2 X 2 , therefore f ( X1 X 2 ) f ( X 2 ) ……(2)
From (1) and (2), we get, f ( X1 X 2 ) f ( X1 ) f ( X 2 )
Remarks : 1. In general, f ( X1 X 2 ) f ( X1 ) f ( X 2 )
Example : Let f : 1,2 1 be a function such that f (1) 1, f (2) 1 and let X1 1 , X 2 2 ,
then f X1 f X 2 1 , but f X1 X 2 f .
2. f X1 X 2 f X1 f X 2 iff f is one-one.
Proof : We have to show that f ( X1 ) f ( X 2 ) f ( X1 X 2 )
For this, let y f ( X1 ) f ( X 2 ) y f ( X1 ) and y f ( X 2 )
12
Since y f ( X1 ) and y f ( X 2 ) , therefore there exist x1 X 1 such that y f ( x1 ) and x2 X 2 such
that y f ( x2 )
y f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) x1 x2 f is one-one
Let x x1 x2
x X 1 and x X 2 such that y f ( x)
x X1 X 2 f x f X1 X 2 y f X1 X 2
f X1 X 2 f X1 X 2
f X1 X 2 f X1 f X 2
Conversely : Let f X1 X 2 f X1 f X 2 and we have to show that f is one-one.
Let f x1 f x2 , where x1 X 1 and x2 X 2 f x1 f X1 and f x2 f X 2
Since f x1 f x2 , therefore f x1 f X1 f X 2
f x1 f X1 X 2 x1 X1 X 2
X1 X1 X 2 X1 X1 X 2
Similarly, X 2 X1 X 2 , therefore X1 X 2 x1 x2 .
f is one-one.
4. Let f : X Y be a map. Let Y1 and Y2 be subsets of Y. Then,
(i) f 1 Y1 Y2 f 1 Y1 f 1 Y2
Proof : x f 1 Y1 Y2 iff f x Y1 Y2
f ( x) Y1 and f ( x) Y2
x f 1 (Y1 ) and x f 1 (Y2 )
x f 1 (Y1 ) f 1 Y2
f 1 Y1 Y2 f 1 Y1 f 1 Y2
(ii) f 1 Y1 Y2 f 1 Y1 f 1 Y2
Proof : x f 1 Y1 Y2 iff f x Y1 Y2
f x Y1 or f x Y2
x f 1 Y1 or x f 1 Y2
x f 1 Y1 f 1 Y2
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f 1 Y1 Y2 f 1 Y1 f 1 Y2
(iii) f 1 Y1 Y2 f 1 Y1 f 1 Y2
Proof : x f 1 Y1 Y2 iff f x Y1 Y2
f x Y1 Y2c f x Y1 and f x Y2c
x f 1 Y1 and f x Y2 x f 1 Y1 and x f 1 Y2
x f 1 Y1 and x f 1 Y2 x f 1 Y1 f 1 Y2
c c
x f 1 Y1 f 1 Y2
f 1 Y1 Y2 f 1 Y1 f 1 Y2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.5 The completeness Axiom
Def. Bounded above set : A non empty subset S of is said to be bounded above if there exists a real
number K such that x K x S . This real number K is said to be an upper bound of S.
On the real line, we can say that all the elements of S lie on the left of K as shown in the following
figure.
S
R
K K
If K is any other real number such that K K , then clearly K is also an upper bound of S, as shown
in the figure above. Thus, if S is bounded above, then it has infinite number of upper bounds.
Def. Unbounded above set : A non-empty subset S of is said to be unbounded above if it is not
bounded above i.e., for each real number K, we can find at least one element x S such that x K .
Example 1 :
(i) If S 1, 2, 3, 4 , then S is bounded above by 4 and any number greater than 4 is also
an upper bound of S. In fact, every finite set is bounded above set
(ii) The set of negative integers i.e., {....., – 3, – 2, – 1} is a bounded above set.
(iii) The set , , , , all are unbounded above sets.
(iv) The intervals a, b, a b, , a, , b all are bounded above sets whereas a, , [a, ,
14
, are unbounded above sets.
Def. Bounded below set : A non-empty subset S of is said to be bounded below if there exists a
real number k such that k x x S . This real number k is said to be a lower bound of S. On the
real line, we can say that all the elements of S lie on the right of k as shown in the following figure.
S
R
k k
If k is any other real number such that k k , then clearly k is also a lower bound of S, as shown in
the figure above. Thus if S is bounded below, then it has infinite number of lower bounds.
Def. Unbounded below set : A non-empty subset S of is said to be unbounded below if it is not
bounded below i.e., for each real number k, we can find at least one element x S such that x k .
Example 2 :
(i) If S {1, 2, 3, 4}, then S is bounded below by 1 and any number less than 1 is also a
lower bound of S. In fact, every finite set is bounded below.
(ii) The set of positive integers (or natural numbers) i.e., N {1, 2, 3,.....} is bounded below.
(iii) The sets , , , all are unbounded below sets.
(iv) The intervals a, b, a b, a, , a, all are bounded below sets, whereas , a , , a,
, all are unbounded below sets.
Def. Bounded Set : A non-empty subset S of is said to be bounded if it is both bounded above and
bounded below i.e., if there exists two real numbers k and K such that k x K x S .
The real numbers k and K are called lower bound and upper bound of S respectively.
On the real line, all elements of S lie between k and K as shown in the following figure.
S
R
k K
Note : (i) Any finite set A is bounded set.
(ii) Any infinite set A may or may not be bounded.
Example : is unbounded while 1, 2 is bounded and both are infinite sets.
Def. Unbounded set : A non-empty subset S of is said to be unbounded set if it unbounded either
way i.e., either it is unbounded above or unbounded below or both.
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Example 3 :
(i) The set S {1, 2, 3, 4} is bounded.
(ii) The set of positive integers {1, 2, 3,......} is unbounded because it is unbounded above.
(iii) The set of negative integers {....., – 3, – 2, – 1} is unbounded because it is unbounded below.
(iv) The set , , , , are all unbounded sets.
(v) The intervals a, b, a b, a, b, a, b are bounded whereas the intervals , a , , a]
a, , a, , , are unbounded.
Def. Greatest element : Let S be a non-empty subset of . A real number „g‟ is called greatest
element of S if (i) g S and (ii) x g x S
Def. Least element : Let S be a non-empty subset of . A real number „l‟ is called least element of S
if (i) l S and (ii) l x x S
Example 4 :
(i) Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4}, then 4 is the greatest element of S and 1 is the least element of S.
(ii) In the closed interval 2 5 , 5 is the greatest element and 2 is the least element.
(iii) In the open interval 2 5 , there is no greatest element and no least element.
Note : It should be noted that every bounded set need not necessarily have greatest element and
least element. For example, consider the open interval 2 5 in the above example. The question is
“What is greatest element of 2 5 ?” Offcourse 5 can not be the answer because 5 does not belong
to the interval 2 5 . A casual student may think that 4.9 is its greatest element. But this is not
correct because 4.99, 4.999,...... are also elements of 2 5 . In fact this set has no greatest element.
Similarly, this set has no least element. This inadequacy of bounded sets of not having greatest and
least element had forced Mathematicians to define a new concept of supremum (least upper bound)
and infimum (greatest lower bound).
1. Least upper bound :
Def. Let S be a non-empty subset of . A real number u is said to be a least upper bound (l. u. b)
or supremum of S if
(i) x u x S i.e., u is an upper bound of S.
(ii) If u' is any upper bound of S, then u u .
Result : The condition (ii) in the above definition can also be expressed in the following ways :
1. If z u then z is not an upper bound of S.
16
2. If z u then there exists an element x S such that x z .
3. For every 0 , u is not an upper bound of S.
4. For each 0 , there exists at least one element x S such that x u .
Example 5 :
(i) If S is a finite set, then its greatest element works as the l.u.b. For example, if S 1, 2, 3, 4 ,
then 4 is the l.u.b. of S. Let us prove this using definition (2) of l.u.b. :
Clearly x 4 x S and if 0 , then there exists 4 S such that 4 4 . Thus 4 is the l.u.b. of S.
(ii) If S = 0 1 , then clearly x 1 x S and for any 0 , there will exist at least one element
x 0, 1 such that x 1 . Thus „1‟ is the l.u.b. of S. Note that 1 does not belong to the set S.
(iii) If S 0, 1 , then it can be clearly seen that 1 is the l.u.b. of S and further note that 1 belongs to
the set.
Remark : By above examples, it is clear that the l.u.b. of a set may or may not belong to the set.
Def. Greatest lower bound :
Def. : Let S be a non-empty subset of . A real number l is said to be a greatest lower bound or
g.l.b. infimum of S if
(i) l x x S i.e., l is an lower bound of S.
(ii) If l' is any lower bound of S, then l l . In other words, any number greater than l is not an
lower bound of S.
(ii) For each 0 , there exists at least one element x S such that x l .
Result : The condition (ii) in the above definition can also be expressed in the following ways :
1. If z l then z is not an lower bound of S.
2. If z l then there exists an element x S such that x z .
3. For every 0 , l is not a lower bound of S.
4. For each 0 , there exists at least one element x S such that x l .
Results :
1. Supremum of a set may or may not exist. e.g., sup does not exist.
2. Least upper bound (or supremum) of a set, if exists, is unique.
Proof : Let, if possible, a set S has two l.u.b.’s say u1 and u2 . Regarding u1 as an upper bound and
u2 as l.u.b., we get by definition of l.u.b.,that
u1 u2
Interchanging the roles of u1 and u2 , we get
u2 u1
u1 u2 i.e. l.u.b. is unique.
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Important remark : We know that a bounded above set may or may not have a greatest element.
For example, the intervals (0, 1) and (0, 1] both are bounded above but former has no greatest
element whereas later has the greatest element, namely 1. Therefore existence of greatest element
of bounded above set is not guaranteed. Now a natural question arises- “Does a bounded above set
always has the least upper bound?”
The answer of this question is „yes‟, but its proof is very deep, fargoing and out of the scope
of the present book. Therefore the most of the authors take this result as an axiom. However, an
interested reader can see the proof of this result in the following classical books on real analysis.
1. Principles of Mathematical Analysis : Walter Rudin
2. Theory and application of Infinite series : [Link]
3. Real and Abstract Analysis : [Link] and [Link]
We will also take the above mentioned result as an axiom, which is popularly known as
completeness axiom which is stated below :
3. Completeness Axiom : Every non-empty bounded above subset of real numbers has the least upper
bound in reals.
Def. Complete set : A subset S of real numbers is said to be complete if every bounded above subset
of S has the least upper bound in S.
In view of above definition, the completness axiom can be stated in the following manner:
4. Completeness Axiom : The set of real numbers is complete.
5. is not complete.
6. Every non-empty bounded below subset of real numbers has the greatest lower bound.
7. Archimedean Property of
Statement : If a and b are two positive real numbers then there exists a natural number n such that na b .
Proof : Let, if possible, there exists no integer n such that
na b na b n …….(i)
Now consider the set S na : n . As 1 a a S , S
Also, by (i), S is a bounded above set. Thus S is a non-empty bounded above set, so by completeness
axiom, S must have a least upper bound, say u.
Let n , then n 1 (n 1)a S n
n 1 a u n (since u is the l.u.b. of S)
na u a n
18
u a is an upper bound of S.
u ua (since u is the l.u.b. of S)
which is a contradiction. Thus our supposition is wrong and so na b for some natural number n.
Corollary 1. If a 0, then there exists a natural number n such that n a .
Proof : Taking a 1 and b a in above theorem, we get n a .
1
Corollary 2. For 0 however small, there exists a natural number n such that .
n
1 1 1
Proof : Taking a in corollary 1, we get n .
n
Corollary 3. For any real number x, there exist two integers m and n such that m x n .
Proof : Taking a x , in corollary 1, there exists a natural number n such that
nx i.e., x n …….(i)
Again, taking a x in corollary 1, there exists a natural number n ' such that
n ' x i.e., n ' x ……(ii)
By (i) and (ii), we get n ' x n
Letting n ' m, we can say that there exist two integers m and n such that m x n .
1
Corollary 4 : If n is a positive integer , then 0, n
n 1
1
Proof : Let a 0, then there exist n such that 0 a
n
1 1 1
a 0, a 0, 0, n
n n 1 n n 1
1
Corollary 5 : If n is a positive integer , then 0, n 0
n 1
1
Proof : Let a 0, then there exist n such that 0 a
n
1 1 1
a 0,
n
a 0,
n 1 n
0, n 0
n 1
8. For any real number x, there exists a unique integer n such that n x n 1 .
9. Between two distinct real numbers, there are infinitely many rational numbers. (This fact is sometimes
expressed by saying that rational numbers are dense.)
Proof : Let x, y such that x y yx0
1
Then there exist n such that 0 yx 0 1 ny nx
n
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m
Thus there exist m such that nx m ny x y
n
Thus between two distinct real numbers, there are infinitely many rational numbers.
10. Between two distinct real numbers, there are infinitely many irrational numbers.
x y
Proof : Let x, y such that x y
2 2
x y
Then there exist r , r 0 such that r xr 2 y
2 2
Thus between two distinct real numbers, there are infinitely many irrational numbers.
11. If A B and B is bounded, then A is bounded. Further g.l.b. ( B) g.l.b. ( A) l.u.b.( A) l.u.b. ( B)
Proof : As B is bounded so there exists real numbers k and K s.t.
k xK xB
k xK x A A B
A is bounded
Let l1, l2 , u1, u2 denotes the g.l.b.‟s and l.u.b.‟s of A and B respectively.
We shall prove that l2 l1 u1 u2 .
As l2 is g.l.b. of B, so
l2 x x B
l2 x x A A B
l2 is a lowerbound of A.
But l1 is the greatest lower bound of A, so l2 l1 …….(1)
Now , l1 and u1 are g.l.b. and l.u.b. of A respectively so clearly l1 u1 …….(2)
Finally, as u2 is l.u.b. of B, so x u2 x B
x u2 x A A B
u2 is an upper bound of A.
But u1 is the least upper bound of A, so u1 u2 …….(3)
By (1), (2), (3) we get the required result.
12. Let A and B are two non-empty bounded subset of R. If A B x y : x A, y B then
(i) A + B is bounded
20
Proof : Since A is bounded, there exist two real numbers k and K such that
k xK x A …….(1)
Again, since B is bounded, there exist two real numbers k ' and K ' such that
k' y K' xB …….(2)
Adding (1) and (2), we obtain
k k' x y K K' x y A B
A B is bounded
(ii) l.u.b. A B l.u.b. A l.u.b. B
Proof : Let u1 l.u.b( A) and u2 l.u.b( B)
x u1 x A and y u2 y B
x y u1 u2 x y A B
u1 u2 is an upper bound of A B .
Now, we prove that u1 u2 is the least upper bound of A B . Let 0 be any real number. As
u1 , u2 are least upper bounds of A and B, there exist elements x A and y B such that
x u1 and y u2
2 2
x y u1 u2
u1 u2 is the l.u.b. of A B .
Thus, l.u.b. A B u1 u2 l.u.b.( A) l.u.b.( B) .
(iii) g.l.b. A B g.l.b. A g.l.b. B
Proof : This part can be proved similarly.
13. If S R is bounded , then S is also bounded ( is any real number)
lub S if 0
further lub S
glb S if 0
glb S if 0
glb S
lub S if 0
14. If A is any non-empty subset of , then
(i) lub A glb A
Proof : Suppose A is bounded below and let a glb A , then
(1) x a x A
(2) for any 0, there is x* A such that x* a
Multiplying the inequalities in (1) and (2) by –1, we get
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( 1' ) x a x A
( 2' ) for any 0, there is x* A such that x* a
Hence, a lub A . If A is not bounded below, then A is not bounded above and therefore
lub A glb A
(ii) glb A lub A
Proof : This can be proved similarly.
15. If A and B are two non-empty subsets of , then A B and A B are also bounded and
(i) Sup A B max. sup A,sup B
Proof : Let A and B are bounded above. Put a sup A and b sup B .
Let us assume that a b .
Then, for any x A B, x b.
Moreover, for any 0, there is x* B such that x* b . It is obvious that x* A B .
sup A B max sup A,sup B
If A or B is not bounded above, then A B is not bounded above. So, sup A B , and we
assume that max , c max , for any real c.
(ii) Inf A B min. inf A,inf B
Proof : This can be proved similarly.
(iii) sup A B min sup A,sup B
Proof : Let A and B are bounded above. Since A B A and A B B
sup A B sup A and sup A B sup B
From both inequalities, sup A B min sup A,sup B
If A or B is not bounded above then A B may or may not be bounded above. But
sup A B min , c min , for any real c.
(iv) Inf A B max. inf A,inf B
Proof : This part can be proved similarly.
16. If A and B are two non-empty bounded subsets of , and A B {a b : a A, b B} , then
(i) Sup A B sup A inf B
22
Proof : We know that sup A B sup A sup B
Now, sup A B sup A B
sup A sup B
sup A inf B sup B inf B
(ii) Inf A B inf A sup B
Proof : This can be proved similarly.
17. If A and B are two non-empty bounded subsets of , and AB {ab : a A, b B} , then
(i) Sup AB sup A. sup B (ii) Inf AB inf [Link] B
18. If A and B are bounded subsets of , then
sup AB max sup Asup B, sup Ainf B, inf Asup B, inf Ainf B
19. If A and B are two non-empty subsets of positive real numbers, then sup AB sup A sup B
20. (a) The set {x : x , x 0 and x 2 3} does not have any l.u.b. in .
(b) The set {x : x , x 0 and x 2 5} does not have any l.u.b. in .
21. If u is an upper bound of a set A and u A then u l.u.b. A max( A) .
22. If l is a lower bound of a set A and l A then l g.l.b. A min( A) .
Exercise 1.5
1. Give example of set S which is
(i) Bounded below but not above (ii) Bounded above but not below
(iii) Infinite set and bounded (iv) l.u.b. (S) does not belong to S
(v) l.u.b. (S) = g.l.b. (S)
2. Find l.u.b., g.l.b., least and greatest element, if exists, of following sets :
1 1
(i) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11} (ii) : n 0 (iii) : n
n n
n
(iv) 1 n
: n (v)
n 1
: n
(vi) sin x : 1 x 10
1n n 1
(vii) {3n 5 : n } (viii) : n (ix) : n
n n
n1 4 1 n n
(x) 1 : n (xi) 1 sin : n (xii) sin : n
4 n n 2 6
1 m 4n m
(xiii) m : m, n (xiv) : m, n (xv) : m, n
n n m m n
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m
mn
(xvi) : m , n (xvii) : m, n (xviii) 2 p 3 q 5 r : p, q, r
m n
1 m n
1 1
(xix) x : x 0 (xx) 2 x 2 x : x 0
x
3. Find l.u.b. and g.l.b. of following sets :
(i) x : x a x b x c x d 0, a b c d
(ii) x : x x 1 x 2 0
(iii) x : x x 1 0
(iv) x : x 2 x 3 x 4 0
4. Prove that S is bounded iff there exists such that | x | k x S .
5. Prove that every subset of a set bounded above (below or both) is bounded above (below or both).
Is the converse true ?
6. If A and B are bounded subsets of , then prove that the set A B {x y : x A and y B} is also
bounded and g.l.b. A B g.l.b. A g.l.b. B .
7. Give an example of a set in which l.u.b. = g.l.b.
Answers
1. (i) (ii) set of negative integers (iii) [a, b] (iv) [a, b) (v) a
2. (i) l.u.b. = greatest element=11, g.l.b.=least element=1
(ii) l.u.b.= greatest element=1, g.l.b.=least element= –1
(iii) l.u.b. = greatest element=1, g.l.b.=0, least element does not exist
(iv) l.u.b. = greatest element=1, g.l.b.=least element= –1
1
(v) l.u.b. =1, g.l.b.=least element= , greatest element does not exist
2
(vi) l.u.b.=greatest element=1, g.l.b.=least element= –1
(vii) g.l.b. = least element = –2, l.u.b. and greatest element does not exist
1
(viii) l.u.b. = greatest element = , g.l.b. and least element 1
2
(ix) l.u.b. = 2, g.l.b. = least element = 1, greatest element does not exist.
24
15 7
(x) l.u.b. = greatest element = , g.l.b = least element =
4 4
(xi) l.u.b. = 1, g.l.b. = –1, greatest and least element does not exist.
(xii) l.u.b = greatest = 1, g.l.b. = least element = –1
(xiii) g.l.b = 1, l.u.b., greatest element and least element does not exist.
(xiv) g.l.b = least element =4, l.u.b., greatest element does not exist.
(xv) l.u.b = 1, g.l.b. = 0, greatest and least element does not exist.
(xvi) l.u.b = 1, g.l.b. = –1, greatest and least element does not exist.
1
(xvii) g.l.b = least element = , l.u.b., greatest element does not exist.
3
31
(xviii) l.u.b = greatest = , g.l.b. = least element = 0
30
(xix) g.l.b = least element = 2, l.u.b., greatest element does not exist.
(xx) g.l.b = least element = 4, l.u.b., greatest element does not exist.
3. (i) l.u.b = d , g.l.b. = a
(ii) l.u.b = 2 , g.l.b. =
(iii) l.u.b = 1 , g.l.b. = 0
(iv) l.u.b = 4 , g.l.b. =
5. No 7. Any singleton set.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.6 Countability
1.6.1 Denumerable Sets
Def. Equivalent sets : Two nonempty sets A and B are said to be equivalent sets if there exists a
bijection between A and B.
Remark : Some authors also use the terms similar, numerically equivalent and equipotent in place of
equivalent.
Def. Denumerable set : A set S is said to be the denumerable set, if there exists a bijection from the
set (set of natural number) to the set S. In other words, if a set S is denumerable, then it can be
represented as S a1, a2 , a3 ,...... . This representation is called enumeration or listing of all elements
of S. Clearly, if a set is denumerable then it is infinite.
Remark : While working on countability, we should not focus on the subset approach, rather we
should focus on the function approach or bijection approach.
Results :
1. The set of all integers is denumerable.
2. The set of all even natural numbers is denumerable.
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3. The set is denumerable.
4. The set of all positive rational numbers is denumerable.
5. The set of all negative rational numbers is denumerable.
Results :
1. Subset of a finite set is a finite.
2. Subset of a denumerable set is either finite or denumerable.
3. If A is denumerable and B is a finite set, then A B is denumerable.
4. If A and B are denumerable sets, then A B is also denumerable.
5. If A and B are two denumerable sets and C is a finite set, then A B C is denumerable.
6. The set of all rational numbers is denumerable.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.6.2 Countable and Uncountable Sets
Def. Countable set : A set S is said to be countable set if either it is finite or denumerable.
Remark : Do not try to take the English language meaning of countable (i.e., something which can be
counted).
Def. Uncountable set : A set is said to be uncountable if it is not countable. In other words, a set S is
uncountable if
(i) S is infinite
(ii) There does not exist a bijection from to S.
Result 1. The open interval (0,1) is uncountable.
Proof : Clearly, 0,1 x : 0 x 1 is infinite.
Now, we shall prove that there does not exist a bijection from to 0,1 .
Let, if possible, there exists a bijection from to 0,1 , i.e., the set 0,1 is denumerable.
We can have an enumerations of elements in 0,1 and suppose that enumeration is given by
0,1 x1, x2 , x3 ,.....
x1 0 x11 x12 x13 x14 ...........
Now we take, x2 0 x21 x22 x23 x24 .........
x3 0 x31 x32 x33 x34 .........
.........................................
26
Now consider, y 0 y1 y2 y3........ where yi xii ,0,9 , then clearly y 0,1 but y xi for any i ,
which is a contradiction. So, the set 0,1 is uncountable.
Remark : Let b 0.49999...... and c 1.50000...... then we see that
1
10b b 4.9999.... 0.4999.... 4.5 9b 4.5 b c
2
So, we notice that a real number may have two different decimal representations. If decimal
representation of a real number does not contain the digit 0 and 9, then that decimal representation is
unique. For example, the number d 0.147147147........, has no other decimal representation.
Results :
1. Subset of a countable set is a countable.
2. Subset of a uncountable set may be finite or denumerable or uncountable.
3. Superset of a finite set may be finite or denumerable or uncountable.
4. Superset of a denumerable set is either denumerable or uncountable.
5. Superset of a uncountable set is uncountable.
6. If A, B are finite sets, then A B is also finite.
7. If A is finite and B is denumerable, then A B is also finite.
8. If A and B are denumerable sets, then A B may be finite or denumerable.
9. If A and B are countable set then A B is also a countable set.
10. If A and B are finite sets then A \ B is also finite.
11. If A is denumerable and B is finite, then A \ B is also denumerable.
12. If A and B are denumerable sets, then A \ B may be finite or denumerable.
13. If A and B are countable set, then A \ B is also a countable set.
n
14. Finite union of finite sets is finite. i.e., if A1, A2 ,...., An are finite sets, then A
i 1
i is also finite.
15. Finite union of denumerable sets is denumerable. i.e., if A1, A2 ,...., An are denumerable sets, then
n
A
i 1
i is denumerable.
16. Denumerable union of a finite set is either finite or denumerable i.e., if A1, A2 ,...... are finite sets,
then A
i 1
i is either finite or denumerable.
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17. Denumerable union of denumerable sets is also denumerable i.e., if A1, A2 ,...... are denumerable
sets, then A
i 1
i is denumerable.
Results :
1. The set of real numbers is uncountable.
Remark : The set is not uncountable due to its infinte length, rather it is uncountable, being a
superset of an uncountable set
2. The set of all irrational numbers is uncountable.
3. The open interval a, b where a b , is uncountable.
Remark : All of the intervals 0,1 , 0,10 , 5,6 , 0,0.0001...... are uncountable.
4. The closed interval a, b or semi-closed interval (a, b] , [a, b) , where a b are uncountable.
5. Let S and T denotes the set of all rationals and irrationals in a, b , a b respectively, then S
is countable and T is uncountable.
6. If S and every element of S is irrational then it should not be concluded that set S is
uncountable. For example : S
2, 3, 5,...... (a denumerable set or a countable set).
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.6.3 Some important bijections
Result 1. There exists a bijection between a, b and c, d i.e., a, b ~ c, d . For example, the
d c
function f : a, b c, d defined by f x c x a is a bijection.
ba
Result 2. The bijection in the above result also works from a, b to c, d
Remark : The bijection in the above result is not the only bijection between open interval a, b to
c, d . In fact there are infinitely many such bijections. But in the chapter of countability, we are not
interested in all the bijections, rather we are interest in the existence of one such bijection.
Illustrations : Find a bijection between the following intervals.
(i) 0, 2 and 0, 4 (ii) 1,1 and 10, 20 (iii) 1,7 and 2,10
Result 3. There exist a bijections between a, b and .
28
Result 4. Second proof of a, b ~ c, d :
By result 3 a, b ~ and c, d ~ so, a, b ~ c, d
Result 5. There exists a bijections from a, b to a, b i.e., a, b ~ a, b (By Hilbert hotel)
Proof : Let S be the set of all rationals in a, b , then the set S must be denumerable, so we can
have an enumeration of the elements of the set S. Let this enumeration be S x1, x2 , x3 ,.....
Let T denotes the set of all irrationals in a, b . Then we can write
a, b S T x1, x2 , x3 ,..... T and a, b a, b, x1, x2 ,..... T
x1 , if x a
x if x b
,
Then the function f : a, b a, b defined by f x 2 is a bijection.
xn 2 , if x xn , n 1
x , if x T
Result 6. There exists a bijection from open interval a, b to c, , where a b i.e., a, b ~ c,
Hint : Convert the open interval a, b into a quarter circle.
Result 7. There exists a bijection from open interval a, b to ,c , where a b i.e., a, b ~ , c
Result 8. There exists a bijection from [c, ) to c, i.e., [c, ) ~ (c, )
Result 9. There exists a bijections between any two of the following intervals :
a, b , [a, b), (a, b], a, b , c, , [c, ), (, c], , c , ,
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.6.4 Characterization of finite and infinite set
Result 1. A finite set cannot be equivalent to any of its proper subset.
or
Let A be any set and B is any proper subset of A then there cannot exist a bijection from A to B or B to A.
Result 2. Every infinte set has a denumerable subset.
Proof : Let A be any infinte set, then we shall prove the existence of a denumerable subset of A by
mathematical induction.
Select an element x1 A.
Then select x2 A x1 , which is an infinte set.
Again select x3 A x1, x2 , which is an infinite set.
At nth step select xn A x1, x2 ,....., xn and at n 1 step select xn1 A x1, x2 ,....., xn
th
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Now, let B x1, x2 , x3 ,....... , then B is clearly a denumerable subset of A.
Remark : Find a denumerable subset of each of the sets , , , , 0,1 , 0,1 .
Result 3. Let A be an infinite set and B is any finite subset of A, then there exists a bijection from A
to A \ B . i.e., A ~ A \ B .
Proof : Let B b1, b2 ,,...., bn , then clearly A \ B is also an infinite set. So by above result (2), there
must exist a denumerable subset, say, S x1, x2 , x3 ,...... of A \ B . If T denotes the set of all elements
of A \ B except x1, x2 ,......, xn ,..... then we can write A \ B S T x1, x2 , x3 ,...., xn , xn1,..... T
Also, A b1, b2 ,......bn S T b1, b2 ,.....bn , x1, x2 ,......xn ...... T
xm , x bm ; 1 m n
Then the function f : A A \ B is given by f x xn k , if x xk is a bijection.
x if x T
,
Result 4. A set is infinite iff it is equivalent to a proper subset of itself.
or
A set S is infinite iff there exists a proper subset A of S such that A ~ S .
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.6.5 Cardinal numbers
number of elements in S , if S is finite
Def. card S S 0 if S~N
S~
C if
Results :
1. card card card E card card card card
card 0,1 0
2. card a, b card a, b card [a, b) card (a, b] card [a, ) card a,
card , a card (, a] card card I card I 0,1 c
3. (i) If card S1 0 and card S2 n (finite) then card S1 S2 0
(ii) If card S1 0 and card S2 0 then card S1 S2 0
(iii) If A B and card B n then card A n
30
(iv) If A B and card B 0 , then card A n or 0
(v) If A B and card A c, then card B c
4. A set S is countable iff either card S n or card S 0 .
5. A set S is uncountable iff card S c .
6. If card An 0 for all n then card An 0 (i.e., denumerable union of the denumerable
n 1
set is denumerable.)
7. If A is uncountable and B is any set then A B is uncountable.
or
If card A c and B is any set then card A B c
8. If A and B are two uncountable sets, then A B may be finite or denumerable or uncountable.
or
If card A c, card B c, then card A B n for some n i.e., card A B n or 0 or c
Illustration :
(i) If A 0,1 and B 1, 2 then A B 1
(ii) If A 0,1 and B 1, 2 then A B
(iii) If A 0, 2 , B 1,3 then A B 1,2
9. If A and B are uncountable then A \ B may be finite or denumerable or uncountable.
For illustration :
(i) If A 0,1 , B 0,1 then A \ B 0,1
(ii) If A 0,1 , B 0,1 I then A \ B 0,1
(iii) If A 0,2 , B 1, 2 then A \ B (0,1]
10. Cantor's continium Hypothesis : There is no cardinal number between 0 and c.
or
If S is an infinite subset of , then card S 0 or c
or
If S and card S 0 , then card S c
or
If S and card S c, then card S n or 0
or
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Every denumerable subset of is of cardinality 0
or
Every uncountable subset of is of cardinality c.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.6.6 Cardinal Arithmetic
Results :
1. If and are two infinite cardinal numbers, then max , and max ,
(i) n 0 0 (ii) nc c (iii) 0 0 0 (iv) 0 c c
(v) c c c (vi) n 0 0 (vii) nc c (viii) 0 0 0
(ix) 0 c c (x) cc c
2. 0 0 0 ..... 0 n 0 0
3. 0 0 0 ......0 times 0 0 0
4. c c c ...... c n times n c c
5. c c c ......0 times 0 c c
6. c c c ..... c times c c c
If , and are the cardinal numbers, then
7.
8. 20 c
0
9. c0 20 200 20 c
10. 2,3, 4,.....,0 ,c 0 c
11. 2,3, 4,.....,0 , c 2c
c
12. The complete chain of the cardinal numbers is 1 2 3 ..... n ..... 0 c 2c 22 ....
c
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.6.7 Power Set
Def. Power Set : Let A be any set, then the power set of A is denoted by P A and is defined as the
set of all subsets of A. i.e., P A B : B A
32
For illustration : take A 1,2,3 then, P A , 1 , 2 , 3 , 1, 2 , 1,3 , 2,3 , A
Results :
1. If a set has n elements then its power set has 2n elements.
Proof : We shall prove the result by mathematical induction.
If n 1, then we take, A a P A ,a card P A 2 21 and
so the result is true for n 1 .
Now let us assume that, the result is true for n k .
Now we have to show that result is also true for n k 1 .
So let, A a1, a2 ,...., ak 1 and we have to prove that card P A 2k 1 .
Now consider A1 a1, a2 ,...., ak .
By induction hypothesis, we have card P A1 2k . Now any subset of A either contain ak 1 or does
not contain ak 1 so there are a total of 2k 2k subsets of A.
So card P A 2 card P A1 2 2k card P A 2k 1
2. Cantor's theorem : Let A be any set and P A be its power set, then there can not exist a
Surjection from the set A to P A
Proof : Let if possible, there exists a surjection f : A P A .
Let B a A : a f a . Clearly B is a subset of A B P A
Now, f : A P A is onto, so there exists b A such that f b B .
Now, Case (i) : If b B b f b b B , which is a contradiction.
Case (ii) : If b B b f b b B , which is again contradiction.
Hence our supposition is wrong, so there does not exist a surjection from A to P A .
3. card P A 2card A
4. If card A n then card P A 2n
5. If card A 0 then card P A 20 c
6. If card A c then card P A 2c
7. Power set is never denumberable.
8. card P( ) 20 1
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2
9. Generalisation : card P( P(...( P ( )))) 2 2
n times
10. Power set of a set is never empty.
Notations : PF S Set of all finite subsets of S, PC S Set of all countable subsets of S
So clearly, PF S PC S P S
For example, 1, 2 PF , PF , PC , 0,1 PC , 0,1 P
Result 8. If A is an infinite set then card PF A card A
Result 9. card PC c
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.6.8 Sequences
Result 1. Fundamental principle of counting : If there are n1 ways to do job J1 , n2 ways to do job
J 2 , ….., and nk ways to do job J k , then the total number of ways to do all the jobs simultaneously is
n1 n2 nk .
Result 2.
(i) Let S be the set of all sequences with entries from 0,1 , then show that card S c i.e., S
is uncountable.
Solution : Let S x1, x2 , x3...... : xn 0,1
Here the number of positions is 0 and each position can be filled in 2 ways.
So, card S 2 2 2........ 20 c
(ii) If S x1, x2 , x3 ,...... : x 3,7,9 then card S 30 20 c
(iii) If S x1, x2 , x3 ,...... : xi or or then card S 0 20 c
(iv) If S x1, x2 , x3 ,...... : xi 0,1 then card S c c c....... c0 20 c
(v) If S x1, x2 , x3 ,...... : xi then card S c c c....... c0 20 c
34
1.6.9 Cartesian Products
Def. Finite Cartesian Product : Let A1, A2 ,..., An are any sets, then their cartesian product is denoted
n n
by Ai or A1 A2 ........ An and is defined as Ai a1, a2 ,..., an : ai Ai
i 1 i 1
Def. Infinite Cartesian Product: Let A1, A2 ,..., An ,... be any infinitely many sets, then their cartesian
product is denoted by Ai or A1 A2 ... An ... and is defined as Ai a1, a2 ,..., an ,... : ai Ai
i 1 i 1
Results :
n n
1. card Ai card Ai
i =1 i =1
2. card Ai card Ai
i =1 i =1
3. card 2 c
4.
card 3 c
5. Above two results can be expressed by saying that there is a one-one correspondence between the
line , the plane 2 and the space 3 .
6. card 0,1 0,1 card 0,1
Remark : George Cantor (1845-1918) proved in 1877 that the two dimensional unit square in the plane
has a one-one correspondence with the unit interval on the line, a result he sent in a letter to his
colleague Richard Dedekind in Berlin, writing “I see it, but I do not believe it”.
1.6.10 Polynomials
Notation 1. Pn X Set of all polynomials of degree n with coefficient from the set X. i.e.,
Pn X a0 , a1x a2 x 2 ...... an x n : ai X : an 0
Notation 2. Poly X Pn X Set of all polynomials, with coefficient from the set X. i.e.,
n0
Poly X a0 a1x a2 x 2 ..... an x n : ai X
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Q. Find the cardinalities of the following sets :
(i) Poly 0,1 (ii) Poly 2,3,7 (iii) Poly (iv) Poly
(vi) Poly 0,1 (vii) Poly
Solution : Take Poly 0,1 Pn 0,1
n0
Now, Pn 0,3 a0 a1x a2 x 2 ..... an x n : an 0 where ai 0,1 .
card Pn 0,1 2
2 2........ 2 1 2n
n-times
Poly 0,1 Pn 0,1 P0 P1 P2 ....
n0
Now, denumerable union of finite sets is either finite or denumerable, but in the present case, the
union cannot be finite, because all the Pn ‟s are disjoint. So, Poly 0,1 is denumerable, and hence
countable. So, card Poly 0,1 0
Definition of polynomials in terms of sequence : Let f x a0 a1x a2 x 2 .... an x n be a
polynomial then we can write
f x a0 a1 x a2 x 2 .... an x n 0 x n1 ...... a0 , a1, a2 ,......, an ,0,0.......
a sequence in which only finitely many terms are non-zero or a sequence in which all but
finitely many terms are zero.
Illustration : If S xn : xn 0,1 and xn 1 for atmost finitely many values of n then clearly
S Poly 0,1
1.6.11 Algebraic and Transcedental numbers
Def. Algebraic Number : A number (real or complex) is said to be algebraic, if it is a root of a
polynomial equation with rational coefficient.
Remark : every irrational number is an algebraic number, but the converse is not true.
Def. Transcedental Number : A number which is not algebraic is said to be the transcendental
number. For example, , e
Result 1. The set A of all algebraic number is countable.
36
Proof : Poly Pn
n0
By fundamental theorem of algebra, we know that a polynomial equation of degree n has atmost n
distinct roots. Pn a0 a1x a2 x 2 .... an x n : an 0 ai
Every polynomials in Pn has atmost n roots and the number of polynomial in Pn is 0 ,
so the algebraic number produced by all polynomials in Pn is atmost, n 0 0 .
Now in view of equation (1), we say that A is denumerable, i.e., card A 0 .
Result 2. The set T of all transcedental number is uncountable.
Proof : Consider A T
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.6.12 Mappings or functions
Notation : Let A and B are two non empty set, then M A, B Set of all mapping or functions from
A to B. i.e., M A, B f : f is a function from A to B .
Remark : Some authors also use the notation B A in place of M A, B .
Result 1. If A and B are two finite sets with card A m and card B n , then
card A
card M A, B card B i.e., the total number of function from A to B is n m .
Result 2. If card A m and card B n and m n , then the number of one-one or injective
function from A to B is n n 1 n 2 ....... n m 1
Result 3. If A and B are two sets, having m and n elements respectively, then the total number of
n n
Cr 1 r ; n m
n r n
onto functions, from A to B is : r 1
; nm
0
card A
Result 4. If A and B are any non-empty set (finite or infinite), then card M A, B card B
Q. 1. Find the cardinalities of the following functions :
(i) M , (ii) M , (iii) M , (iv) M ,
(v) M , (vi) M , 0,1 (vii) M 0,1 , 1,2
Def. Constant function : A function f : A B is said to be a constant function, if f x k for all
x A, k B
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Result 5. The number of constant functions from A to B is equal to card B .
Notation : C A, B Set of all continuous functions from A to B.
Result 6. A continuous function f : is completely determined by its values on . So by this
result, we can conclude that card C , card M , c0 20 c
Result 7. If f : A B be a function then card f A card A i.e., card range card domain
Result 8. If f : A B is a one-one function then card(domain)=card(range) i.e., card A
card f A . In this result, the sets A and B may be finite or infinite set.
Result 9. If A and B are finite sets and f : A B is not a one-one function, then
card range card domain i.e., card f A card A
Result 10. If A and B are infinite sets and f : A B is not a one-one function, then card(range) may
be equal or less card(domain).
Result 11. If f : A B is a function and A countable, then f A is also countable.
Result 12. If f : A B is a function and A uncountable, then f A is may be countable or
uncountable.
Result 13. . If f : A B is a function and f A is countable, then A may be countable or
uncountable.
Result 14. If f : A B is a function and f A is uncountable, then A is also uncountable.
Result 15. Existence of one-one and onto functions :
(i) card A card B iff there exists a one-one function f : A B .
(ii) card A card B iff there exist an onto function f : A B .
(iii) card A card B iff there exist a bijection from A to B.
(iv) If f from A to B is a one-one function, then there exist an onto function g : B A .
38
1.6.13 Connected subset of
Def. Connected set : A subset S of is said to be connected if, whenever x, y S and x z y
then z S .
Results :
1. A subset of is connected iff it is an interval.
2. There are 11 types of intervals, namely
, a , a, b , [a, b), (a, b], a, b , a, , [a, ), , a , (, a], ,
3. card 0 and card a 1 .
4. Every non-empty and non-singleton interval is uncountable.
5. Every non-empty, non-singleton and connected subset of is uncountable.
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True false exercise 16. Every countable set is equivalent to a
subset of natural numbers.
1. Every element of an ordered field is either
positive or negative. 17. A set is infinite iff it contains a countably
infinite subset.
2. Every subset of has a least upper bound.
18. There does not exist any one-one function
3. If a subset of has a least upper bound from a countable set to an uncountable set.
then it has a greatest lower bound.
19. There does not exist onto function from a
4. The collection of all intervals in the ordered countable set to an uncountable set.
field is countable.
20. There does not exist any one-one function
5. The collection of all intervals in the ordered from uncountable set to countable set.
field is countable.
21. There does not exist onto function from
uncountable set to countable set.
1 1
6. The lub of the set : m, n is 2.
m n 22. There exist intervals which is countable.
1 1 23. If A and B are two non-empty subsets of
7. The glb of the set : m, n is 0.
m n , then sup A B min sup A,sup B .
8. If S 0,5 , then 8 is the upper bound of S. 24. If A and B are two non-empty subsets of
, then inf A B max inf A,inf B .
9. Every non-empty bounded above subset of
real numbers has the greatest lower bound. 25. sup x : x a a for each a .
10. The power set of any set can be
denumerable. Assignment
---------------------- S C Q ---------------------
11. The set 1, 4,9,16,.... is countable. 1. If the cardinality of a set A is 4 and that of a
set B is 3, then what is the cardinality of the
12. There is always exist a one-one function
from A to P( A) . set A B ?
1. 1 2. 5 3. 7
13. There exist an onto function from A to
P( A) . 4. Cannot be determined as the sets A and
B are not given.
14. Every infinite set is equivalent to atleast
one of its proper subset. 2. The total number of subsets of a finite set A
has 56 more elements, than the total number
15. A finite set can be equivalent to any of its
proper subset. of subsets of another finite set B. What is the
number of elements in the set A ?
1. 5 2. 6
40
3. 7 4. 8 3. c 4. 1
3. The union of a finite or countable 9. Let A x 2 :0 x 1 and
collection of countable sets is
B x3 :1 x 2. Which of the following
1. countable 2. uncountable
3. infinite 4. None of these statements is true ?
4. An element a is an minimal element of set 1. There is a one to one, onto function
S, then from A to B.
1. a S 2. There is no one to one, onto function
2. a S from A to B taking rationals to
3. a is not lower bound of S rationals.
4. a is not upper bound of S 3. There is no one to one function from A
5. Every infinite set has a to B which is onto.
1. countable subset 4. There is no onto function from A to B
2. uncountable subset which is one to one
3. countable and uncountable both subsets (CSIR-NET June 2011)
4. None of the above 10. Let X be a connected subset of real
numbers. If every element of X is irrational,
6. The open interval 0,1 has
then the cardinality of X is
1. maximal element only
1. infinite 2. countably infinite
2. minimal element only
3. 2 4. 1
3. Both maximal and minimal elements
(CSIR-NET Dec 2011)
4. None of the above
11. Let X be a metric space and A X be a
7. Let A 0,1 and B 0, 2 then which of
connected set with at least two distinct
the following is/are true : points. Then the number of distinct points
1. There can not be a onto function from A in A is
to B. 1. 2
2. There can not be a one-one function 2. more than 2, but finite
from A to B. 3. countably infinite
3. There is a one-one, onto function from 4. uncountable
A to B. (CSIR-NET Dec 2012)
4. None of these. 12. Consider the following sets of functions on
8. Let each Ai is a singleton set, then the .
W = The set of constant functions on ,
number of elements in A i is
i 1
X = The set of polynomial functions on
1. 2 2. 0
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Y = The set of continuous functions on , all y Y
2. If f is surjective, then there exists
Z = The set of all functions on g : Y X such that f g y y for
Which of these sets has the same all y Y
cardinality as that of ? 3. If f is injective and Y is countable then
1. Only W X is finite
4. If f is surjective and X is uncountable
2. Only W and X then Y is countably infinite
3. Only W, X and Y (CSIR NET Dec 2017)
17. Let denote the set of integers and 0
4. All of W, X, Y and Z
denote the set 0,1,2,3,.... . Consider the
(CSIR-NET June 2014)
map f : 0 given by
13. The number of surjective maps from a set f m, n 2m 2n 1 . Then the map f is
of 4 elements to a set of 3 elements is 1. onto (surjective) but not one-one
1. 36 2. 64 (injective)
2. one-one (injective) but not onto (surjective)
3. 69 4. 81 3. both one-one and onto
(CSIR-NET Dec 2014) 4. neither one-one nor onto
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
14. Consider the sets of sequences
X ( xn ): xn {0,1}, n and 1
18. Let S x, y | x 2 y 2 2 , where
Y ( xn ) X : xn 1 for at most finitely many n
n
Then n and either x or y . Here
1. X is countable, Y is finite
2. X is uncountable, Y is countable. is the set of rational numbers and is
3. X is countable, Y is countable.
the set of positive integers. Which of the
4. X is uncountable, Y is uncountable.
(CSIR-NET Dec 2016) following is true ?
15. Let f : 0,1 be a one-one function, 1. S is a finite non empty set
2. S is countable
then
3. S is uncountable
1. f must be onto.
4. S is empty
2. range of f contains a rational number.
(CSIR NET June 2018)
3. range of f contains an irrational number.
19. Consider the map f : defined by
4. range of f contains rational as well as
irrational number. (i) f 0 0
16. Which of the following is necessarily true p p
(ii) f r where r with p ,
for a function f : X Y ? 10 q
q
1. If f is injective, then there exists
g : Y X such that f g y y for
42
q and gcd p, q 1 . Then the map f countable
3. The set of all rational numbers is
is
countable
1. one-to-one and onto
4. None of the above
2. not one-to-one, but onto
4. Let S contains all the irrational numbers of
3. onto but not one-to-one
4. neither one-to-one nor onto the type p , p is a prime number i.e.,
(CSIR NET Dec 2018) S
2, 3, 5, 7,...., p ,.... then which
20. Which of the following sets is uncountable
of the following is/are true ?
?
1. S is countable.
p
1. x | log x for some p, q 2. card S c
q
3. There exist a one-one, onto function
x | cos x sin x 1 for
n n
2.
from to S.
some n 4. There exist a one-one, onto function
from to S.
p
3. x | x log for some p, q
q 5. Which of the following sets are uncountable ?
1. P 2. PF
p
4. x | cos x for some p, q
q 3. PC 4. P PF
(CSIR NET June 2019) 6. Which of the following sets are equivalent
to the open interval 0,0.786 ?
----------------------- M C Q ------------------------
1. P 2. PF
1. Which of the following sets are equivalent
to ? 3. PC 4. P PF
1. 0,1 2. 7. Which of the following has the same
cardinality as P() ?
3. 0,1 4.
2. Which of the following sets has a one-one 1. P P 2. P
correspondence with ? 3. P 0,1 4. P
1. 2. 0,1 8. Which of the following is uncountable ?
3. a 4. 1. M , 2. M ,
3. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ? 3. M , 4. M ,
1. The set of real number is 9. Let S denotes the set of all sequences with
uncountable elements 0 and 1, then which is/are true ?
2. The set of rational number in [0, 1] is 1. S is countable
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2. S is uncountable 12. Consider the two sets A1,2,3 and
3. card S card
B 1,2,3,4,5 . Choose the correct
4. card S card statements.
10. Let X denote the two point set 0,1 and 1. The total number of functions from A to
B is 125
write X j 0,1 for every j = 1, 2, 3, ... Let
2. The total number of functions from A to
Y X j . Which of the following is/are B is 243
j 1 3. The total number of one to one
true? functions from A to B is 60
1. Y is a countable set. 4. The total number of one to one
2. Card Y = card [0, 1]. functions from A to B is 120
n (CSIR-NET June 2013)
3. j is uncountable.
X
13. Which of the following subsets of 2 are
n 1 j 1
4. Y is uncountable. uncountable ?
(CSIR-NET June 2011) 1. a, b 2
| a b
11. For each j 1,2,3,...., let A j be a finite set 2. a, b 2
| a b
a, b | ab
containing at least two distinct elements. 2
3.
Then
4. a, b 2
| a, b
1. Aj is a countable set.
(CSIR-NET Dec 2013)
j 1
n 14. Which of the following sets of functions
2. A j s uncountable. are uncountable ? ( stands for the set of
n 1 j 1
natural numbers.)
3. Aj is uncountable. 1. f | f : 1,2.
j 1
2. f | f : 1,2 .
4. Aj is uncountable.
3. f | f : 1,2 , f 1 f 2.
j 1
(CSIR-NET June 2012) 4. f | f : 1,2, f 1 f 2.
(CSIR-NET June 2015)
15. Let A be any set. Let A be the power
44
set of A, that is, the set of all subsets of 2. The set of all functions from to 0,1
A; A B : B A .
3. The set of all finite subsets of
Then which of the following is/are true
about the set A ? 4. The set of all subsets of
1. A for some A. (CSIR NET June 2018)
2. A is a finite set for some A. 20. Let S be an infinite set. Which of the
3. A is a countable set for some A. following statements are true ?
4. A is a uncountable set for some A. 1. If there is an injection from S to ,
(CSIR-NET June 2016) then S is countable.
16. Let s (0,1). Then decide which of the 2. If there is a surjection from S to ,
following are true.
1. m , n s.t. s m / n then S is countable.
2. m , n s.t. s m / n 3. If there is an injection from to S,
3. m , n s.t. s m / n then S is countable.
4. m , n s.t. s m n
4. If there is a surjection from to S,
(CSIR-NET Dec 2016)
then S is countable.
17. Let f : A B be a one-one function.
(CSIR NET Dec 2018)
Which of the following is/are true :
21. Let f : 3 3 be given by
1. If B is finite, then A is finite.
f x1, x2 , x3
2. If A is infinite, then B is infinite.
3. If B is countable, then A is countable. e x2
cos x1, e x2 sin x1,2 x1 cos x3 . Consider
E x1, x2 , x3 3 : there exists an open
4. If A is uncountable, then B is
uncountable.
subset U around x1, x2 , x3 such that f |U
18. Let denote the set of real numbers and
the set of all rational numbers. For is an open map}. Then which of the
1
0 , let A be the open interval following are true ?
2
0,1 . Which of the following are true ? 1. E 3
1. sup 1 sup A 1 2. E is countable
0
2
3. E is not countable but not 3
1
2. 0 1 2 inf A1 inf A 2
2
4. x1 , x2 , 3 : x1, x2 is a
1
3. 0 1 2 sup A1 sup A 2
2
2
4. sup A sup A \
proper subset of E
(CSIR-NET June 2019)
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
19. Which of the following sets are
uncountable ?
1. The set of all functions from to 0,1
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True false key
1. F 2. F 3. F 4. T
5. F 6. T 7. T 8. T
9. F 10. F 11. T 12. T
13. F 14. T 15. F 16. T
17. T 18. F 19. T 20. T
21. F 22. T 23. F 24. F
25. T
Assignment key
SCQ
1. 4 2. 2 3. 1 4. 1
5. 1 6. 4 7. 3 8. 4
9. 1 10. 4 11. 4 12. 3
13. 1 14. 2 15. 3 16. 2
17. 2 18. 2
MCQ
1. 1,2,3 2. 1,2,4 3. 1,2,3
4.1,3 5. 1,3,4 6. 1,3,4
7. 1,2,3 8. 1,2,3,4 9. 2,4
10. 2,4 11. 1,3 12. 1,3
13. 1,2,3 14. 1,4 15. 2,3,4
16. 1,2 17. 1,2,3,4 18. 3,4
19. 1,2,4
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Chapter - 2
Point-Set Topology
2.1 Topology of
2.1.1 Neighbourhood
Def. 1 : Neighbourhood of a Point : Let A then A is said to be a neighbourhood of point
x if there exists 0 such that x , x A .
Def. 2 : Let A then A is said to be a neighbourhood of point x if there exists an open
interval a , b such that x a , b A .
Remark 1 : Definitions (1) and (2) made above are equivalent because if x , x A then
taking x a and x b we get x a , b A .
Conversely, if x a , b A is true then taking min{ x a , b x} , we get x , x a , b A .
But mostly we prefer definition (1) because definition (2) involves existence of two numbers whereas
definition (1) involves existence of one number ,moreover in definition (2) distance of end points a and b
from x may or may not be equal, but in definition (1) distance of end points x and x from x is same.
Remark 2 : By the definition,it is clear that a set can not be a neighbourhood of a point not belonging to
it. If A is a neighbourhood of x then according to the definition, there exist an open interval (a, b) such that
x a, b A x A
Thus,if A is a neighbourhood of x then x A i.e. A can not be neighbourhood of a point not belonging to A.
Hence to check a given set to be a neighbourhood, we shall only consider the points belonging to that set.
Note : If a set A does not contain an open interval then A cannot be neighbourhood of any real
number.
Results :
1. Any superset of the neighbourhood of a point is also a neighbourhood of that point.
Proof : Let A be a neighbourhood a point x and B be any superset of A.
Then there exist 0 such that ( x , x ) A
(x , x ) A B
B is a neighbourhood of x.
2. The intersection of two neighbourhoods of a point is also a neighbourhood of that point.
Proof : Let A and B be two neighbourhoods of a point x.
48
Then there exist 1 0 and 2 0 such that ( x 1, x 1 ) A and ( x 2 , x 2 ) B
Let min 1, 2 .
Then x , x x 1, x 1 A and x , x x 2 , x 2 B
x , x A B
A B is also a neighbourhood of x.
Remark : Arbitrary intersection of neighbourhoods of a point need not be a neighbourhood of that
1 1 1 1
point. For example, , is a neighbourhood of 0 for every n but
n n
n , n 0 is not a
n 1
neighbourhood of 0.
3. Arbitrary union of neighbourhood of a real number is again a neighbourhood of that real number.
Def. Interior point of a set : If A is neighbourhood of a point x, then x is called an interior point of A.
The concept of neighbourhood and interior point are essentially same, as they are just the different
wordings of a relation between a point and a set.
Clearly, A is a neighbourhood of x if and only if x is an interior point of A.
Def. Interior of a set : The set of all interior points of a set A is called its interior and is denoted by A .
Results : In the following results A and B are any two subsets of :
1. 0 and 0
2. A0 A
3. A B A0 B0 (Monotone Property)
4. A B 0 A0 B0
5. A0 B0 A B 0
6. In general, A0 B0 A B 0 . For example, let A 0,2 , B 2,4 , then A 0,2 , B 2,4
and A B 0, 4 while A B 0,4 2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.1.2 Open Sets
Def. Open Set : Let A , then A is said to be an open set if A is a neighbourhood of each of its
points i.e. for every a A, there exists 0 such that a , a A .
Results :
1. and are always open.
2. Arbitrary union of open sets is open.
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3. Finite intersection of open sets is open.
1 1
4. Arbitrary intersection of open sets need not be an open set. For example, , is an open set
n n
1 1
for every n but n , n 0 , is not an open set.
n 1
5. If A and B are two open sets, then A B a b : a A, b B is also an open set.
Proof : Let A and B are two open subsets of
Let a b A B a A and b B
Thus, there exist 0 such that a a , a A a b a b , a b A B
Then, A B is neighbourhood of a b . But a b is an arbitrary point of A B . Thus, A B is
neighbourhood of each of its points. Hence, A B is an open set.
6. If A and B are two subsets of and one of A or B is open, then A B is also open.
Proof : Clear by above proof.
Remark : If A and B are not open then A B may or may not be open.
7. A is always open.
8. A is the largest open set contained in A.
9. A is open if and only if A A .
10. A0 0 A0 .
11. A set is open iff it can be expressed as the countable union of disjoint open intervals.
12. Every non-empty open set is uncountable.
Proof : Let A be any non-empty open set, then A must contain an open interval. Since open
intervals are uncountable, therefore A is also uncountable.
Contrapositive : A non-empty countable set can never be an open set.
13. If a set is uncountable, then it may or may not be an open set. For example, 1, 2 is uncountable
and not an open set.
14. Every neighbourhood of a real number is uncountable.
Proof : Let N be a neighbourhood of point x. Then, there exist an open interval (say) I such that
x I N . But I is uncountable. Therefore, N is also uncountable.
15. Countable set can never be a neighbourhood of any real number.
16. Let S be a collection of disjoint open sets in , then S is countable.
50
Proof : Let S A : , where A ’s are disjoint open sets. If S is finite, then there is nothing
to prove. If S is infinite, then we select a rational number x from A for each . Now,
x : and this clearly implies that S is countable.
Remark : What will happen in the above proof if we select an irrational number from each A .
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.1.3 Limit Point
Def. 1 : Let x be a real number and A be a set, then x is said to be a limit point of A if for every
0 , the interval x , x contains infinitely many points of A i.e., x , x A is an
infinite set.
Def. 2 : Let x be a real number and A be a set, then x is said to be a limit point of A if for every
0 , the interval x , x contains atleast one point of A other than x i.e.,
x , x A x .
Def. 3 : Let x be a real number and A be a set, then x is said to be a limit point of A if every open
interval containing x, contains infinitely many points of A i.e., if the open interval a, b contains x
then a, b A is an infinite set.
Def. 4 : Let x be a real number and A be a set, then x is said to be a limit point of A if every open
interval containing x, contains atleast one point of A other than x i.e., if the open interval a, b
contains x then a, b A x .
Remarks :
(i) It is interesting to notice that for x to be a limit point of A , definition (1), requires infinitely many
points of A in x , x whereas definition (2), needs only one point different from x. But
actually the two conditions are same. definition (1) definition (2) is easy to see. For
otherway, if possible let x x , x and x , x contains only finite number of points
of A say a1 , a2 ,......, an . Let 0 min{| x a i | : 1 i n} then a1 , a2 ,........, an x 0 , x 0 i.e.,
x 0 , x 0 contains no point of A other than x, which contradicts the definition (2). So
condition of definition (1) must hold.
(ii) Limit point is also known as accumulation point or condensation point. The names are justified
because of x is a limit point of A, then x , x contains infinitely many points of A for every
0 . Now as becomes smaller and smaller, we move closer and closer to A. Thus there are
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infinitely many elements of A, which are arbitrarily close to x i.e., elements of A accumulate or
condensate around x.
(iii) Negation of definition of the limit point : A real number x is not a limit point of a set A if there
exists a number 0 such that the interval x , x contains no point of A other than x i.e.,
x , x A x .
Def. Derived Set : Let A be a set, then the set containing all limit points of A is known as
derived set of A and is denoted by A ' i.e., A x : x is a limit point of A .
Def. Adherent Points : Let x be a real number and A be a set. Then x is said to be an adherent
point of set A if every open interval a, b containing x , contains at least one point of A.
Remarks :
(i) Limit point is always an adherent point but adherent point may not be a limit point
because if an open interval a, b containing x, contains at least one point of A other than x then
clearly it contains a point of A. However converse need not be true.
(ii) Every point belonging to a set is always its adherent point. In fact, if x A then every open
interval which contains x clearly has a point of A, namely x itself. Thus, we can say that the points
of a set and its limit points are collectively called the adherent points. To be precise, we give the
name ‘isolated point’ to those points of a set which are not its limit points. Let us define it in a
formal way:
Def. Isolated Point : Let A be a set, then a real number x A is said to be an isolated point of
A if x is not a limit point of A. In words, the points which are elements of A but are not the limit
points of A are called Isolated points. Isolated points of A is denoted by iso( A) and is given by
iso( A) A A ' .
Remark : According to the three definitions made above, we can say that isolated points and limit
points are called the adherent points. In other words, we can say that adherent points are of two types,
namely, isolated points and limit points. The general situation for any set A can be understood by the
following figure.
52
A A
Isolated Points Limit Points
Adherent Points
Results :
1. A B A B
2. A B A B
3. A B A B
4. In general A B ' A ' B ' . For example, let A 0,2 , B 2,4 , then A ' 0,2 , B ' 2,4
and A ' B ' 2 while A B '
5. A A
6. The collection of all isolated points of a set A is countable.
7. Every uncountable set has uncountable limit points.
Proof : Let A be uncountable set. Then A A ' iso( A)
Since A is uncountable and iso(A) is countable, therefore A ' is also uncountable.
8. Let S and there exist r 0 such that x y r , whenever x and y are distinct points of S,
then S is countable.
Proof : Let, if possible, S is uncountable, then S has uncountable limit points.
Let a be any limit point of S. Let 0 r , then the interval a , a contains infinitely many
2 2
points of S. If we select two distinct points of S from the interval a , a , then x y r ,
2 2
which is a contradiction. Thus, S is countable.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.1.4 Closed Sets
Def. Closed Set : Let A be a set then A is said to be closed if complement of A i.e., A is open.
Results :
1. and are always closed sets.
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2. Arbitrary intersection of closed sets is closed.
3. Finite union of closed sets is closed.
4. Arbitrary union of closed sets need not be a closed set. For example, a 0,1 is not a
a 0,1
closed set.
5. If A and B are two closed sets, then A B a b : a A, b B need not be a closed set. For
1
example, if A n : n and B n : n then A and B are closed sets but A B is
n
1
not closed because A B n , 0 A B and 0 is a limit point of A B .
n
6. If A is closed and B is open then A \ B is closed.
7. If A is open and B is closed then A \ B is open.
Def. Closure of a Set : Let A be a set. Then the set A containing all points of A and all limit
points of A is known as closure of A and is denoted by A . Thus A A A . We know that the points
of a set and its limit points are collectively called the adherent points. Therefore we can say that A is
the set of all adherent points of A.
Remark : By the definition of A it is clear that A A .
Results : In the following results A and B are any two subsets of :
1. A B A B
2. A B A B
3. A B A B
4. A ' is a closed set.
5. A is closed.
6. A is closed iff A ' A .
7. A is not closed iff A ' / A i.e., there exists an element x A ' such that x A . In words, we can
say that a set A is not closed iff there is atleast one limit point of A which is not in A.
8. A is closed iff A A .
9. A is the smallest closed set containing A.
10. A A .
54
11. A A or A A
12. Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem for sets : Every infinite bounded subset of has a limit point.
13. If A is a bounded above subset of then sup A either belongs to A or it is a limit point of A
i.e., sup A A or sup A A ' . Clearly, sup A A .
14. If A is a bounded below subset of then inf A either belongs to A or it is a limit point of A
i.e., inf A A or inf A A ' . Clearly, inf A A .
15. If A is a bounded subset of then sup A ,inf A A .
16. If A is a non empty bounded above closed subset of then sup A A .
17. If A is a non empty bounded below closed subset of then inf A A .
18. If A is bounded then A and A are bounded.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.1.5 Boundary Points
Def. Boundary Point : A real number x a is said to be a boundary point of a set A , if every
neighbourhood of x a , contains points of A as well as of Ac and is denoted by A i.e.,
A A Ac .
Example : (i) c
(ii) c
Results : Let A , then
1. A is always a closed set.
Proof : We know that intersection of two closed sets is again a closed set and since A A Ac
and A, Ac are closed. Therefore, A is also a closed set.
2. A is closed iff A A .
Proof : A is closed A A A Ac A
A Ac A A A
3. A A A
Proof : Since A A Ac
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A A A A Ac A A A Ac
A A Ac Ac '
A Ac ' A A
4. A A \ A A A
c
Proof : A A A A A A A Ac A
c
5. A is open iff A A
Proof : A is open, A A
A A A A A A A Ac A A Ac A Ac A A
c
6. A is both open and closed iff A
Proof : A is open A A and A is closed A A A
7. A Ac
Proof : A A Ac Ac A Ac Ac Ac
c
8. In general, A A
Example : ,
9. A A
Proof : Since A A \ A
A A \ A A \ A A A is closed
Remark : A A iff A
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.1.6 Compact Sets
Def. Open Covering : Let A : be a family of open sets, then is said to be an open
covering for a set A if A A .
Example
56
(i) n , n : n is an open covering for .
(ii) n , n 2 : n is also an open covering for .
Def. Finite subcovering : Let A : be an open covering for set A. A finite subfamily
n
A1 , A 2 ,........, A n of is said to be a finite subcovering if A A i .
i 1
Def. Compact set : A set is said to be compact if every open covering is reducible to a finite subcovering.
Heine-Borel Theorem : A subset of is compact iff it is closed and bounded.
Results :
1. A closed subset of a compact set is always compact.
2. Finite union of compact sets in is compact.
3. Arbitrary intersection of compact sets in is compact.
4. If A and B are two compact sets, then A B is also a compact set.
5. If A is compact and B is closed, then A B is closed.
6. Every non empty compact subset of has the greatest and least element.
7. A set K is compact iff every infinite subset of K has all its limit points in K.
8. is not compact, as n, n 2 : n is an open covering of , which has no finite subcovering.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.1.7 Dense Sets
Def. Dense set : Let A be a set. Then, A is called dense if the closure of A is the set of all real
numbers i.e., A .
Remark : If a set A is countable, then Ac is dense in .
Proof : Let if possible, Ac , then there exist a real number a which is not an adherent point of Ac .
That is there exist 0 such that a , a Ac a , a A
A is uncountable as a , a is uncountable. But A is given to be countable, which is a
contradiction. Therefore Ac .
Def. Nowhere Dense set : A subset A is nowhere dense if the interior of the closure of A is
empty i.e., A .
Def. Disconnected set : A set A is disconnected if A can be written as union of two non-empty
disjoint open subsets.
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Def. Connected set : A set A is connected if it is not possible to write A as a union of two non-
empty disjoint open subsets. i.e., if A A1 A2 where A1 and A2 are open subsets of A and
A1 A2 , then one of A1 or A2 is empty.
Remark : A set in is connected iff it is an interval.
Def. Path-connected set : A set A is path-connected if we can join any two points of the set A
by a continuous curve within the set A.
Remark : A set in is path-connected iff it is connected.
Def. Perfect set : A set A is perfect if it is closed and every point of A is a limit point of A i.e., A ' A .
Def. Discrete set : Let A be a set. Then, A is called discrete set if the set of all isolated points of
A is A itself i.e., iso( A) A .
Example 1. Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points of the set and
discuss the following properties : open, closed, bounded, compact, dense, connected, perfect and
discrete.
Solution : (i) The set contains all the real numbers except the natural numbers which are
represented by dots in the following real line :
)( )( )( )( )( )( )(
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Offcourse, can not be a neighbourhood of any natural number as they do not belong to it. Let
x be any non-natural real number and suppose it lies between two consecutive natural numbers n and
n+ 1. Then, clearly, we have x n, n 1
Thus is a neighbourhood of x. As x was a arbitrary non-natural number, so is a
neighbourhood of every non-natural number i.e. it is neighbourhood of each of its points.
(ii) Every real number is a limit point of , because if x a, b then a, b contains infinitely
many non-natural numbers. Thus, ' .
(iii) '
(iv) iso '
(v) As , therefore is open.
(vi) As ' / , therefore is not closed.
(vii) Clearly, is not bounded.
58
(viii) As is neither closed nor bounded, therefore is not compact.
(ix) As ' , therefore is dense.
(x) As is not an interval, therefore is not connected.
(xi) As ' , therefore is not perfect.
(xii) As iso , therefore is not discrete.
1
Example 2. Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points of the set A : n 0
n
and discuss the following properties : open, closed, bounded, compact, dense, connected, perfect and
discrete.
Solution : (i) A as A is not a neighbourhood of any of its points.
(ii) A ' 0 as if 0 a, b , then a, b contains infinitely many points of A.
(iii) A A A ' A 0
(iv) iso A A A ' A 0 A
(v) As A , therefore A is not open.
(vi) As A ' / A , therefore A is not closed.
(vii) Clearly, A is bounded.
(viii) As A is not closed, therefore A is not compact.
(ix) As A ' , therefore A is not dense.
(x) As A is not an interval, therefore A is not connected.
(xi) As A ' A , therefore A is not perfect.
(xii) As iso A A , therefore A is discrete.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.1.8 Cantor Set
Def. Cantor set : The Cantor set is defined as the complement of the union of a countable collection
of disjoint open interval. Remove from the open interval ,0 and 1, . Then we are left with
the closed interval 0,1 , denoted by C0 . In the next step, delete from C0 the middle third open
1 2 1 2
interval , . Then we are left with the closed set C1 0, ,1 . Again, similarly from the
3 3 3 3
1 2 1
two intervals in C1 , delete their middle third open intervals, i.e., delete , from 0, and
9 9 3
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7 8 2 1 2 1 2 7 8
, from ,1 . The remaining closed set is C2 0, , , ,1 . Continuing
9 9 3 9 9 3 3 9 9
this process of deleting the third open interval from each of the closed intervals left from the previous
step, we obtain a sequence Cn of closed sets in such that Cn1 is properly contained in Cn . The
Cantor set C is defined by C Cn .
n 1
The geometrical illustration of C is given as :
C0 0 1
C1 0 1
1 2
3 3
C2 0 1
1 2 1 2 7 8
9 9 9
9 3 3
By intuition, it may appear that the only points left in the Cantor set are the end points
1 2 1 2 7 8
0,1, , , , , , ,..... which are denumerable in number. But the deep study of the Cantor set reveals
3 3 9 9 9 9
that this impression is wrong and that the Cantor set is actually uncountable. We shall see it soon.
Def. Ternary expansion : The ternary expansion of a decimal number x in 0,1 is of the form
x x1 x2 x3 .... where each xi 0,1 or 2.
xi x1 x2 x3
The decimal equivalent of this number is given by x i
2 3 ....
i 1 3 3 3 3
Some examples of ternary expansion :
1 1 0 0 1 0 2 2 2
.... 0.1000..... , ..... 0.0222....
3 3 32 33 3 3 32 33 34
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 2
..... 0.01000...... , .... 0.00222....
9 3 32 33 34 9 3 32 33 34
2 2 0 0
.... 0.2000..... ,
3 3 32 33
7 2.3 1 2 1 0 0 2 0 2 2
2
2 3 4 .... 0.210000..... 0.202222..... 2 3 4 .....
9 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
60
8 2.3 2 2 2 0 0
2 3 4 ..... 0.22000......
9 32 3 3 3 3
It is clear from above examples that the ternary expansion of a number is not unique. For example, the
ternary expansions x 00...0100... and y 00...0022... , where x has 1 at the nth place and 0
elsewhere, and y has 0’s upto nth place and 2’s after that are both equivalent to the decimal number
1
. For example, 0.00100000..... 0.00022222..... ,
3n
similarly x x1x2 x3.....xk 10000..... and y x1x2 x3.....xk 02222...... represents the same numbers.
If we consider the ternary number of the form x1 x2 x3.... in which each xi is either 0 or 2, then any
two distinct such ternary numbers represent different decimal numbers.
1 2
Result 1 : A real number x 0,1 belongs to the set C1 0, ,1 iff the first digit in some
3 3
ternary expansion of x is either 0 or 2.
1 2
Proof : Let x 0, ,1 .
3 3
1 1
If first ternary digit of x is 0 then 0.000000.... x 0.022222... i.e., 0 x i.e., x 0,
3 3
and if first ternary digit of x is 2 then,
2 0 2 2 2 2
0.20000.... x 0.2222..... 2 .... x 2 3 .... x 1
3 3 3 3 3 3
1 2 2 2 2 2 2
Converse is trivial just by noticing the facts 0 2 3 ..... and 1 2 3 .....
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1 2 3 6 7 8
Result 2 : A real number x 0,1 belongs to the set C2 0, 2 2 , 2 2 , 2 2 ,1 iff
3 3 3 3 3 3
the first two digits in some ternary expansion of x are either 0 or 2.
Proof : Left as an exercise.
Result 3 : A real number x 0,1 belongs to the set Cn iff the first n digits in some ternary expansion
of x are either 0 or 2.
Result 4 : A real number x 0,1 belongs to the Cantor set C iff all the digits in its ternary expansion
are either 0 or 2 i.e., x has a ternary expansion of the form x 0. x1 x2 x3 .... where each xi 0, 2 .
2
0 2 0 2 0 2 2 1 1 1
Remark : 2 3 4 5 6 ..... 3 i.e., 0.02020202.... , so by above result C .
3 3 3 3 3 3 1
1 2 4 4 4
3
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1
Show that C .
36
Result 5 : The Cantor set C is uncountable.
Proof : The Cantor set C contains the real number with the ternary form 0 x1 x2 x3... where xi 0, 2 .
For each xi , there are two choices. So, C 2 2 .... 2 .... 0 times 20 c
C is uncountable.
Result 6 : The Cantor set C is a closed set.
Proof : Since arbitrary intersection of closed sets is closed, therefore C being the arbitrary intersection
of closed sets is closed.
Result 7 : The Cantor set C is bounded.
Proof : Since C 0,1 therefore C is bounded.
Result 8 : The Cantor set C is compact.
Proof : Since C is closed and bounded, therefore C is compact.
Result 9 : The Cantor set C is not connected.
Result 10 : The interior of the Cantor set C is empty. i.e., C 0 .
Proof : Suppose on the contrary that x is an interior point of C. Then there exists a real number 0
such that the open interval x , x is contained in C. The diameter of the interval x , x is
1
2 . Also the diameter of each of the closed subintervals that constitute Cn is . Choose n large
3n
1
enough so that . Then the interval x , x is not contained in any constituent subintervals
3n
of Cn . Hence, the interval x , x is not contained in Cn . Thus, x , x is not contained in
C, which is a contradiction. Thus, the interior of the Cantor set is empty.
Result 11 : The Cantor set C is nowhere dense.
Proof : Since C is a closed set, C C . Therefore, C .
0
Result 12 : The Cantor set C is perfect.
Result 13 : The sum of lengths of the open intervals removed in the construction of the Cantor set C is 1.
62
1
1 2 4 8 2n1
Proof : Clearly the required sum .... n .... 3 1
3 9 27 81 3 2
1
3
Result 14 : The outer measure of the Cantor set C is zero.
Exercise 2.1
Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points. Tell which of following sets are open,
closed, bounded, compact, dense, connected, perfect and discrete.
1. F = {1, 2, 3, 4} 2. 3.
4. 5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
10. (a, b) 11. [a, b] 12. (a, b]
13. [a, b) 14. 15.
1 n 1
16. S = 1,2 3,4,5 17. : n 18. 1 1 : n
n n
1 1 1 1
19. n : n 20. m : m, n 21. : m, n
n n m n
1 1 1 1
22. : m, n 23. x : n , 0 x 1 24. 1 n : n
m n n 3
1 1
25. 3n n : n 26. 3n m : m, n 27. 0,
3 3
1 11n
28. , 1 29. 1n : n 30. : n
n n
1n
1
n
1 1
31. 1 : n 32. 1 : n 33. m n : m, n
n n
2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
34. n n : n 35. m n r : m, n, r 36. n n n : n
2 3 2 3 5 2 3 5
1 1 1 1
37. sin : n 38. cos : n 39. sin cos : n
n n n n
1 1
40. sin cos : m, n
n m
41. Give one example of each of the following :
(i) a set which is not a neighbourhood of any of its points.
(ii) a set which is a neighbourhood of each of its points.
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(iii) a set which is a neighbourhood of all its points except n given points n 1 .
42. Give one example of each of the following :
(i) an interval which is not an open set. (ii) an open set which is not an interval.
(iii) a set which is neither open nor closed. (iv) a set which is both open and closed.
43. Prove or disprove the following :
(i) is open. (ii) is open.
(iii) a finite set is open. (iv) every infinite set is a closed set.
(v) x : 0 x 1 is open (vi) singleton is a closed set.
44. Give an example to show that Ao Bo A B o .
45. Give one example of each of the following :
(i) a set having no limit point. (ii) a set having one limit point.
(iii) a set having two limit points. (iv) a set having an infinite number of limit points.
(v) a set with only 5 as a limit point.
46. Find an open covering of the interval (1, 2] which has no finite subcovering.
47. Find an open covering of the interval [1, 2) which has no finite subcovering.
48. Find an open covering of the interval 1, 2 which has no finite subcovering.
49. Find an open covering of which has no finite subcovering.
1
50. Find an open covering of the set : n which has no finite subcovering.
n
51. Find an open covering of the set 0,1 which has no finite subcovering.
Answers
1. A , A ' , A F , iso(A) F , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, not
connected, not perfect, discrete.
2. A , A ' , A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
connected, not perfect, discrete.
3. A , A ' , A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
connected, not perfect, discrete.
4. A , A ' , A , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
connected, not perfect, not discrete.
64
5. A , A ' , A , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
connected, not perfect, not discrete.
6. A , A ' , A , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
connected, not perfect, not discrete.
7. A , A ' , A , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
connected, not perfect, not discrete.
8. A , A ' , A , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
connected, not perfect, not discrete.
9. A , A ' , A , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
connected, not perfect, not discrete.
10. A (a, b) , A ' a, b , A a, b , iso(A) , open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not dense,
connected, not perfect, not discrete.
11. A (a, b) , A ' A , A a, b , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense,
connected, perfect, not discrete.
12. A (a, b) , A ' a, b , A a, b , iso(A) , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not
dense, connected, not perfect, not discrete.
13. A (a, b) , A ' a, b , A a, b , iso(A) , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not
dense, connected, not perfect, not discrete.
14. A , A ' , A , iso(A) , open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, connected, perfect,
discrete.
15. A , A ' , A , iso(A) , open, closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, connected,
perfect, not discrete.
16. A (1, 2) , A ' 1, 2 , A 1, 2 3, 4,5 , iso(A) 3, 4,5 , not open, not closed, bounded, not
compact, not dense, not connected, not perfect, not discrete.
1 1
17. A , A ' 0 , A : n 0 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact,
n n
not dense, not connected, not perfect, discrete.
18. A , A ' 1, 1 , A A 1, 1 , iso(A) A , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not
dense, not connected, not perfect, discrete.
19. A , A ' , A A , iso(A) A , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense,
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not connected, not perfect, discrete.
20. A , A ' , A A A ' , iso(A) A A ' , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact,
not dense, not connected, not perfect, not discrete.
1 1 1
21. A , A ' 0 , A 0 , iso(A) A A ' , not open, not closed, bounded, not
m m n
compact, not dense, not connected, not perfect, not discrete.
1
22. A , A ' : n 0 , A A 0 , iso(A) A A ' , not open, not closed, bounded,
n
not compact, not dense, not connected, not perfect, not discrete.
23. A 0, 2 , A ' 0, 2 , A 0, 2 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not
dense, connected, not perfect, not discrete.
1 1
24. A , A ' 1 , A 1 n 1 , iso(A) 1 n , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact,
3 3
not dense, not connected, not perfect, discrete.
25. A , A ' , A A , iso(A) A , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense,
not connected, not perfect, discrete.
26. A , A ' 3n : n , A A A ' , iso(A) A A ' , not open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not connected, not perfect, not discrete.
27. A (0, ) , A ' [0, ) , A [0, ) , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, not
dense, connected, not perfect, not discrete.
28. A , 1 , A ' (, 1] , A (, 1] , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, connected, not perfect, not discrete.
n 1 n 1
29. A , A ' 1, 1 , A 1 1, 1 , iso(A) 1 , not open, not closed,
n n
bounded, not compact, not dense, not connected, not perfect, discrete.
30. A , A ' 0 , A A , iso(A) A 0 , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, not
connected, not perfect, not discrete.
31. A , A ' 1 , A A 1 , iso(A) A , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not dense,
not connected, not perfect, discrete.
66
32. A , A ' e , A A e , iso(A) A , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not dense,
not connected, not perfect, discrete.
1 1
33. A , A ' m : m n : n 0 , A A A ' , iso(A) A , not open, not closed,
2 3
bounded, not compact, not dense, not connected, not perfect, discrete.
1 1
34. A , A ' 0 , A n n 0 , iso(A) A , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not
2 3
dense, not connected, not perfect, discrete.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
35. A , A ' m : m n : n r : r m n : m, n r n : r , n ,
2 3 5 2 3 5 3
1 1
m r : m, r {0} , A A A ' , iso(A) A , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact,
2 5
not dense, not connected, not perfect, discrete.
36. A , A ' 0 , A A 0 , iso(A) A , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not
dense, not connected, not perfect, discrete.
37. A , A ' 0 , A A 0 , iso(A) A , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not
dense, not connected, not perfect, discrete.
38. A , A ' 1 , A A 1 , iso(A) A , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not
dense, not connected, not perfect, discrete.
39. A , A ' 1 , A A 1 , iso(A) A , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not
dense, not connected, not perfect, discrete.
1 1
40. A , A ' sin 1 : n cos : n 1 , A A A ' , iso(A) A A ' , not
n n
open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not dense, not connected, not perfect, not discrete.
41. (i) Any finite set (ii) (a, b) (iii) [a, b]
42. (i) [a, b] (ii) (iii) (iv) ,
45. (i) Finite set
1
(ii) :n
n
(iii) 1 (1)n : n (iv) [a, b]
1
(v) 5 :n
n
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2.2 Topology of 2
Def. Open disc : The equation of an open disc with center x0 and radius is defined as x x0 .
Def. Closed disc: The equation of a closed disc with center x0 and radius is defined as x x0 .
Def. Neighbourhood of a point : A set S 2 is said to be neighbourhood of a point ( x0 , y0 ) S if
there exists an open disc centered at ( x0 , y0 ) which is entirely contained in S. In this case, we also say
that ( x0 , y0 ) is an interior point of S.
Def. Interior of a set : The set of all interior points of a set A is called its interior and is denoted by A .
Def. Open Set : Let A 2 , then A is said to be an open set if A is a neighbourhood of each of its points.
Def. 1 : Limit Point of a Set : Let x 2 and A 2 be a set. Then x is said to be a limit point of
set A if every open disc containing x , contains infinitely many elements of A.
Def. 2 : Alternatively x is said to be a limit point of set A if every open disc containing x , contains at
least one element of A other than x.
Def. Derived Set : Let A 2 be a set, then the set containing all limit points of A is known as
derived set of A and is denoted by A ' i.e., A x : x is a limit point of A .
Def. Adherent Points : Let x be a real number and A 2 be a set. Then x is said to be an adherent
point of set A if every open disc containing x , contains at least one point of A.
Def. Isolated Point : Let A 2 be a set, then a real number x A is said to be an isolated point
of A if x is not a limit point of A. In words, the points which are elements of A but are not the limit
points of A are called Isolated points. Isolated points of A is denoted by iso( A) and is given by
iso( A) A A ' .
Def. Closed Set : Let A 2 be a set then A is said to be closed if A ' A i.e. A contains all its limit
points.
Def. Closure of a Set : Let A 2 be a set. Then the set A containing all points of A and all limit
points of A is known as closure of A and is denoted by A . Thus A A A . We know that the points
of a set and its limit points are collectively called the adherent points. Therefore, we can say that A is
the set of all adherent points of A.
68
Def. Dense set : Let A 2 be a set. Then, A is called dense if the closure of a set A is 2 i.e.,
A 2 .
Def. Nowhere Dense set : A subset A 2 is nowhere dense if the interior of the closure of A is
empty i.e., A .
Def. Disconnected set : A set A 2 is disconnected if A can be written as union of two non-empty
disjoint open subsets.
Def. Connected set : A set A 2 is connected if it is not possible to write A as a union of two non-
empty disjoint open subsets. i.e., if A A1 A2 where A1 and A2 are open subsets of A and
A1 A2 , then one of A1 or A2 is empty. Roughly speaking , a set A 2 is connected if it
consists of single piece.
Results :
1. Any line is connected set in 2 .
2. If A is a connected subset of 2 , then A is connected and every set between A and A is connected.
3. If Ai are connected subsets of 2 and A , then A
i i i i is connected.
n
4. Let X i ’s, i 1,2,..., n be the topological spaces, then X
i 1
i is connected iff each X i is connected.
5. If A is connected subset of 2 , then any non-empty proper subset of A has atleast one boundary
point.
Def. Path-connected set : A set A 2 is connected if we can join any two points of the set A by a
continuous curve within the set A.
Results :
1. Every path-connected set is connected.
2. An open connected subset of 2 is path connected also.
3. Every connected set need not be path connected. Examples of connected sets that are not path-
connected all look weird in some way.
Def. Convex set : A set that contains all the points of any line segment joining two points of the set is
called the convex set.
Def. Perfect set : A set A is perfect if it is closed and every point of A is a limit point of A i.e., A ' A .
Def. Discrete set : Let A 2 be a set. Then, A is called discrete set if the set of all isolated points of
A is A itself i.e., iso( A) A .
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Example 1. Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for quadrant
A x, y : x 0, y 0 and discuss the following properties : open, closed, bounded, compact, dense,
path-connected, connected, convex, perfect and discrete.
Solution :
A x, y : x 0, y 0
(i) A x, y : x 0, y 0 as there exist an open disc centered at x0 , y0 such that x0 0 and
y0 0 which is entirely contained in A.
(ii) A ' x, y : x 0, y 0 as every open disc containing x, y such that x 0, y 0 , contains
infinitely many points of A.
(iii) A A A ' A '
(iv) iso A A A '
(v) As A A, therefore A is not open.
(vi) As A '
/ A , therefore A is not closed.
(vii) Clearly, A is not bounded.
(viii) Since A is neither bounded nor closed, therefore A is not compact.
(ix) As A 2 , therefore A is not dense.
(x) A is path-connected as we can join any two points of the set A by a continuous curve within the set A.
(xi) A is connected as it is path-connected.
(xii) A is convex as it contains all the points of any line segment joining any two points of the set A.
(xiii) As A ' A, therefore A is not perfect.
(xiv) As iso A A, therefore A is not discrete.
Example 2. Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for the set
A x, y : x 2 y 2
1 x, y : x 2 y 2
2
1 and discuss the following properties : open, closed,
bounded, compact, dense, path-connected, connected, convex, perfect and discrete.
70
Solution :
A x, y : x 2 y 2
1 x, y : x 2 y 2
2
1
(1, 0)
(i) A A as there exist an open disc centered at x0 , y0 such that x0 , y0 A which is entirely
contained in A.
(ii) A ' x, y : x 2 y 2
1 x, y : x 2 y 2 1 as every open disc containing x, y such that
2
x 2 y 2 1 or x 2 y 2 1 , contains infinitely many points of A.
2
(iii) A A A ' A '
(iv) iso A A A '
(v) As A A, therefore A is open.
(vi) As A '
/ A , therefore A is not closed.
(vii) Clearly, A is bounded.
(viii) Since A is not closed, therefore A is not compact.
(ix) As A 2 , therefore A is not dense.
(x) A is not path connected as we cannot join some of the points of the set A by a continuous curve
within the set A.
(xi) A is not connected as it is the union of two non empty disjoint open set.
(xii) A is not convex as it does not contain all the points of line segment joining some of the two points
of the set A.
(xiii) As A ' A, therefore A is not perfect.
(xiv) As iso A A, therefore A is not discrete.
Example 3. Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for
A x, y : x , y and discuss the following properties : open, closed, bounded, compact,
dense, path-connected, connected, convex, perfect and discrete.
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Solution : A x, y : x , y
(i) A as A is not a neighbourhood of any of its points.
(ii) A ' as if we draw an open disc containing x, y , contains no points of A other than x, y .
(iii) A A A ' A
(iv) iso A A A ' A
(v) As A A, therefore A is not open.
(vi) As A ' A , therefore A is closed.
(vii) Clearly, A is not bounded.
(viii) Since A is not bounded, therefore A is not compact.
(ix) As A 2 , therefore A is not dense.
(x) A is not path connected as we cannot join some of the two points of the set A by a continuous curve
within the set A.
(xi) We know that X i
i is connected iff each X i is connected and since is not connected,
therefore A is not connected.
(xii) A is not convex as it does not contain some of the points of any line segment joining any two
points of the set A.
(xiii) As A ' A, therefore A is not perfect.
(xiv) As iso A A, therefore A is discrete.
Example 4. Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for A x, y : x y
and discuss the following properties : open, closed, bounded, compact, dense, path-connected,
connected, convex, perfect and discrete.
72
Solution : A x, y : x y
L3
L2
Let Ln x, y : x y n
L1
(i) A as A is not a neighbourhood of any of its points.
(ii) A ' A as if we draw an open disc containing x, y , such that x y contains infinitely many
points of A.
(iii) A A A ' A
(iv) iso A A A '
(v) As A A, therefore A is not open.
(vi) As A ' A , therefore A is closed.
(vii) Clearly, A is not bounded.
(viii) Since A is not bounded, therefore A is not compact.
(ix) As A 2 , therefore A is not dense.
(x) A is not path connected as we cannot join some of the points of the set A by a continuous curve
within the set A.
(xi) Since Ln x, y : x y n , then A L1 Ln , L1 and L n are closed disjoint sets.
n2 n2
Therefore, A is not connected.
(xii) A is not convex as it does not contain all the points of the line segment joining some of the two
points of the set A.
(xiii) As A ' A, therefore A is perfect.
(xiv) As iso A A, therefore A is not discrete.
Example 5. Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for A x, y : x y
and discuss the following properties : open, closed, bounded, compact, dense, path-connected,
connected, convex, perfect and discrete.
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Solution :
A x, y : x y
(i) A as A is not a neighbourhood of any of its points.
(ii) A ' 2 as every point of 2 is a limit point of A.
(iii) A A A ' 2
(iv) iso A A A '
(v) As A A, therefore A is not open.
(vi) As A ' / A , therefore A is not closed.
(vii) Clearly, A is not bounded.
(viii) Since A is not bounded, therefore A is not compact.
(ix) As A 2 , therefore A is dense.
(x) A is not path connected as we cannot join some of the points of the set A by a continuous curve
within the set A.
(xi) Let f : A be a map such that f x, y x y , then f is continuous and onto and f A
and is not connected. So, A is not connected.
(xii) A is not convex as it does not contain all the points of the line segment joining some of the two
points of the set A.
(xiii) As A ' A, therefore A is not perfect.
(xiv) As iso A A, therefore A is not discrete.
Example 6 : The topologist’s comb space C consists of the interval 0,1 on the real line and the
1
vertical line segments of length 1 attached at the points x 0 and x for each n i.e.,
n
74
C x, y : x 0,1, , , ,... and 0 y 1 x, y : 0 x 1, y 0 is path-connected and hence
1 1 1
2 3 4
connected.
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
6 5 4 3 2
Example 7 : The deleted comb space D consists of the interval 0,1 on the real line and the vertical
1
line segments of length 1 attached at the points x for each n and the point 0,1 i.e.,
n
D x, y : x , n and 0 y 1 x, y : 0 x 1, y 0 0,1 is connected but not
1
n
path-connected.
(0,1)
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
6 5 4 3 2
Proof : Let A x, y : x , n and 0 y 1 x, y : 0 x 1, y 0 , then clearly A is
1
n
path-connected and hence connected. Then, A in 2 is D together with the y axis from 0 to 1 i.e.,
A C . Now, A D A . But A is connected, so D is also connected.
But D is not path-connected as there is no path joining the point (0, 1) and a point on any line-
segment.
Example 8 : The topologist’s infinite broom B consists of the interval 0,1 on the real line and the
1
line segments joining the points 0,0 and 1, for each n i.e.,
n
B x, y : 0 x 1 and y , n x, y : 0 x 1, y 0 is path-connected and hence
x
n
connected.
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(1,1)
(1,1/2)
(1,1/3)
(1,1/4)
:
Example 9 : The deleted infinite broom D consists of the line segments joining the points (0, 0) and
1
1, for each n and the point 1, 0 i.e., D x, y : 0 x 1 and y , n 1, 0 is
x
n n
connected but not path-connected.
(1,1)
(1,1/2)
(1,1/3)
(1,1/4)
:
(0,0) (1,0)
x
Proof : Let, A x, y : 0 x 1 and y , n then clearly A is path-connected and hence
n
connected. Then, A in 2 is D together with the x-axis from 0 to 1 i.e., A B . Now, A D A .
But A is connected, so D is also connected.
But D is not path-connected as there is no path joining the point (1, 0) and a point on any line-
segment.
1
Example 10 : The topologist’s sine curve T x, y : 0 x 1, y sin x, y : x 0, 1 y 1 is
x
connected but not path-connected.
76
1
Proof : Let A x, y : 0 x 1, y sin and B x, y : x 0, 1 y 1 , then T A B .
x
Now, A is path-connected and hence connected and so A is also connected and A in 2 is T i.e.,
A T , therefore T is also connected.
But T is not path-connected as there is no path joining a point of A with a point of B.
Exercise 2.2
Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for the following quadrants. Tell which
of following sets are open, closed, bounded, compact, dense, path-connected, connected, convex,
perfect and discrete.
1. A x, y : x 0, y 0 2. A x, y : x 0, y 0 3. A x, y : x 0, y 0
4. A x, y : x 0, y 0 5. A x, y : xy 0 6. A x, y : xy 0 0,0
7. A x, y : xy 0 x, y : y 0 8. A x, y : xy 0 x, y : x 0
9. A x, y : xy 0 10. A x, y : xy 0 x, y : y 0
Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for the following sets(based on circle).
Tell which of following sets are open, closed, bounded, compact, dense, path-connected, connected,
convex, perfect and discrete.
11. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 12. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 13. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1
14. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 15. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 16. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1
Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for the following sets(based on
hyperbola). Tell which of following sets are open, closed, bounded, compact, dense, path-connected,
connected, convex, perfect and discrete.
17. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 18. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 19. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1
20. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 21. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 22. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1
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Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for the following sets (based on ellipse).
Tell which of following sets are open, closed, bounded, compact, dense, path-connected, connected,
convex, perfect and discrete.
23. A x, y :2 x 2 y 2 1 24. A x, y :2 x 2 y 2 1 25. A x, y :2 x 2 y 2 1
26. A x, y :2 x 2 y 2 1 27. A x, y :2 x 2 y 2 1 28. A x, y :2 x 2 y 2 1
Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for the following sets( based on parabola).
Tell which of following sets are open, closed, bounded, compact, dense, path-connected, connected,
convex, perfect and discrete.
29. A x, y : y x 2 30. A x, y : y x 2 31. A x, y : y x 2
32. A x, y : y x 2 33. A x, y : y x 2 34. A x, y : y x 2
Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for the following sets(based on pair of
straight lines). Tell which of following sets are open, closed, bounded, compact, dense,
path-connected, connected, convex, perfect and discrete.
35. A x, y : x y x 4 y 0 36. A x, y : x y x 4 y 0
37. A x, y : x y x 4 y 0 38. A x, y : x y x 4 y 0
39. A x, y : x y x 4 y 0 40. A x, y : x y x 4 y 0
Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for the following sets( based on modulus).
Tell which of following sets are open, closed, bounded, compact, dense,path-connected, connected,
convex, perfect and discrete.
41. A x, y : x 1, y 2 42. A x, y : x 1, y 2
43. A x, y : x 1, y 2 44. A x, y : x 1, y 2
45. A x, y : x 1, y 2 46. A x, y : x 1, y 2
47. A x, y : x 1, y 2 48. A x, y : x 1, y 2
49. A x, y : x 1, y 2 50. A x, y : x 1, y 2
51. A x, y : x 1, y 2 52. A x, y : x 1, y 2
53. A x, y : x 1, y 2 54. A x, y : x 1, y 2
78
55. A x, y : x 1, y 2 56. A x, y : x 1, y 2
57. A x, y : x 1, y 2 58. A x, y : x 1, y 2
59. A x, y : x 1, y 2 60. A x, y : x 1, y 2
61. A x, y : x 1, y 2 62. A x, y : x 1, y 1
63. A x, y : x 1, y 1 64. A x, y : x 1, y 1
65. A x, y : x 1, y 1
Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for the following infinite sets. Tell
which of following sets are open, closed, bounded, compact, dense, path-connected, connected,
convex, perfect and discrete.
66. A x, y : x , y 67. A x, y : x , y
68. A x, y : x , y 69. A x, y : x , y
70. A x, y : x , y 71. A x, y : x , y
72. A x, y : x , y 73. A x, y : x , y
74. A x, y : x , y 75. A x, y : x , y
76. A x, y : x , y 77. A x, y : x , y
78. A x, y : x , y 79. A x, y : x , y
80. A x, y : x , y 81. A x, y : x , y
82. A x, y : x y 83. A x, y : x y
84. A x, y : x y 85. A x, y : x y
86. A x, y : x y 87. A x, y : x y
88. A x, y : x y 89. A x, y : x y
90. A x, y : xy 91. A x, y : xy
92. A x, y : xy 93. A x, y : xy
x x
94. A x, y : , y 0 95. A x, y : , y 0
y y
x x
96. A x, y : , y 0 97. A x, y : , y 0
y y
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Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for the following curves. Tell which of
following sets are open, closed, bounded, compact, dense, path-connected, connected, convex, perfect
and discrete.
98. A x, y : x3 y 3
1 99. A x, y : x 4 y 4
1
100. A x, y : x5 y 5
1 101. A x, y : x 2n y 2n
1, n is a positive integer
102. A x, y : x 2 n1 y 2 n1
1, n is a positive integer
Find interior, derived set, closure and the set of isolated points for the following curves. Tell which of
following sets are open, closed, bounded, compact, dense, path-connected, connected, convex, perfect
and discrete.
103. A x, y : x 2 y 2
1 x, y : x 1 y 2
2
1
104. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 x, y : x 1 y
1
2 2
105. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 x, y : x 1 y
1
2 2
106. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 x, y : x 2 y
1
2 2
107. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 x, y : x 2 y
1 1,0
2 2
108. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 x, y : x 2 y
1 1,0
2 2
109. A x, y : x 2 y 2 1 x, y : x y 4
1
2 2
110. A x, y : x 2 y 2
1 x, y : x 2 y 4
2
1
1 x, y : x
2
Answers
1. A A , A ' ( x, y): x 0, y 0 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact,
not dense, path-connected, connected, convex, not perfect, not discrete.
2. A x, y : x 0, y 0 , A ' ( x, y): x 0, y 0 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not
bounded, not compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, convex, not perfect, not discrete.
3. A x, y : x 0, y 0 , A ' ( x, y): x 0, y 0 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not
bounded, not compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, convex, not perfect, not discrete.
80
4. A x, y : x 0, y 0 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact,
not dense, path-connected, connected, convex, perfect, not discrete.
5. A A , A ' ( x, y) : xy 0 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, not
dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
6. A x, y : xy 0 , A ' ( x, y): xy 0 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded,
not compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
7. A x, y : xy 0 , A ' ( x, y): xy 0 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded,
not compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
8. A x, y : xy 0 , A ' ( x, y): xy 0 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded,
not compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
9. A x, y : xy 0 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not
dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
10. A A , A ' ( x, y): xy 0 ( x, y): y 0 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
11. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, path-
connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
12. A A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
13. A A , A ' ( x, y): x 2 y 2 1 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not
dense, path-connected, connected, convex, not perfect, not discrete.
14. A ( x, y): x 2 y 2 1 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not
dense, path-connected, connected, convex, perfect, not discrete.
15. A A , A ' ( x, y): x 2 y 2 1 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact,
not dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
16. A ( x, y): x 2 y 2 1 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact,
not dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
17. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
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18. A A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
19. A A , A ' ( x, y): x 2 y 2 1 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact,
not dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
20. A ( x, y): x 2 y 2 1 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact,
not dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
21. A A , A ' ( x, y): x 2 y 2 1 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact,
not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
22. A ( x, y): x 2 y 2 1 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact,
not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
23. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, path-
connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
24. A A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
25. A A , A ' ( x, y):2 x 2 y 2 1 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, bounded, not compact,
not dense, path-connected, connected, convex, not perfect, not discrete.
26. A ( x, y):2 x 2 y 2 1 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not
dense, path-connected, connected, convex, perfect, not discrete.
27. A A , A ' ( x, y):2 x 2 y 2 1 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
28. A ( x, y):2 x 2 y 2 1 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
29. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, path-
connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
30. A A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
82
31. A A , A ' ( x, y): y x2 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, not
dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
32. A x, y : y x2 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not
dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
33. A A , A ' ( x, y): y x2 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, not
dense, path-connected, connected, convex, not perfect, not discrete.
34. A x, y : y x2 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not
dense, path-connected, connected, convex, perfect, not discrete.
35. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, path-
connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
36. A A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
37. A A , A ' ( x, y): x y x 4 y 0 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
38. A x, y : x y x 4 y 0 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
39. A A , A ' ( x, y): x y x 4 y 0 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
40. A x, y : x y x 4 y 0 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
41. A A , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, bounded, not compact,
not dense, path-connected, connected, convex, not perfect, not discrete.
42. A x, y : x 1, y 2 , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed,
bounded, not compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, convex, not perfect, not discrete.
43. A A , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not compact,
not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
44. A x, y : x 1, y 2 , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed,
not bounded, not compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect,
not discrete.
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45. A x, y : x 1, y 2 , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed,
bounded, not compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, convex, not perfect, not discrete.
46. A x, y : x 1, y 2 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not
dense, path-connected, connected, convex, perfect, not discrete.
47. A x, y : x 1, y 2 , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed,
not bounded, not compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect,
not discrete.
48. A x, y : x 1, y 2 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
49. A A , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
50. A x, y : x 1, y 2 , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed,
not bounded, not compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect,
not discrete.
51. A A , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
52. A x, y : x 1, y 2 , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed,
not bounded, not compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect,
not discrete.
53. A x, y : x 1, y 2 , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed,
not bounded, not compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect,
not discrete.
54. A x, y : x 1, y 2 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
55. A x, y : x 1, y 2 , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed,
not bounded, not compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect,
not discrete.
84
56. A x, y : x 1, y 2 , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
57. A , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
58. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, not path-
connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
59. A , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 2 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
60. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
61. A , A ' , A A , iso(A) A , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, not path-
connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, discrete.
62. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, not path-
connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
63. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, not path-
connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
64. A , A ' ( x, y): x 1, y 1 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
65. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
66. A , A ' , A A , iso(A) A , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, discrete.
67. A , A ' , A A , iso(A) A , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, discrete.
68. A , A ' ( x, y): x , y , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
69. A , A ' ( x, y): x , y , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
70. A , A ' , A A , iso(A) A , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, discrete.
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71. A , A ' , A A , iso(A) A , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, discrete.
72. A , A ' ( x, y): x , y , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
73. A , A ' ( x, y): x , y , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
74. A , A ' ( x, y): x , y , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
75. A , A ' ( x, y): x , y , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
76. A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
77. A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
78. A , A ' ( x, y): x , y , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
79. A , A ' ( x, y): x , y , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
80. A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
81. A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
82. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
83. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
86
84. A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
85. A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
86. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
87. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
88. A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
89. A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
90. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
91. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
92. A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
93. A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
94. A , A ' A x, y : y 0 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
95. A , A ' A x, y : y 0 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not
compact, not dense, not path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
96. A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
97. A , A ' 2 , A 2 , iso(A) , not open, not closed, not bounded, not compact, dense, not
path-connected, not connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
98. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, path-
connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
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99. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, path-
connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
100. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, path-
connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
101. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, path-
connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
102. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, path-
connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
103. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, path-
connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
104. A x, y : x2 y2 1 ,
A ' ( x, y): x2 y 2 1 x, y : x 1 y 2 1 , A A ' ,
2
iso(A) , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, not
convex, not perfect, not discrete.
105. A x, y : x 1 2
y 2 1 , A ' ( x, y): x2 y 2 1 x, y : x 1 y 2 1 , A A ' ,
2
iso(A) , not open, not closed, bounded, not compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, not
convex, not perfect, not discrete.
106. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, path-
connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
107. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, path-
connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
108. A x, y : x 2
y 2 1 x, y : x 2 y 2 1 ,
2
A ' ( x, y): x2 y 2 1 x, y : x 2 y 2 1 , A A ' , iso(A) , not open, not closed,
2
bounded, not compact, not dense, path-connected, connected, not convex, not perfect, not discrete.
109. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, bounded, compact, not dense, not path-
connected, not connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
110. A , A ' A , A A , iso(A) , not open, closed, not bounded, not compact, not dense, path-
connected, connected, not convex, perfect, not discrete.
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NET REAL ANALYSIS Page 89
True false exercise
16. There is no set with an uncountable number
1. There is an open subset of that contains of isolated points.
NO rational numbers.
17. Uncountability is a necessary condition for
2. Every infinite subset of has an adherent a set to be neighbourhood of a point.
point.
18. Uncountability is a sufficient condition for
3. Every infinite subset of has an a set to be neighbourhood of a point.
accumulation point.
19. Countably infinite set is not a
4. There is an infinite subset of with NO neighbourhood of any of its points.
adherent point.
20. Non-empty finite set is not a
5. There is an infinite subset of with NO neighbourhood of any of its points.
accumulation point.
21. Every neighbourhood of a point is
6. There are subsets of that are both open uncountable.
and closed.
22. There exist a countably infinite set S
7. Every infinite subset of contains a non- such that sup S S C and inf S S C .
empty open interval.
23. There exist an uncountable set S such
8. Every infinite subset of contains a non-
empty closed interval. that sup S S C and inf S S C .
9. Every infinite subset of has a non-empty 24. There exist countably infinite set S
closed subset. such that sup S S and inf S S C .
10. There exists a non-empty set with no
25. There exist uncountable set S such
interior point and no isolated point exists.
that sup S S and inf S S C .
11. A non-empty set with no isolated point
must be a closed set. 26. Countable set must have limit point.
12. The open interval (0, 1) can be expressed as 27. Uncountable set must have limit point.
a union of closed sets.
28. Set of isolated points of a set is always
13. A set S is closed and bounded iff countable.
every infinite subset of S has a limit point,
which is an element of S. 29. Limit point of a set S can be interior point
of S c .
14. There exists a set A such that
A ' 0,1 . 30. Every limit point of a set is the interior
point of that set.
15. There does not exist a countable subset A
of such that A ' .
90
Assignment 6. A finite set is
---------------------- S C Q --------------------- 1. open set 2. closed set
1. The set of all limit point of the set 3. uncountable set 4. None of these
1 1 7. The set E is nowhere dense, if
S : m , n is
m n 1. closure of E contains no non-empty
1. 2. {0} open sets
1 2. closure of E contains non-empty open
3. :m 4. None of these
m sets
2. The set of all limit points of the set 3. closure of E contains empty open set
1 4. None of the above
S : n is
n 8. The intersection of all sets of the form,
1. 2. {0} 1 1
On , , n 1, 2,.... is
3. 4. None of these n n
3. Every open set of real numbers is the union 1. open set 2. {0}
of 3. not a open set 4. None of these
1. countable collection of disjoint open 1 1
9. The set sin : n has
intervals n n
2. uncountable collection of disjoint open 1. one limit point and it is 0
intervals 2. one limit point and it is 1
3. countable collection of disjoint closed 3. one limit point and it is 1
intervals 4. three limit point and these are 1, 0 and 1
4. uncountable collection of disjoint (CSIR-NET June 2011)
closed intervals 10. The number of limit points of the set
4. If S is a set of real numbers which is 1 1
: m, n is
bounded below, then inf S is m n
1. a point of closure of S 1. 1 2. 2
2. not a point of closure of S 3. finitely many 4. infinitely many
3. prime number
4. None of the above (CSIR-NET June 2013)
5. If S is a set of real numbers which is 11. Consider the following subsets of 2 ,
bounded above then sup S is where a, b .
1. a point of closure of S
x2 y 2
2. not a point of closure of S A x, y 2 : 2 2 1, a b
a b
3. prime number
4. None of the above
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x2 y 2
B x, y 2 : 2 2 1, a b
2. x, y : x 0 and
2
y 2 x .
a b
3. x, y : x 0 and
2
y 3x .
C x, y : ax by 5 0
2
4. x, y : x 0
2
D x, y 2 : ax by 2 1
(CSIR-NET June 2015)
E x, y 2 : x3 y3 1 14. Let A be a closed subset of ,
Then which of the following is correct ? A , A . Then A is
1. C and D are compact, but A, B, E are 1. the closure of the interior of A.
not compact. 2. a countable set.
2. A and B are compact, but C, D, E are 3. a compact set.
not compact. 4. not open.
3. A, B and E are compact, but C, D are (CSIR-NET Dec 2015)
not compact. 15. Let A be a bounded above open set of
4. A and E are compact, but B, C, D are real numbers and l1 sup A and
not compact.
l2 inf A . Which of the following is true:
(CSIR-NET June 2013)
1. l1 A but l2 A
12. Which of the following subsets of n is
compact (with respect to the usual topology 2. l1 A but l2 A
of n ) ? 3. l1, l2 A
1. x , x ,..., x : x
1 2 n i 1,1 i n 4. neither l1 A nor l2 A
2. x , x ,..., x : x x ... xn 0 16. Let A be a bounded above set of real
1 2 n 1 2
numbers and l sup A . Which of the
3. x , x ,..., x : x 0,1 i n
1 2 n i
following is true :
4. x , x ,..., x :1 x 2 ,1 i n
1 2 n i
i
1. l is a limit point of A
(CSIR-NET June 2015) 2. l A
13. Let, for each n 1, Cn be the open disc in 3. l A
2 , with centre at the point n,0 and 4. either l A or l is a limit point of A
17. Let A be a bounded above closed set
radius equal to n. Then C Cn is
of real numbers and l1 sup A and
n 1
1. x, y : x 0 and
2
y x .
l2 inf A . Which of the following is true:
92
1. l1 A but l2 A closed.
2. l1 A but l2 A 4. If A and B are connected, then A B is
connected.
3. l1, l2 A
(TIFR 2009)
4. neither l1 A nor l2 A
22. Let X be a proper closed subset of 0,1 .
18. Consider the following subsets of :
Which of the following statement is always
n 1
E : n , F : 0 x 1 . true ?
n 1 1 x
1. The set X is countable.
Which of the following is true :
2. There exists x X such that X \ x is
1. E and F both are closed.
2. E is closed but F is not. closed.
3. F is closed but E is not. 3. The set X contains an open interval.
4. Neither E nor F is closed. 4. None of the above.
19. Consider the following subsets of : (TIFR 2014)
a
23. Let A ii : ai 0,1, 2,3, 4 . Then
1
A x : sin x 0 , B x : sin 0
x i 1 5
Which of the following is true :
1. A is a finite set.
1. A and B both are closed.
2. A is countably infinite.
2. A is closed but B is not.
3. A is uncountable but does not contain an
3. B is closed but A is not.
open interval.
4. Neither A nor B is closed.
4. A contains an open interval.
x
20. Consider the set A : x , then (TIFR 2015)
1 x
24. Let A x, y 2 : y mx \ 0,0 2 .
the set of all limit points of A is
Which of the following statement is true ?
1. 0,1 2. 1,1
1. A is open.
3. 1,1 4. (0,1] 2. A is closed.
21. Let A, B be subsets of . Define A B to 3. A is connected.
be the set of all sums x y with x A and 4. A is not dense.
y B . Which of the following statements (NBHM 2005)
is false ? 25. Which of the following subsets of 2 are
1. If A and B are bounded, then A B is compact ?
bounded. 1. x, y : xy 1
2. If A and B are open, then A B is open. 2 2
2. x, y : x 3 y 3 1
3. If A and B are closed, then A B is
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NET REAL ANALYSIS Page 93
3. x, y : x 2
y 2 1 4. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
1. Every open interval is an open set
4. All of the above.
2. Every open interval is a nbd of each of
(NBHM 2009)
its points
26. Consider the space
3. Every point of an open interval is an
S , | , 2 , where is
interior point
the set of rational numbers. Then
1
4. The set :n is not open
1. S is connected in 2
n
2. S C is connected in 2
3. S is closed in 2 5. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
1. The intersection of any finite number of
4. S C is closed in 2
open sets is open
(CSIR NET June 2018)
2. The intersection of an arbitrary number
of open sets is open
----------------------- M C Q ------------------------
3. The union of an arbitrary family of
1. Which of the following(s) is/are correct? open sets is open
1. A non-empty finite set is not a nbd of 4. Exactly one of the above is true
any point 6. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
2. Every point of a non-empty finite set is 1. The set has no limit point
an interior point 2. The set has no limit point
3. No point of a non-empty finite set is an 3. Every point of the set is a limit point
interior point 4. Every point of the set is a limit point
4. A non-empty finite set is a nbd of each 7. If S denotes the closure of the set S, then
of its points which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
2. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ? 1.
1. The set of interior points of is empty 2.
2. The set of interior points of is empty
3.
3. The set of interior points of is empty
1 1
4. The set of interior points of is empty 4. If S : n , then S : n {0}
n n
8. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
3. Which of the following(s) set is/are open ?
1. The derived set of {x :0 x 1} is [0, 1]
1. 2. 3. 4.
94
2. The derived set of {x :0 x 1, x }
is 0,1 1 1
12. Let On , , n 1, 2,.... Then
n n
1 1
3. The derived set of 1, 1,1 , 1 ,....
2 2 1. On is not a open set
n 1
is {1, 1}
1 1 On
4. The derived set of : m , n 2. is closed set
m n n 1
1
is :m 3. On {0}
m n 1
9. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
1. The interior of a set S does not contains 4. On is not a closed set
n 1
every open subset of S
2. The interior of a set S contains every 13. If A is open set and B is closed set, then
open subset of S 1. A B is open set
3. The interior of a set S is the largest 2. B A is closed set
open subset of S 3. A B is closed set
4. Interior of a set is the union of all open 4. B A is open set
subset of S 14. For two subsets X and Y of , let
10. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
X Y x y : x X , y Y .
1 1 1 1
1. The set S 1, 1, , , , ,.... is
2 2 3 3 1. If X and Y are open sets then X Y is
neither open nor closed open.
2. Boundedness is not necessary in order 2. If X and Y are closed sets then X Y is
for an infinite set S to have a limit point closed.
3. Both 1 and 2 3. If X and Y are compact sets then X Y
4. Exactly one of 1 or 2 is compact.
11. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ? 4. If X is closed and Y is compact then
1 1 1 1 X Y is closed.
1. The set 1, 1,1 , 1 ,1 , 1 ,.... is
2 2 3 3 (CSIR-NET June 2014)
open but not closed 15. Which of the following subsets of 2 are
1 1 1 1 convex ?
2. The set 1, 1,1 , 1 ,1 , 1 ,.... is
2 2 3 3 1. x, y : x 5, y 10
closed but not open
3. Exactly one of 1 or 2
2. x, y : x 2
y 1
4. All of the above
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NET REAL ANALYSIS Page 95
3. x, y : y x 2 (CSIR-NET June 2012)
19. Let X x 0,1 : x 1/ n, n be given
4. x, y : y x 2
the subspace topology. Then
(CSIR-NET June 2011)
1. X is connected but not compact.
16. Which of the following sets are dense in 2
2. X is neither compact nor connected.
with respect to the usual topology 3. X is compact and connected.
1. x, y 2
: x 4. X is compact but not connected.
(CSIR-NET June 2012)
2. x, y 2 : x y is rationalnumber 20. Let C a, r be the subset of 2 given by
x, y : x 2 y 2 5
x, y | x a y r .
2
3.
C a, r 2 2 2 2
4. x, y 2
: xy 0
Which of the following subsets of 2 are
(CSIR-NET June 2011) connected ?
17. Which of the following subsets of are 2
1. C 0,1 C 0,2
compact ?
2. C 0,1 C 1,3
1. x, y : x 1, y 2
3. C 0,1 C 1,1
2. x, y : x 1, y 2
2 4. C 0,1 C 2,1
3. x, y : x 2
3 y 2 5 (CSIR-NET Dec 2013)
4. x, y : x 2
y 2 5 21. Which of the following subsets of 2
is/are NOT compact ?
(CSIR-NET June 2012)
x, y | x 2 y 2 1.
2
1.
[Link] D a , b r x, y : x a y b r .
2 2
2. x, y 2
| x 2 y 2 1.
Which of the following subsets of are 2
3. x, y 2
| x 2 y 2 1.
connected ?
1. D 0,0 1 1,0 D 2,0 1 .
4. x, y 2
| x 2 y 2 1.
(CSIR-NET Dec 2013)
2. D 0,0 1 D 2,0 1 .
22. Which of the following are compact ?
3. D 0,0 1 1,0 D0,2 1
1. x, y 2 : x 1 y 2 9
2 2
4. D 0,0 1 D 0,2 1 .
x, y 2
: y 3 .
96
1 1 3. E ' is uncountable.
2. , 2 : m, n \{0}
m n 4. E is compact.
1 26. Let A such that A ' 0 . Which of
0,0 ,0 : m \ 0
m the following is possible :
1 1. A is empty
0, : n \ 0 .
n 2. A is finite
3. x, y, z 3
: x 2 2 y 2 3z 2 1 . 3. A is countable
4. A is uncountable.
4. x, y, z 3
: x 2 y 3 z 1 .
27. Let K be a compact subset of . Which of
(CSIR-NET June 2014) the following is/are true :
23. Let G1 and G2 be two subsets of and 2
1. Every infinite set in K has atleast one
f : 2 2 be a function. Then, limit point in K.
2. Every countable set in K has atleast one
1. f 1 G1 G2 f 1 G1 f 1 G2
limit point in K.
G f G
1 c 1 c
2. f 1 1 3. Every uncountable set in K has atleast
3. f G1 G2 f G1 f G2 one limit point in K.
4. Every finite set in K has atleast one
4. If G1 is open and G2 is closed then
limit point in K.
G1 G2 x y : x G1, y G2 is
28. Let S 2 be defined by
neither open nor closed. 1 1
S m p , n q : m, n, p, q .
(CSIR-NET June 2015) 2 2
Then,
24. Let A be the following subset of 2 : 1. S is discrete in 2 .
A ( x, y):( x 1)2 y 2 1 2. the set of limit points of S is the set
1
m, n :m, n .
( x, y) : y x sin , x 0 . 3. 2 \ S is connected but not path
x
Then connected.
1. A is connected 4. 2 \ S is path connected.
2. A is compact (CSIR-NET June 2014)
3. A is path connected
4. A is bounded 29. Which of the following spaces are compact?
1. X1 x, y 2 : x y 10100
(CSIR-NET Dec 2016)
25. Let E be the set of all x 0,1 whose
2. X 2 x, y 2 : x y 10100
decimal expansion contains only the digit 4
and 7. Which of the following is/are true : 3. X 3 x, y 2 : 1 x 2 y 2 2
1. E is a countable set. 4. X 4 x, y 2 : x 2 y 2 1, xy 0
2. E is uncountable.
(NBHM 2006)
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NET REAL ANALYSIS Page 97
30. Which of the following sets in 2 are 4. S c is path connected
connected ? (CSIR-NET Dec 2015)
1. x, y : x y 2 2
1 33. Let A be subset of with more than one
element. Let a A . If A \ a is compact,
2. x, y : x 2
y 2 1
then
3. x, y :1 x 2
y 2
2
1. A is compact.
4. All of these. 2. every subset of A must be compact.
(NBHM 2009) 3. A must be finite set.
31. Let A and B be subsets of 2 . Define 4. A is disconnected.
A B a b : a A, b B . (CSIR-NET Dec 2013)
Consider the sets 34. Let A and B be two disjoint nonempty
W x, y 2 : x 0, y 0
subsets of 2 s.t. A B is open in 2 .
Then,
X x, y 2 : x , y 0
1. if A is open and A B is connected,
Y x, y 2 : xy 1 then B must be closed in 2 .
Z x, y 2 : x 1, y 1 2. if A is closed, then B must be open in
2 .
Which of the following statements are true :
3. if both A and B are connected, then
1. The set W X is open.
A B must be disconnected.
2. The set X Y is closed.
4. if A B is disconnected, then both A
3. The set Y Z is closed.
and B are open.
4. None of these.
(CSIR-NET Dec 2013)
(NBHM 2014)
1 2
32. Let S 2 be defined by 35. Let A t sin | t 0, . Which of
t
1 1
S m p , n q : m, n, p, q . the following statements are true ?
4 4
2 1
Then, 1. sup A
for all n 1
n
1. S is discrete in 2 2 1
2. inf A for all n 1
2. The set of limit points of S is the set 3 n
3. sup A 1
m, n : m, n
4. inf A 1
3. S c is connected but not path connected
(CSIR NET June 2018)
98
True false key
1. T 2. T 3. F 4. F
5. T 6. T 7. F 8. T
9. T 10. T 11. F 12. F
13. T 14. F 15. F 16. T
17. T 18. F 19. T 20. T
21. T 22. T 23. T 24. T
25. T 26. F 27. T 28. T
29. F 30. F
Assignment key
SCQ
1. 4 2. 2 3. 1 4. 1
5. 1 6. 2 7. 1 8. 2
9. 1 10. 4 11. 2 12. 4
13. 4 14. 4 15. 4 16. 4
17. 3 18. 3 19. 2 20. 3
21. 3 22. 4 23. 4 24. 4
25. 2 26. 2
MCQ
1. 1,3 2. 1,2,3 3. 1,4
4.1,2,3,4 5. 1,3 6. 2,3,4
7. 2,3,4 8. 1,2,3 9. 2,3,4
10. 1,2,3 11. 2,3 12. 1,2,3
13. 1,2 14. 1,3,4 15. 1,3
16. 2,4 17. 2,3 18. 1
19. 2 20. 3,4 21. 2,3
22. 2,4 23. 1,2 24. 1,3
25. 2,3 26. 3 27. 1,3
28. 2,4 29. 2,3 30. 2,3
31. 1,3 32. 2,4 33. 1,4
34. 2 35. 1,2
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NET REAL ANALYSIS Page 99
Chapter - 3
Sequence
3.1 Definitions and examples
Def. Sequence : A sequence is a function whose domain is the set of natural numbers and range can
be any non empty set.
Def. Real Sequence : A real sequence is a function whose domain is the set of natural numbers and
range is any subset of real numbers.
Note : In this, we shall study only real sequences. So by a ‘sequence’ we shall always mean a
‘real sequence’.
Representation of a Sequence : A sequence is a function and functions are usually denoted by
symbols f, g, h etc. However, in case of sequences, these symbols are not preferred by most of the
authors, instead the symbols a, b, u, v, x , y are used for distinction of the concept of the sequences
from the concept of calculus of function. We shall also use the symbols a, b, u, v to denote the
sequences.
Symbolically, a sequence is a function a : (or x : ) where denotes the set of
natural numbers and denotes the set of real numbers. If a : be a sequence, the image of
n is denoted by an instead of denoting it by a (n) . Thus a1, a2 , a3 are real numbers associated
with 1, 2, 3 by the function a and are called first, second, third terms of the sequence.
The sequence a : is denoted by an which when represented in expanded form is
written as a1 , a2 ,........, an ,........
Note : Some authors also denote the sequence an by { an } . But we shall reserve the notation
{ an } to denote the range set of a sequence.
Methods to describe a Sequence : Some commonly used methods to describe a sequence are as follows :
(i) A sequence may be described by writing first few terms of the sequence till the rule or pattern of
writing down the terms becomes clear. For example, the sequence 1,4,9,16,25,........ is the
sequence whose n th term is n 2 .
1 1 1 1
Similarly the sequence, 1, , , ,........ is the sequence whose n th term is .
2 3 4 n
100
(ii) Most often, a sequence is described by giving a formula for its n th term. For example, the
1
sequences n2 , , 1n can be written in expanded form as follows :
n
1 1 1 1
n2 1,4,9,16,......... , 1, , , ,....... , 1n 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,.......
n 2 3 4
(iii) Recurrence Relation : A sequence is sometimes described by giving its first few terms and a
relation (formula) to determine the other terms of the sequence.
For example , a1 2 and an 1 7 an n N
By this relation, we get a2 7 a1 7 2 9 , a3 7 9 16 , a4 7 16 23 etc.
Thus the sequence in expanded form is 2, 9, 16, 23,........ , where each term is obtained by adding
7 to its preceeding term.
Def. Range set of a sequence : The set of all distinct terms of a sequence is called its range. The
range of a sequence an is denoted by { an } .
Note : The number of terms in a sequence is always infinite but range set of a sequence may be a
finite set since it contain only distinct terms of the sequence.
For example, if an 1n , then an 1, 1, 1, 1,........
The range set of this sequence is { 1,1} , which is a finite set.
Def. Bounded above sequence : A sequence an is said to be bounded above if there exists a real
number K such that an K n .
Def. Bounded below sequence : A sequence an is said to be bounded below if there exists a real
number k such that k an n .
Def. Bounded sequence : A sequence is said to be bounded if it is bounded above as well as bounded
below. Thus, a sequence an is bounded if there exist two real numbers k and K such that
k an K n .
Def. A sequence an is said to be bounded if there exists a positive number K such that
an K n .
Def. Unbounded sequence : A sequence is said to be unbounded if it is not bounded i.e. either it is
unbounded above or unbounded below or both. To be precise let us define unbounded above and
below sequences.
Def. Unbounded above sequence : A sequence an is said to unbounded above if for every real
number K, there exists a m such that am K .
Def. Unbounded below sequence : A sequence an is said to be unbounded below if for every
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real number k, there exists a m such that am k .
Def. Constant sequence : A sequence an defined by an c n is called a constant
sequence. Thus an = c, c, c,........ is a constant sequence with range c a singleton.
Def. Eventually constant sequence : A sequence an is said to be eventually constant if there
exists a positive integer m such that an c for n m .
Def. Convergent sequence : A sequence an is said to converge to a real number l if for given
0 , however small, there exists a positive integer m such that an l n m . The real
number l is called the limit of the sequence an and symbolically it is expressed as an l as
n or lim an l .
n
Explanation of the definition : The above definition says that after first m –1 terms of the sequence,
the difference between any term of the sequence and the number l is less than .
This definition can be understood by an another efficient way as follows :
We have an l n m an l n m
l an l n m
all terms of the sequence, except the first m–1 terms, lie in the interval l , l i.e., only
finitely many terms of the sequence lie outside the interval l , l .
Another definition of convergent sequence : A sequence an is said to converge to a real number
l if for given 0 , however small, the interval l , l contains all terms of the sequence
except some finitely many terms. If there are infinitely many terms of the sequence outside the interval
l , l , then the sequence can not converge to l.
Def. Divergent sequence :
(i) A sequence an is said to diverge to + if for any positive real number K, however large, there
exists a positive integer m such that an K n m i.e., all the terms of the sequence lie on the
right of K, on the real line, except some finitely many terms and then symbolically, we write
lim an or an as n .
n
(ii) A sequence an is said to diverge to – if for any positive real number K , however large, there
exists a positive integer m such that an K n m i.e., all the terms of the sequence lie on the
102
left of K , on the real line, except some finitely many terms and then symbolically we write
lim an or an as n
n
(iii) A sequence an is said to be divergent sequence if it either diverges to or diverges to .
Def. Oscillating sequence : A sequence is said to be oscillating sequence if it is neither convergent
nor divergent.
Oscillating sequence are of two types :
(i) A sequence is said to be finitely oscillating if it is bounded as well as oscillating.
(ii) A sequence is said to be infinitely oscillating if it is unbounded as well as oscillating.
Def. Null sequence : A sequence an is said to be a null sequence if it converges to 0 i.e., lim an 0
n
1 1 1 1n
For example, the sequences , 2 , n , are null sequences.
n n 2 n
Def. Monotonic sequence :
(i) A sequence an is said to be monotonically increasing if an an 1 n . i.e., a1 a2 a3 a4 ...
(ii) A sequence an is said to be monotonically decreasing if an an 1 n i.e., a1 a2 a3 a4 ...
(iii) A sequence is said to be monotonic if either it is monotonically decreasing or monotonically
increasing.
(iv) A sequence an is said to be strictly monotonically increasing if an an 1 n . i.e.
a1 a2 a3........
(v) A sequence an is said to be strictly monotonically decreasing if an an 1 n . i.e.,
a1 a2 a3 ........
Remark : Every strictly monotonically increasing (decreasing) sequence is also monotonically
increasing (decreasing), according to the definition. But converse may not be true, because any
constant sequence, say, 7, 7, 7,........, 7,........ falls under the definition of monotonically
increasing as well as decreasing but do not fall under the definition of strictly monotonically
increasing or decreasing. In fact, constant sequence is the only sequence which is both monotonically
increasing as well as decreasing.
Def. Least Upper Bound of a sequence : A real number u is said to be least upper bound of a bounded
above sequence if
(i) an u n N i.e., u is an upper bound of an .
(ii) If u ' is any other real number such that an u n N , then u u i.e., no other upper bound is
less than u.
Condition (ii) can be expressed in an another way as : For every 0 , there exists a positive integer
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m such that u am .
Def. Greatest Lower Bound of a sequence : A real number l is called a greatest lower bound of a
bounded below sequence if
(i) l an n N i.e., l is an lower bound of an .
(ii) If is any other real number such that l an n N , then l l i.e., no other lower bound is
greater than l.
Condition (ii), as before, can be expressed in an another way as
For every 0 , there exists a positive integer m such that am l .
Def. 1. Limit Point : A real number l is said to be a limit point or cluster point of a sequence if every
neighbourhood of l contains infinitely many terms of the sequence i.e. for every 0 , the interval
l , l contains infinitely many terms of the sequence.
Def. 2. Limit Point : A real number l is said to be a limit point of a sequence an if for a given
0 and for a given positive integer m, there exists a positive integer k m such that ak l i.e.,
ak l , l .
Difference between limit and limit point : We know that a real number l is the limit of a sequence
an if for every 0 , there exists a positive integer m such that an l n m.
an l , l for all n m
the interval l , l contains all terms of the sequence except the first m–1 terms.
infinitely many terms of the sequence lie in the interval l , l and only finitely many terms
lie outside this interval. Thus the main difference between limit and limit point is that, in case of
limit, the number of terms that lie inside the interval l , l must be infinite and the number
of terms that lie outside this interval must be finite ; whereas in case of limit point, the number of
terms that lie inside the interval l , l must be infinite and there is no condition on the
number of terms that lie outside this interval i.e. they may be finite or infinite.
Remarks :
(i) By the above discussion, it is clear that the limit of a sequence is also the limit point of the
sequence. In fact, if l is the limit of a sequence then it is the only limit point of that sequence.
(ii) Limit point may not be the limit of the sequence.
(iii) Limit point of a sequence may or may not be term of the sequence.
104
(iv) If any term of the sequence is repeated infinitely many times then that term is a limit point of the
sequence. e.g. the sequence 1,2,3, 1,2,3, 1,2,3, 1,2,3,...... has three limit points, namely, 1,2, 3.
Results (A)
Results on Limit :
1. Every convergent sequence has a unique limit.
2. Limit of a convergent sequence is the only limit point of that sequence.
Results on Boundedness :
3. Every convergent sequence is bounded.
4. A bounded sequence may or may not be convergent.
5. A unbounded sequence can not be convergent.
6. If a sequence diverges to then it is unbounded above but bounded below.
7. If a sequence diverges to , then it is unbounded below but bounded above.
Results on Limit points :
8. Limit point of the range set of a sequence is always a limit point of the sequence.
9. The converse of above result is not true in general. Consider the sequence 1,2,1,2,1,2,...
then 1 and 2 are the limit points of this sequence. The range set of this sequence is {1 , 2} which is
a finite set and thus has no limit point.
10. Bolzano - Weierstrass Theorem for sequences (Limit point form) : Every bounded sequence has atleast
one limit point.
11. A unbounded sequence may or may not have a limit point. For example, the sequence
n 1,2,3,4,..... is an unbounded sequence and has no limit point. On the other hand, the
sequence 0,1,0,2,0,3,0,4,........ is unbounded and has 0 as its limit point.
12. If a sequence has a unique limit point, then it may or maynot be convergent. For example,
1,2,1,3,1,4,..... has a unique limit point 1, but sequence is not convergent.
13. If a sequence is bounded and has a unique limit point, then it is convergent.
14. Every bounded sequence which is not convergent has atleast two limit points.
15. The set of limit points of a bounded sequence is bounded.
16. The set of limit points of an unbounded sequence may or may not be bounded. For example,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
the sequence 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ,.... is unbounded and set of
2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4
its limit points is which is unbounded. On the other hand the sequence 0, 1, 0, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, ...
is unbounded and the set of its limit points is { 0 } , which is bounded.
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17. The set of limit points of a sequence is a closed set.
18. The set of limit points of a bounded sequence is a compact set.
19. Every bounded sequence has the greatest and the least limit points.
20. Let S be any non empty subset of and an S for all n , then every limit point of the
sequence an , if any, belongs to S . Further if S is a closed set then every limit point, if any,
belongs to S.
21. Let S be a non empty compact subset of then every sequence in S has atleast one limit point (in
view of the Bolzano-Weirstrass theorem) and all limit points of the sequence belong to S.
22. If xn a, b for all n then all limit points of the sequence xn belong to a, b .
23. If xn a, b for all n then all limit points of the sequence xn belong to a, b .
24. If xn a, b for all n then limit points of the sequence xn may or may not belong to the
1
interval a, b . For example, take xn then xn 0, 2 for all n and the limit point of the
n
1
sequence xn is 0 but 0 0, 2 . On the other hand, take yn 1 then yn 0,3 for all
n
n , the limit point of the sequence yn is 1 and 1 0,3 .
25. Range set of a sequence is always countable.
26. If range set of a sequence is finite then it has at least one limit point of the sequence.
27. If range set of a sequence is infinite then it may or may not have a limit point of the sequence. For
1 1 1 1 1 1
example, consider the sequences 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 4, 1, 5, .... , 0, 1, , , , ... , 1, , , , ...
2 3 4 2 3 4
28. A sequence may have uncountable limit points. e.g. the set of all limit points of the sequence
sin n is 1, 1 .
Results on Null sequences :
29. A sequence an converges to l iff the sequence an l is a null sequence.
30. If an is a sequence then an 0 iff an 0 .
31. If an and bn both are null sequences, then an bn is a null sequence.
32. If an is bounded sequence and bn is a null sequence, then an bn is a null sequence.
33. If an is a null sequence and k is a constant, then k an is a null sequence.
106
Results on Inequalities and Comparisons :
34. If a sequence an converges to a and an 0 n , then a 0 .
or
A convergent sequence of non-negative terms converges to a non-negative number.
35. If an 0 is replaced by an 0 in the above theorem, then student should not conclude
1
that a 0 . For example, an 0 n . But lim an 0 i.e., a 0 .
n n
36. The above result can also be given for non-positive terms as : If a sequence an converges to a
and an 0 n , then a 0 .
or
A convergent sequence of non-positive terms always converges to a non-positive number.
37. If an converges to a, bn converges to b and an bn n , then a b .
38. If an converges to a, bn converges to b and an bn n , then a b .
39. If an converges to a and an k n , then a k .
40. If an converges to a and an k n , then a k .
41. If an diverges to and bn an n , then bn also diverges to .
42. If an diverges to and bn an , then bn also diverges to .
Def. Tail of a sequence : Let xn be a sequence and m is a fixed positive integer then the sequence
xm n is called the m-tail of the sequence xn . In the expanded form the sequence xn is
x1, x2 , x3 ,..... and its m-tail is xm1, xm2 , xm3 ,.... i.e., m-tail of a sequence is obtained by
deleting the first m terms of that sequence.
Results on the tail of a sequence :
43. A sequence is convergent to l iff every m-tail of the sequence is convergent to l.
44. A sequence is divergent to iff every m-tail of the sequence is divergent to .
45. A sequence is divergent to iff every m-tail of the sequence is divergent to .
46. A sequence is oscillating finitely iff every m-tail of the sequence is oscillating finitely.
47. A sequence is oscillating infinitely iff every m-tail of the sequence is oscillating infinitely.
Results on Superemum and Infimum :
48. Let A be any non empty subset of and x be any point, then x is a limit point of A iff there
exists a sequence xn of distinct points of A which converges to x.
49. Let A be any non empty subset of and x be any point, then x is an adherent point of A iff
there exists a sequence xn of points of A which converges to x.
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50. Let A be a non empty bounded above subset of and sup A u then there exists a sequence
xn in A such that xn u as n .
51. Let A be a non empty bounded below subset of and inf A l then there exists a sequence
xn in A such that xn l as n .
Results (B) : Algebra of limits
1. If lim an a then lim k an ka , where k is any real number.
n n
2. If lim an a then lim an a
n n
3. Converse of above result is not true in general. i.e., existence of lim an does not necessarily
n
imply the existence of lim an . For example , the sequence an 1n is not convergent
n
but an 1 is convergent.
4. If lim an a and lim bn b then lim
n n n
an bn a b
5. Converse of above result is not true in general i.e., existence of lim an bn does not
n
necessarily imply the existence of two separate limits lim an and lim bn .
n n
6. If lim an a and lim bn b then lim
n n n
an bn a b
7. The converse of above result is not true i.e., existence of lim an bn does not necessarily
n
imply the existence of two separate limits lim an and lim bn .
n n
8. If lim an a and lim bn b then lim
n n n
an bn ab
9. The converse of above result is not true in general i.e., the existence of lim an bn the does not
n
necessarily imply the existence of two separate limits lim an and lim bn . For example,
n n
an 1n and bn 1n , then both the limits lim an and lim bn do not exist but lim an bn
n n n
lim 12 n 1 exists.
n
1 1
10. If lim an a then lim provided an 0 n and a 0
n n
an a
108
a a
11. If lim an a and lim bn b then lim n provided bn 0 n and b 0
n n n
bn b
a
12. The converse of above result is not true in general i.e., the existence of lim n does
n
bn
not necessarily imply the existence of two separate limits lim an and lim bn . For example, if we
n n
consider an n and bn n , then both the limits lim an and lim bn do not exist. But
n n
a
lim n 1 exists.
n b
n
Definition : Let an and bn be two sequences, then the sequences an bn , an bn ,
an
an bn , (provided bn 0 ) are called respectively the sum, difference, product and quotient
bn
of sequences an and bn .
Keeping the definition made above in mind, we can say, by the above result that sum, difference,
product and quotient of two convergent sequences is convergent.
Now if we extend our thought towards two divergent sequences or one convergent and one divergent
sequence, then their sum, difference, product and quotient may not be so well-behaved as in the case
of two convergent sequence.
Considering sum and product (as difference and quotient can be treated similarly) of two divergent
sequences or one convergent and one divergent, all the possibilities are gathered in the following
tables :
If then
Sr. an bn an bn Example/Proof
No.
1. converges diverges to diverges to requires proof
2. converges diverges to diverges to requires proof
3. diverges to diverges to diverges to requires proof
May converge an n, bn n
4. diverges to diverges to May diverge to an 2n, bn n
May diverge to an n, bn 2n
May oscillate n 2 if n is odd
an
n 1 if n is even
bn n
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If then
Sr. an bn an .bn Example/Proof
No.
1
may converge n
an , bn n
n2
may diverge to an 1, bn n
1. converges diverges to may diverge to an 1, bn n
1
n
may oscillate
an , bn n
n
1
n
may converge
an , bn n
n2
may diverge to an 1, bn n
2. converges diverges to may diverge to an 1, bn n
1
n
may oscillate
an , bn n
n
3. diverges to diverges to diverges to requires proof
4. diverges to diverges to diverges to requires proof
Example 1 : Discuss the boundedness of the following sequences an where an is given by :
1 1 1
(i) an 4 (ii) an n2 (iii) an ........
n n 1
2 2
2n 2
Solution : (i) an 4 is a constant sequence i.e., an 4,4,4,... . Clearly, 4 an 4 n .
Thus the sequence an is bounded.
(ii) an n2 0 n
an is bounded above.
Now, let K be any positive real numbers, then an K if n2 K
i.e., if n2 K i.e., if n K
If m is any positive integer greater than K , then an K n m
an is unbounded below.
110
Hence, an is unbounded.
1 1 1 1 1 1
(iii) an ......... 2 2 ......... 2 (( n 1 ) times)
n n 1
2 2
2n 2
n n n
n 1 1 1
2 11 2 n
n2 n n
Also, an 0 n
Thus, 0 an 2 n and therefore, the sequence an is bounded.
Example 2 : Show that the sequence 1n does not converge.
1
Solution : Let, if possible, the sequence 1n is convergent to a real number l. Let ,
2
then there must exist a positive integer m such that
1
1n l nm ......(1)
2
Let k be any positive integer greater than m, then by 1, we have
1 1
1k l and 1k 1 l
2 2
Now, 2 1k 1 1k ( Out of k and k + 1, one is even, other is odd)
1 1
1k 1 l l 1k 1k 1 l 1k l 1
2 2
2 < 1 , which is a contradiction.
Hence the sequence 1n does not converge.
Exercise 3.1
For the sequences given below discuss the following properties : boundedness, l.u.b. (attainment),
g.l.b.(attainment), monotonicity, limit points, convergence (limit), divergence, oscillating (finitely
or infinitely).
1 1n
1. 2. 3. n
n n
1
4. 1n n 5. 1n 1 6. 1n
n
7. an n2 8. an 11n 9. an 2
1
10. an 1n .7 11. an n3 12. an
2n
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1
13. an nth prime 14. an 15. an 2n 7
n
1 1
16. an 17. an 18. an n 1 n
2n 5 2n 1
3 if n is odd
19. an where an 1
n if n is even
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
20. 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ,.......
2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
21. 1 ,2 ,1 ,2 ,1 ,2 ,1 ,2 ,1 ,2 ,1 ,2 ,....
2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7
1
22. an exp
n
1
23. an cos n
n
24. an unit digit of 2014
n
1
n
25. an 2
n
26. a1 1 , an least prime divisor of n2 , n 2
27. an value of 2 1 upto n decimal places
0 if n =1 or prime
28. an
n if n is composite
0 if n =1 or prime
29. an
p if n is composite and p is the smallest prime divisor of n
30. an sin n
31. an sin n
32. 1,1,2,1,2,3,1,2,3,4,1,2,3,4,5,......
1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4
33. 0,1, , , , , , , , , ,.....
2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4
34. For the sequences given below discuss the following properties : boundedness, monotonicity,
eventual monotonicity, limit points, convergence (limit), divergence, oscillating (finitely or infinitely).
112
2n 3 3n 5 n n 1
(i) an (ii) an (iii) an (iv) an
3n 4 4n 1 n 1 n
2n 7 3n 7 3n 4 2n 3
(v) an (vi) an (vii) an (viii) an
3n 8 4n 8 2n 1 3n 5
n 2 1 n
(ix) an (x) an
n n 1
2
35. For the sequences given below discuss the following properties : boundedness, monotonicity,
eventual monotonicity, limit points, convergence (limit), divergence, oscillating (finitely or infinitely).
1 1 1 1 1 1
(i) an 1 2 ........ n (ii) an 2 ...... n
3 3 3 2 2 2
1 1 1
(iii) an 1 .......
1! 2! n!
an
36. Give an example of a sequence an which is not bounded but for which is a null
n
sequence.
37. Show that :
n n
sin cos
3 0 4 0 cos n
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim 0
n n n 2 n n
n
(iv) lim
nx 0 , where x and denotes the fractional part function.
n n
38. Prove the following :
n 1 2n 7 2 2n 1
(i) lim 1 (ii) lim (iii) lim 2
n n n 3n 2 3 n n3
n 2 1 1 3 2 n n 2 3n 5 1
(iv) lim (v) lim 2 (vi) lim
n 2n 3 2
2 n n n 2n 2 5n 7 2
39. Give an example of a sequence having
(i) only one limit point but that limit point is not a term of the sequence.
(ii) only one limit point which is also a term of the sequence.
(iii) Repeat part (i) for the case of two limit points.
(iv) Repeat part (ii) for the case of two limit points.
(v) infinitely many limit points.
(vi) no limit point.
40. Show that sum of two monotonically increasing sequences is monotonically increasing.
41. Show that sum of two monotonically decreasing sequences is monotonically decreasing.
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42. Show that product of two monotonically increasing sequences of non negative terms is
monotonically increasing.
43. Show that product of two monotonically decreasing sequences of non negative terms is
monotonically decreasing.
Answers
1. Bounded above and below, l.u.b. = 1, attained, g.l.b. = 0, not attained, monotonically decreasing, limit
point limit point 0 , converges to 0.
1
2. Bounded above and below, l.u.b. , attained, g.l.b 1 , attained, not monotonic,
2
limit point 0 , converges to 0.
3. Unbounded above and bounded below, l.u.b = does not exist, not attained, g.l.b 1 , attained,
monotonically increasing, no limit point, diverges to .
4. Unbounded above and below, l.u.b. = does not exist, not attained, g.l.b = does not exist, not
attained, not monotonic, no limit point, oscillate infinitely.
3
5. Bounded above and below, l.u.b , attained, g.l.b 2 , attained, not monotonic,
2
limit point 1, 1 , oscillate finitely.
6. Bounded above and below, l.u.b. = 1, attained, g.l.b. 1 , attained, not monotonic,
limit point 1, 1 , oscillate finitely.
7. Bounded above and unbounded below, l.u.b. 1 , attained, g.l.b = does not exist, not attained,
monotonically decreasing, no limit point, diverges to .
8. Bounded above and below, l.u.b = 2, attained, g.l.b = 0, attained, not monotonic,
limit point 0,2 , oscillate finitely.
9. Bounded above and below, l.u.b = 2, attained, g.l.b. = 2, attained, monotonic, limit point 2 ,
converges to 2.
10. Bounded above and below, l.u.b = 7, attained, g.l.b. = –7, attained, not monotonic,
limit point 7, 7 , oscillate finitely.
11. Unbounded above and bounded below, l.u.b = does not exist, not attained, g.l.b. = 1, attained,
monotonically increasing, no limit point, diverges to .
114
1
12. Bounded above and below, l.u.b , attained, g.l.b. = 0, not attained, monotonically decreasing,
2
limit point 0 , converges to 0.
13. Unbounded above and bounded below, l.u.b = does not exist, not attained, g.l.b. = 2, attained,
monotonically increasing, no limit point, diverges to .
14. Bounded above and below, l.u.b = 0, not attained, g.l.b. = –1, attained, monotonically increasing,
limit point 0 , converges to 0.
15. Unbounded above and bounded below, l.u.b = does not exist, not attained, g.l.b. = 9, attained,
monotonically increasing, no limit point, diverges to
1
16. Bounded above and below, l.u.b , attained, g.l.b. = 0, not attained, monotonically decreasing,
7
limit point 0 , converges to 0.
1
17. Bounded above and below, l.u.b = 0, not attained, g.l.b. , attained, monotonically increasing,
3
limit point 0 , converges to 0.
18. Bounded above and below, l.u.b 2 1, attained, g.l.b.= 0, not attained, monotonically
decreasing, limit point 0 , converges to 0.
19. Bounded above and below, l.u.b 3 , attained, g.l.b.= 0, not attained, not monotonic,
limit point 0,3 , oscillate finitely.
20. unbounded above and bounded below, l.u.b = does not exist, not attained, g.l.b.= 1, not attained,
not monotonic, limit point , oscillate infinitely.
5
21. Bounded above and below, l.u.b. , attained, g.l.b. = 1, not attained, not monotonic,
2
limit point 1,2 , oscillate finitely.
22. Bounded above and below, l.u.b. e , attained, g.l.b. = 1, not attained, monotonically decreasing,
limit point 1 , converges to 1.
1
23. Bounded above and below, l.u.b. cos1 , attained, g.l.b. cos3 , attained, not monotonic,
3
limit point 0 , converges to 0.
24. Bounded above and below, l.u.b. 6 , attained, g.l.b. = 4, attained, not monotonic,
limit point 4,6 , oscillate finitely.
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3
25. Bounded above and below, l.u.b. 3 , attained, g.l.b. , attained, not monotonic,
2
limit point 2 , converges to 2.
26. Unbounded above and bounded below, l.u.b.= does not exist, not attained, g.l.b. 1 , attained, not
monotonic, limit point p : p is prime , oscillate infinitely.
27. Bounded above and below, l.u.b. 2 1, not attained, g.l.b. 0.4 , attained, monotonically
increasing, limit point
2 1 , converges to 2 1.
28. Unbounded above and bounded below, l.u.b.= does not exist, not attained, g.l.b. 0 , attained, not
monotonic, limit point 0 , oscillate infinitely.
29. Unbounded above and bounded below, l.u.b.= does not exist, not attained, g.l.b. 0 , attained, not
monotonic, limit point p : p is prime 0 , oscillate infinitely.
30. Bounded above and below, l.u.b. 1 , not attained, g.l.b. 1 , not attained, not monotonic,
limit point 1,1 , oscillate finitely.
31. Bounded above and below, l.u.b. 1 , attained, g.l.b. 1 , attained, not monotonic,
limit point sin n : n 0 to 90 and 181 to 270 , oscillate finitely.
32. Unbounded above and bounded below, g.l.b = 1and it is attained, not monotonic, set of limit
points , oscillates infinitely.
33. Bounded above and bounded below, g.l.b. = 0 and it is attained, lub = 1 and it is attained, not
monotonic, set of limit points 0,1 , oscillates finitely.
5 2
34. (i) Bounded above and below, l.u.b. , attained, g.l.b. , not attained, strictly decreasing,
7 3
2 2
limit point , converges to .
3 3
8 3
(ii) Bounded above and below, l.u.b. , attained, g.l.b. , not attained, strictly decreasing,
5 4
3 3
limit point , converges to .
4 4
1
(iii) Bounded above and below, l.u.b. 1 , not attained, g.l.b. , attained, strictly decreasing,
2
limit point 1 , converges to 1.
116
(iv) Bounded above and below, l.u.b. 2 , attained, g.l.b. 1 , not attained, strictly decreasing,
limit point 1 , converges to 1.
9 2
(v) Bounded above and below, l.u.b. , attained, g.l.b. , not attained, strictly decreasing,
11 3
2 2
limit point , converges to .
3 3
10 3
(vi) Bounded above and below, l.u.b. , attained, g.l.b. , not attained, strictly decreasing,
12 4
3 3
limit point , converges to .
4 4
7 3
(vii) Bounded above and below, l.u.b. , attained, g.l.b. , not attained, strictly decreasing,
3 2
3 3
limit point , converges to .
2 2
2 5
(viii) Bounded above and below, l.u.b. , not attained, g.l.b. , attained, strictly increasing,
3 8
2 2
limit point , converges to .
3 3
(ix) Unbounded above and bounded below, l.u.b.= does not exist, not attained, g.l.b. 2 , attained,
strictly increasing, no limit point , diverges to .
1
(x) Bounded above and below, l.u.b. , attained, g.l.b. 0 , not attained, strictly decreasing,
2
limit point 0 , converges to 0.
3
35. (i) Bounded above and below, l.u.b. , not attained, g.l.b. 1 , attained, strictly increasing,
2
3 3
limit point , converges to .
2 2
1
(ii) Bounded above and below, l.u.b. 1 , not attained, g.l.b. , attained, strictly increasing,
2
limit point 1 , converges to 1.
(iii) Bounded above and below, l.u.b. e , not attained, g.l.b. 2 , attained, strictly increasing,
limit point e , converges to e.
36. n
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
39. (i) (ii) constant sequence (iii) 1 ,1 , 2 , 2 ,1 ,1 , 2 , 2 ,....
n 2 3 2 3 4 5 4 5
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1 1 1 1 1 1
(iv) 1, 2,1 ,1 , 2 , 2 ,1 , 2 ,... (v) least prime divisor of n2 , n 2 . (vi) n
2 3 2 3 4 4
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.2 Monotone convergence theorem
1. Monotone Convergence Theorem :
(i) Every monotonically increasing sequence which is bounded above converges to its least upper
bound.
(ii) Every monotonically decreasing sequence which is bounded below converges to its greatest
lower bound.
2. Every bounded monotonic sequence is convergent.
3. (i) Every monotonically increasing sequence unbounded above diverges to .
(ii) Every monotonically decreasing sequence unbounded below diverges to .
4. Every monotonic sequence is either convergent or divergent. In other words, a monotonic sequence
is never oscillating.
5. A montonic sequence cannot have two limit points.
Def. Nested Sequence of Intervals : A sequence of intervals I n is said to be nested if either
I1 I 2 ........ I n ........ or I1 I 2 ........ I n ........
6. Nested Interval Property or Cantor’s Intersection Theorem : Let I n [an , bn ] be a sequence of
closed interval such that (i) I n 1 I n n N (ii) lim l I n lim bn an 0
n n
Then there exists a unique number x such that x I n n i.e., I
n 1
n is a singleton.
7. The condition of ‘closedness’ of intervals can not be dropped in the above theorem i.e., if I n
is a decreasing sequence of open intervals such that their length tend to zero, then their
1
intersection may not be a singleton. For example, let I n 0, for n N . Then, I n is
n
1
decreasing sequence of open intervals and lim l I n lim
n n n
0 but I
n 1
n . For if x 0 then
x I n for any n and if x > 0, then by Archimedean property of reals, there exist a positive integer
118
1 1 1
m such that m i.e., x x 0 , x Im x In
x m m n 1
3 2an
Example 1 : Show that the sequence an where an 1 , a1 1 converges. Find its limit.
2 an
3 2a1 3 2 5
Solution : Here a1 1, a2 1 a2 a1
2 a1 2 1 3
Assume as our induction hypothesis that an an 1
3 2 an 3 2an 1 6 4an 3an 1 2an an 1 6 4an 1 3an 2an an 1
Then an 1 an
2 an 2 an 1 2 an 2 an 1
an an 1
0 an an 1 and an 0 n
2 an 2 an 1
an 1 an an is monotonically increasing by mathematical induction.
3 2an 1
Also, an 1 2 [By long division]
2 an 2 an
= 2 (a positive quantity less than 1) < 2 an 1 2 n
Also a1 1 2 . Thus an 2 n and hence an is bounded above. So, by monotone convergence
theorem, the sequence an is convergent and let lim an l .
n
3 2an
Now, given that an 1
2 an
3 2an 3 2 nlim
an
lim an 1 lim
n n
2 an 2 nlim
an
3 2l
l 2l l 2 3 2l l2 3 l 3
2l
But an 1 l 1 l 3
l 3 i.e., the sequence an converges to 3.
Example 2 : (i) Show that the sequence an defined by a1 1 and an 2 an 1
converges to the positive root of the equation x 2 x 2 0
(ii) What happens to the behaviour of the sequence an in part (i) if a1 1 is replaced by a1 2 .
Solution : (i) Here a1 1, an 2 an 1
a2 2 a1 2 1 3 1 a2 a1
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Assume as our induction hypothesis that an an 1 2 an 2 an 1
2 an 2 an 1 an 1 an
an is monotonically increasing by the principle of mathematical induction.
Now, a1 1 2
Assume as our induction hypothesis that
an 2 , then 2 an 2 2 2 an 4 an 1 2
an is bounded above by principle of mathematical induction.
So, by monotone convergence theorem, the sequence an is convergent and let lim an l
n
Now, we use the given recurrence relation to obtain the value of l.
Given that an 2 an 1 an2 2 an 1
lim an2 lim 2 an 1 l2 2 l l2 l 2 0
n n
l 2l 1 0 l 2 or 1
Since an 0 n, l lim an cannot be negative. So, l 1. Hence l = 2.
n
Thus the sequence an converges to the positive root of the equation x2 x 2 0 .
(ii) The sequence an in the expanded form is 2, 2 2 , 2 2 2 ,...... which seems
to be increasing. However, to be technically correct, we shall prove that an is monotonically
increasing and bounded above by using the principle of mathematical induction.
Here, a1 2, a2 2 2 a2 a1
Assume as our induction hypothesis that
an an 1 2 an 2 an 1
2 an 2 an 1 an 1 an
an is monotonically increasing by the principle of mathematical induction.
Now, a1 2 2 . Assume as our induction hypothesis that an 2
2 an 2 2 2 an 4 2 an 1 2
120
an is bounded above by principle of mathematical induction. So, by monotone
convergence theorem, the sequence an is convergent and let lim an l .
n
Now, we use the given recurrence relation to obtain the value of l.
Given that an 1 2 an an21 2 an
lim an21 lim 2 an l2 2 l
n n
1 9 1 3 1 3 1 3
l2 l 2 0 l l , 2, 1
2 2 2 2
Now, l cannot be 1, because an 0 n . Therefore, l = 2.
In other words, the sequence an converges to the positive root of the equation x2 x 2 0 .
Hence, the behaviour of the sequence an in part (i) is same if a1 1 is replaced by a1 2 .
Example 3 : Prove that the sequence an defined by an 1 3 an , a1 1 converges to 3.
Solution : The sequence an in the expanded form is 1, 3, 3 3,......
By using the principle of mathematical induction, we shall prove that the sequence an is
monotonically increasing and bounded above.
Now, 3 1 a2 a1
Assume as our induction hypothesis that
an an1 3 an 3 an 1 an 1 an
an is monotonically increasing by the principle of mathematical induction.
Now, a1 1 3 . As our induction hypothesis, we assume that
an 3 3an 3 . 3 3 an 1 3
an is bounded above by principle of mathematical induction.
So, by monotone convergence theorem, the sequence an is convergent and let lim an l .
n
Now, given that an 1 3 an
an21 3an lim an21 lim 3an
n n
l 2 3l l 2 3l 0 l 0 or 3
The sequence an is monotonically increasing and a1 1, so an a1 n
an 1 n lim an 1 l 1
n
l 0 and so l = 3
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Thus the sequence an converges to 3.
1 1
Example 4 : Given a1 0 , show that the sequence an defined by an1 an for all n,
2 an
converges to 1.
Solution : As a1 0 so clearly an 0 for all n.
1 1 1 1
Now, an1 an 2 1 for all n. x x 2 for all x 0
2 an 2
an 1 for all n 2 ……(1)
1 1 1 1 1 1
Now, an1 an an an an an an 0 for all n 2 Using (1)
2 an 2 2an 2 an
an1 an for all n 2 ……(2)
By (1) and (2), we obtain 1 an1 an a2 for all n 2 .
Thus the sequence an is bounded and monotonically decreasing for all n 2 so it must be
convergent by monotone convergence theorem.
1 1
Now, let lim an l , then by the given recurrence relation, we obtain l l
n 2 l
2l 2 l 2 1 l2 1 l 1 . But l can not be 1 so l 1 .
Example 5 : If a1 b1 0 and an , bn are defined as an
1
2
an 1 bn 1 , bn an1 bn1 for
n 2 , prove that the sequences an and bn are monotonic, one increasing and the other
decreasing and that they tend to the same limit.
Solution : Let a1 b1
For any two positive numbers, the arithmetic mean is greater than the geometric mean
an bn for all n ......(1)
1 1
Also, an 1 an bn an an an bn an
2 2
an is monotonic decreasing
a1 a2 a3 a4 ...... ......(2)
122
Again bn 1 an . bn bn . bn bn an bn
bn is monotonic increasing i.e., b1 b2 b3 b4 ...... ......(3)
1 1
Now, an an 1 bn 1 bn 1 bn 1 bn 1 of 1
2 2
i.e., an bn 1 bn 2 ...... b2 b1 from 3
an b1 for all n
This implies that the sequence an is bounded below and being monotonic decreasing is convergent.
Again, bn an 1 . bn 1 bn 1 . bn 1 an 1 of 1
i.e., bn an 1 an 2 ...... a2 a1 from 2
or bn a1 for all n
bn is bounded above and being monotonic increasing is convergent.
Now, let lim an l and lim bn l
n n
1
Since an an 1 bn 1 or 2an an 1 bn 1
2
2an 1 an bn
or lim 2an 1 lim an lim bn or 2l l l or l l
n n n
an and bn converge to the same limit.
Exercise 3.2
1
1. If k 1 then show that the sequence kn is monotonically decreasing.
1
2. If 0 k 1 then show that the sequence kn is monotonically increasing.
n
1
3. Show that the sequence 1 is monotonically increasing.
n
1
4. Show that the sequence n n is monotonically decreasing for n 3 .
4an 3
5. Show that the sequence an where an 1 , a1 1 converges. Find its limit.
3an 2
6. Prove that the sequence an defined by a1 7 and an 1 7 an converges to the positive
root of the equation x 2 x 7 0 .
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7. (i) Prove that the sequence an defined by a1 2 and an 1 2an converges to 2.
(ii) Prove that sequence an defined by an 1 7an , a1 1 converges to 7.
1
8. Show that the sequence an defined by a1 2 and an1 2 converges to the positive
1
3
an
root of 3x2 6 x 2 0 .
1 1
9. (i) Given a1 0, show that the sequence an defined by an1 an for all n ,
2 an
converges to –1 or 1 according as a1 0 or a1 0 .
1 2
(ii) Given a1 0, show that the sequence an defined by an1 an for all n ,
2 an
converges to 2 or 2 according as a1 0 or a1 0 .
1 k
(iii) Given a1 0, show that the sequence an defined by an1 an for all n ,
2 an
k 0 , converges to k or k according as a1 0 or a1 0 .
10. If a1 b1 0 and an , bn are defined as an
1
2
an 1 bn 1 , bn
2an1bn1
an1 bn1
for n 2 prove that
the sequence an and bn are monotonic, one increasing and the other decreasing and that
they tend to the same limit.
an21 bn21 a b
11. If a1 b1 0 and an , bn are defined as an , bn n1 n1 for n 2 prove that the
an1 bn1 2
sequence an and bn are monotonic, one increasing and the other decreasing and that
they tend to the same limit.
12. Establish the monotonicity of the sequence an and bn , where
1 1 1 1
an 1 .... log n, n and bn 1 ... log n, n . Show that both of them
2 n 1 2 n
tend to the same limit which is known as Euler’s constant.
124
3.3 Evaluation of Limits
1. Squeeze Principle : If an , bn and cn are three sequences such that
(i) lim an lim bn l
n n
(ii) an cn bn n m , where m is some positive integer, then lim cn l .
n
a
2. Let an be a sequence such that an 0 n and lim n 1 l . If l 1, then lim an 0 .
n n
an
an 1
3. Let an be a sequence such that an 0 n and lim
n
l . If l 1, then lim
n
an .
an
a1 a2 ........ an
4. Cauchy’s first theorem on limits (A.M.) : If lim an l , then lim l.
n n n
Remark : The converse of Cauchy’s first theorem on limits is not always true.
0 if n is even
a1 a2 ........ an
For example, let an 1 , then n
1
n if n is odd
n
1
5. (G.M.) If lim an l 0 where an 0 n , then lim a1 . a2 ........ an n l .
n n
6. Cauchy’s Second Theorem on limits : If an is a sequence of positive terms, then
1
n an 1
lim a n lim provided the limit on the R.H.S. exists, whether finite or infinite.
n n an
Remark : Converse of Cauchy’s second theorem on limits is not true in general.
1 1n 1
1 1
n 1n
For example, let an 2 , then an n 2 n lim an n 2 1 0
n 2
n 1
111 1
an 1 2 n11 11n11n 2 , n is even , n is even
But 2 8 ,
n 111
an 2 n 1
2 , n is odd 2 , n is odd
an 1
so lim does not exist.
n an
a1bn a2bn1 ... anb1
7. Cesaro’s theorem on limits : If lim an a and lim bn b then lim ab
n n n n
8. Stolz theorem : Let xn and yn be two sequences satisfying the conditions
(i) yn is such that yn is monotonically increasing and yn as n
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xn xn1 x
(ii) lim l , then lim n l .
n yn yn1 n yn
9. Working rule to find the limit of a sum :
1 r
(i) Express the given series in the form lim f
n n
n
r 1
(ii) Replace by ,
n
by x and
n
by dx .
r
(iii) Obtain lower and upper limits by computing lim for the least and greatest values of r
n n
respectively
(iv) Evaluate the integral and it is the required limit.
g n
1
10. Manipulation with e-limit : The limits of the form lim 1 are sometimes easily
n f n
x 2 x3 x 4
calculated by taking logarithms and using the expansions log 1 x x .... and
2 3 4
x 2 x3 x 4
log 1 x x ....
2 3 4
g n g n
1 lim
f n
11. If lim f n lim g n then lim 1
n
e .
n n n
f n
12. Behaviour of geometric sequence :
divergent to , if k 1
convergent to 1, if k 1
The geometric sequence k n is convergent to 0, if 1 k 1
oscillating finitely, if k 1
oscillating infinitely, if k 1
13. Dominate behaviour : nn n! k n p n log n where k 1 and p n denotes a non
constant polynomial.
Example 1 : Using Squeeze principle, show that
1 1 1
lim ........ 1.
n
n2 1 n2 2 n 2 n
1 1 1
Solution : Let an ........
n 1
2
n 2
2
n n
2
126
1 1 1 n 1
........ ......1
n n
2
n n
2
n n
2
n n
2
1
1
n
1 1 1
Again, an ........
n2 1 n2 2 n2 n
1 1 1 n 1
........ …….(2)
n 1
2
n 1
2
n2 1 n 1 2
1
1 2
n
1 1
By (1) and (2), we have an
1 1
1 1
n n2
1 1
Since lim lim 1 , so by Squeeze principle, lim an 1
n 1 n 1 n
1 1 2
n n
1 1 1
i.e., lim ...... 1
n
n 2 1 n2 2 n 2 n
Example 2 : If a is any real number such that 0 < a < 1, then lim a n 0 .
n
1
Solution : As 0 < a < 1 , 1
a
1
1 h for some h > 0
a
1 n n 1 2
n
1 h n 1 n h h ........ h n 1 nh nh n
a 2!
1
0 an n
nh
1
But lim 0 , so by Squeeze principle, lim an 0 .
n nh n
n!
Example 3 : If an n , then lim an 0 .
n n
n! (n 1)!
Solution : Here an n , an 1
n n 1n1
n! n 1n1 n 1n n 1
n n
an 1
n 1
an1 n (n 1)! n n
n n
n
an 1 an 1 1
lim lim 1 e lim 1 ( e = 2.718 approx.)
n an 1 n n n an e
lim an 0
n
1 1 1 1
Example 4 : Using Cauchy’s first theorem on limits show that lim 1 ........ 0
n n 2 3 n
1
Solution : Let an , then lim an 0
n n
By Cauchy’s first theorem on limits,
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a a ........ an 1 1 1 1
lim 1 2 0 lim 1 ........ 0
n
n n n 2 3 n
1
Example 5 : If a > 0 , then show that lim a 1 . n
n
1
Solution : Case (i) a > 1, then a 1 n
n
1
Let a 1 hn
n
where hn 0 ......(1)
n n 1 2
a 1 hn 1 n hn hn ........ hnn 1 n hn
n
2!
a 1
hn .
n
a 1
Also hn 0 , so 0 hn
n
a 1
Since lim 0 , so by Squeeze principle, we get lim hn 0 .
n n n
1
So, by (1) , lim a n lim 1 hn 1 0 1.
n n
1 1 1
Case (ii) a = 1 , then a 1 1 n and so lim a 1 .
n n n
n
1
Case (iii) 0 a 1 , then 1 and so by case (i), we get
a
1
1
1
lim n 1 lim 1
a
n n 1
n
a
1
1
1
1 lim a 1 .n
n
n
lim a
n
Example 6 : Using Cauchy’s second theorem on limits, prove that
1
2 1 3 2 4 3 n 1
n n
lim ........ e.
n
1 2 3 n
n 1
1 2 3 n
2 3 4
Solution : Let an ........
1 2 3 n
n1
n 1 n2
1 2 3 n
2 3 4
then an 1 ........
1 2 3 n n 1
an 1 n 2 n1 1
n1
an 1 1
n 1
and 1 lim lim 1 e
an n 1 n 1 n an n
n 1
So, by Cauchy’s second theorem on limits,
128
1
2 1 3 2 n 1
n
lim an e i.e., lim ........
n
e.
1 2 n
n n
1 1 1 1
Example 7 : Using Stolz theorem, show that lim 1 .... 2
n n 2 3 n
1 1 1
Solution : Let xn 1 .... , yn n , then yn as n
2 3 n
1 1 1 1 1
xn xn1 1 ... 1 ...
n 1
lim
2 n 2 3
lim
n yn yn1 n n n 1
1 n n 1
lim
n
n n n 1 n n 1
n n 1
lim
n n
n 1 1
lim 1 lim
n 1 1 2
n n n
xn 1 1 1 1 x x
Therefore, by Stolz theorem, lim lim 1 .... lim n n1 2
n yn n n 2 3 n n yn yn1
1 1 2 4 1
Example 8 : Evaluate lim 2 sec2 2 2 sec2 2 .... sec2 1
n n n n n n
1 1 2 4 1 1 n r r2
Solution : lim 2 sec2 2 2 sec2 2 .... sec2 1 = lim sec 2 2
n n n n n n n n r 1 n n
r 1
Replace by ,
n
by x and
n
by dx and also, if r 1, then x 0 as n and if r n ,
then x 1 as n . So we obtain
1 n r r2 1 1
1
1 1
lim sec2 2 lim x sec2 x 2 dx lim tan x 2 lim tan 1 tan1
n n
r 1 n n n
0
n
2 0 n
2 2
n
1
Example 9 : Evaluate lim 1 2
n
n
n
1
Solution : Let y lim 1 2
n
n
Taking log both sides, we get
1
n
1
log y limlog 1 2 lim n log 1 2
n
n n n
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1 1 1 1 1 1
lim n 2 4 6 ..... lim 3 5 ..... 0
n
n 2 n 3n
n n 2 n 3n
n
1
y 1 lim 1 2 1
n
n
Exercise 3.3
1. Using Squeeze principle, show that
1 1 1
(i) lim 2 .... 0
n n n 1 2
2n 2
1 1 1
(ii) lim ........
n
n 1 n2 2n
1 1 1
(iii) lim ........ 0
n n 12
n 2 2
n n 2
1 2 n 1
(iv) lim 2 2 ........ 2
n n 1 n 2
n n 2
n 2n n2 1
(v) lim 3 3 ........ 3
n n 1
n 2 n n 2
1 1 1
(vi) lim .... 0 where k is a positive integer where k 1 .
n n 1k
n 2 k
n n k
2. Using Binomial theorem, prove that :
2
1 1
(i) lim n 1 n 0 (ii) lim n 1 n 1 4 0
8
n n
(iii) lim n 1 nk 0 where 0 k 1.
k
n
an 1
3. (i) Give examples of sequences an for which lim 1 and
n an
(a) lim an (b) lim an 2 (c) lim an 0
n n n
1
(ii) Give examples of sequences an for which lim an n 1 and
n
(a) lim an (b) lim an 2 (c) lim an 0
n n n
130
4. Show that :
log n n 7 n3 1 n!
(i) lim n 0 (ii) lim 0 (iii) lim 0
n n n nn n nn
kn log n log n
(iv) lim 0 (v) lim 0 (vi) lim 0
n n n n n! n n10
n! 2n 2n
(vii) lim (viii) lim (ix) lim 0
n log n n n100 n n !
n! nn 4n
(x) lim (xi) lim (xii) lim
n n 1
10 n 3n n log n
xn
5. Show that lim 0 , where x is any real number.
n n!
n sin n 2
6. Show that lim 1.
n n cos n3
7. Let p x be any non zero real polynomial then prove the following :
p n 1 1
(i) lim 1 (ii) lim p n n 1
n p n n
8. Using Cauchy’s first theorem on limits show that :
1 1 1
1 2
2 ........ 2
(i) lim 2 3 n 0
n n
1 1 1 1
(ii) lim 1 ........ 0
n n 3 5 2n 1
12 3 4 n 1
(iii) lim ........ 1
n n1 2 3 n
9. Using Cauchy’s second theorem on limits, prove that
1
1 1
n! n 1
(i) lim n 1
n
(ii) lim n!
n
(iii) lim
n n n n e
1 1 1
nn n 3n ! n 2 3 4 n n
(iv) lim e lim 27 (vi) lim . . ........ 1
n n !3
(v)
n
n!
n 1 2 3 n 1
1
n 1 n 2........ n n n 4
(vii) lim
n
nn e
1 1 1 1
10. Show that lim 1 2 2
3 3
........ n n
1.
n n
11. Discuss the nature of the sequence a n for all a and then evaluate the limits
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23 n 43 n a n1 b n1
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim n n
where 0 a b
n 32 n n 34 n n
a b
12. For any real number a prove that there exist a sequence xn of rational numbers and a
sequence yn of irrational numbers such that xn a and yn a .
13. (i) Construct three sequences of rational numbers which converges to an irrational number.
(ii) Construct three sequences of irrational numbers which converges to a rational number.
x
14. Let xn and yn be two sequences of positive real numbers such that lim n l 0 then
n y
n
show that lim xn iff lim yn .
n n
x
15. Let xn and yn be two sequences of positive real numbers such that lim n 0 .
n y
n
(i) Show that if lim xn then lim yn (ii) Show that if yn is bounded then lim xn 0
n n n
x
16. Let xn and yn be two sequences of positive real numbers such that lim n .
n y
n
(i) Show that if lim yn then lim xn (ii) Show that if xn is bounded then lim yn 0
n n n
17. Using Stolz theorem, show that :
1 1 1 1
(i) lim .... 2 2 2
n n n n 1 2n
1 1 1 1
(ii) lim .... 0
n n 2 4 4 6 2n 2n 2
1 1
1 ...
(iii) lim 2 n 1
n log n
1 1 1
1 ...
(iv) lim 3 5 2n 1 1
n log n 2
18. Evaluate the following limits :
1 1 1 1 1 1
(i) lim ... (ii) lim ...
n n 1 n2 n 1
2n
n n 2n
132
1 1 1 n n n
(iii) lim ... (iv) lim 2 2 2 ... 2
n n n 1 2n 1 n n 1
n 2 2
2n
1m 2m 3m ... n m 1 1 1 1
(v) lim (vi) lim ...
n
nm1
n n n 1 n 2 3n
1 1 2 4 1
(vii) lim 2 sec2 2 2 sec2 2 ... sec2 1
n n n n n n
19. Evaluate the following limits :
3n 2n n
1 1 1
(i) lim 1 (ii) lim 1 (iii) lim 1
n
2n n
n n
2n
n 5 4 n 5 n
1 1 1
(iv) lim 1 (v) lim 1 (vi) lim 1 2
n
n4 n
3n 4 n
n
n n2 n3
1 1 1
(vii) lim 1 (viii) lim 1 (ix) lim 1 2
n
n n
n n
n
n n
1 1
(x) lim 1 (xi) lim 1 2
n
n n
n
20. Evaluate the following limits :
1
n
1
1 1 n
(i) lim 1 n (ii) lim 1 n (iii) lim 1 (iv) lim 1
n
n
n n n
n n
n
Answers
18. (i) log 2 (ii) log 2 (iii) log 2 (iv)
4
1 1
(v) (vi) log 3 (vii) tan1
m 1 2
3 1 4
2
19. (i) e2 (ii) e (iii) e2 (iv) e (v) e3 (vi) 1
(vii) e 1 (viii) (ix) 0 (x) e 1 (xi) 1
3.4 Cauchy Sequence
Def. Cauchy sequence : A sequence an is said to be a Cauchy sequence if for given 0 , there
exists a positive integer m such that an am n m .
or
A sequence an is said to be a Cauchy sequence if for given 0 , there exists a positive integer
m such that a p aq p , q m
Remark : Roughly speaking, a sequence an is a Cauchy sequence if an and am are close together
when m and n are large.
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Results :
1. Every Cauchy sequence is bounded.
Proof : Let an be a Cauchy sequence. For 1 , there exists a positive integer m such that
an am 1 n m
1 an am 1 nm
am 1 an am 1 nm
If k min am 1, a1, a2 ,...., am1 and K max am 1, a1, a2 ,...., am1 , then k an K n
Thus the sequence an is bounded.
2. Cauchy’s General Principle of Convergence : A sequence is convergent if and only if it is a
Cauchy sequence.
3. If an1
ran san1
, where r s s 0 then an converges to
r s a2 sa1 for any a , a .
rs r 2s
1 2
1
4. If an is a sequence of positive real numbers such that an an 1 an 2 n 3 then
2
1
an converges to a1 2a2 . This sequence is not monotonic.
3
5. The sequences whose nth term is sum of reciprocals of n positive integers which are in A.P. are not
Cauchy and hence not convergent.
1
Example 1 : The sequence is a Cauchy sequence.
n2
1
Solution : Let an and let 0 be given. Then for n m , we have
n2
1 1 1 1 1 1
an am 2 2 2 2 2 2
n m m n n m
1 1
2 whenever m2
m
1
i.e. whenever m
1
Thus if we choose a positive integer m then an am n m
Hence an is a Cauchy sequence.
Example 2 : The sequence 1n is not a Cauchy sequence.
134
Solution : Let an 1n .
To show that an is not a Cauchy sequence, we have to find an 0 0 such that for every positive
integer m there exist at least one n m such that
an am 0
1
Let 0 , then for every integer m, we have an integer m 1 m such that
2
1
am 1 am 1m1 1m 2
2
Thus, 1n is not a Cauchy sequence.
Exercise 3.4
1. Show that the following sequences whose terms are given below are Cauchy’s sequences :
1 1 1 1 n 1
(i) an (ii) an 1 ...... (iii) an (iv) an 5
n! 1! 2! n! n 1 n2
1 1n 1
(v) an (vi) an (vii) an
n2 n 2n
2. Show that the following sequences whose terms are given below are not Cauchy’s sequences :
(i) an 1n (ii) an n (iii) an 1n . n
(iv) an 2n (v) an 1n .2 (vi) an n2
3. Show that the sequences an , where an is given below, does not converge, while bn
1
defined as bn . an converges to 0.
n
1 1 1 1 1 1
(i) an 1 ........ (ii) an 1 ......
2 3 n 6 11 5n 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(iii) an ...... (iv) an 1 .......
9 13 17 4n 5 7 13 6n 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(v) an 1 ....... (vi) an 1 ......
4 7 3n 2 5 9 13 4n 3
4. If an and bn are two Cauchy’s sequences, then show that the following are
Cauchy’s sequences :
an
(i) an bn (ii) an bn (iii) an . bn (iv) , where bn 0
bn
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3.5 Subsequence
Def. Subsequence : Let an be a given sequence. Let nk be a strictly increasing sequence of
natural numbers i.e., n1 n2 n3 ......, then ank is called a subsequence of an
Let the sequence be a1, a2 , a3 , a4 ........ then a1, a3 , a5... ; a2 , a4 , a6 ,.... ; a1 , a2 , a6 , a8 ,...
are all subsequences of sequence an . It should be noted that the terms of a subsequence occur in
the same order in which they occur in the original sequence.
Remark : Every sequence has infinite subsequence.
For example : (i) Consider the sequence n 1, 2, 3, 4,... then the sequences 2, 4, 6,... 2n ,
1, 4, 9, 16,........ n2 and 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...... nth prime> are all sub-sequences of n .
(ii) The sequence <1, 1, 1,........> and < –1, –1, –1,........> are sub-sequences of the sequence 1n .
(iii) The sequence 4, 1, 9, 16,........ is not a sub-sequene of the sequence n .
Results :
1. Every sequence is a subsequence of itself.
2. If a sequence an converges to l, then every subsequence of an also converges to l.
Proof : Let an converges to l and let ank be a subsequence of an .
Since an converges to l, so by definition, given 0 , there exists a positive integer m such that
an l n m ank l nk m ank converges to l.
3. A sequence an diverges to iff every subsequence of an diverges to .
4. A sequence an diverges to iff every subsequence of an diverges to .
5. A number l is a limit point of a sequence iff there is a subsequence which converges to l.
6. Bolzano Weierstrass theorem for sequences (Subsequence form) : Every bounded sequence has a
convergent subsequence.
7. If the subsequences a2 n 1 and a2 n converge to the same limit l, then the sequence converges to l.
or
If subsequence of odd terms and even terms converges to same limit then sequence is convergent
and converges to the same limit.
136
8. If the subsequences a2n and a3n of a sequence an converge to the same limit then the
sequence an may or may not be convergent.
9. If the subsequences a3n , a3n1 and a3n2 of a sequence an are convergent then they
may or may not converge to the same limit but if they converge to the same limit l then the
sequence an also converges to l.
10. If the subsequences a2n , a2n1 and a3n of a sequence an are convergent then they
must converge to the same limit, say l and then the sequence an also converges to l.
11. A sequence is monotonically increasing iff its every subsequence is monotonically increasing.
12. A sequence is monotonically decreasing iff its every subsequence is monotonically decreasing.
13. If l is the limit point of every subsequence of a sequence an then the sequence an
converges to l.
14. Monotone subsequence theorem : Every sequence has a monotone subsequence.
Exercise 3.5
1. Which of the following are the sub-sequences of the sequence n < 1, 2, 3,......>.
(i) n2 (ii) n (iii) 2n 1
(iv) < 1, 3, 2, 4,......> (v) < 5, 10, 15, 20,......>
2. Give an example of an oscillating sequence having a convergent subsequence and a divergent sub
sequence .
3. Give an example of a sequence an in which the subsequences a2 n1 and a2 n are
convergent but the sequence an is not convergent.
Answers
1. (i), (ii), (iii), (v)
2. an 1,2,1,3,1,4,1,5,..... is the oscillating sequence
bn 1,1,1,..... is the convergent subsequence of an converging to 1
cn 2,3,4,5,..... is the divergent subsequence of an
3. an 1, 1,1, 1,1, 1,...... , a2 n1 1,1,1,........ , a2n 1, 1, 1,.....
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3.6 Superior and Inferior limits of a sequence
Def. Limit Superior : Case (i) : When the sequence is bounded above : Let an be a sequence
bounded above and K be an upper bound of it. Then for each n N , the set an , an1, an2 ,.... is also
bounded above by K. Thus sup an , an1, an2 ,.... exists, let it be denoted by M n .
i.e., M n sup an , an1, an2 ,.... then M n1 sup an1, an2 , an3 ,....
Clearly, M n M n1 n N .
Thus, the sequence M n is monotonically decreasing sequence so that as n , lim M n is finite
n
or . We define limsup an lim M n which is finite or .
n n
Case(ii) When the sequence is not bounded above : Let an is unbounded above, then we define
limsup an
n
Examples :
1
n
(i) Consider the sequence which is bounded above. We have :
n
1n 1n1
1 1
M n sup , ,.... or according as n is even or odd.
n n 1
n n 1
1
n
lim M n 0 limsup 0
n n n
(ii) Consider the sequence 1 n . This sequence is unbounded above, so limsup 1 n
n n
n
1
(iii) Consider the sequence n . This sequence is bounded above and we have
n
1 1 1 1
M n sup n , n 1 ,..... n lim M n limsup n
n n 1 n n n
n
1
1 n if n is even
(iv) Consider the sequence an where an
1 1 if n is odd
n
1
This sequence is bounded above and M n sup an , an1, an2 ,..... 1 limsup an lim M n 1
n n n
138
Remark : Limit superior is also known as upper limit and denoted by lim an .
n
Def. Limit Inferior : Case (i) : When the sequence is bounded below : Let an be a sequence
bounded below and k be a lower bound. Then for each n N , the set an , an1, an2 ,.... is also
bounded below by k.
Thus inf an , an1, an2 ,.... exists, let it be denoted by mn i.e., mn inf an , an1, an2 ,.... then
mn1 inf an1, an2 , an3 ,..... . Clearly, mn mn1
Thus, the sequence mn is monotonically decreasing sequence so that as n , lim mn is finite or .
n
We define liminf an lim mn which is finite or .
n n
Case (ii) : When the sequence unbounded below : Let an is unbounded below, then we define
liminf an
n
Remark : Limit inferior is also known as lower limit and denoted by lim an .
n
1
n
Examples : (i) The sequence is bounded below and we have
n
1 1
n n1
1 1
mn inf , ,..... or according as n is odd or even.
n n 1
n n 1
1
n
lim mn 0 liminf 0
n n n
(ii) The sequence 1 n is unbounded below, so we have liminf an
n
n
(iii) The sequence n is bounded below and we have mn inf n, n 1, n 2,...... n
lim mn lim n liminf n
n n n
Results :
1. liminf an limsup an
n n
2. (i) limsup an liminf an (ii) liminf an limsup an
n n n n
3. If sequences an and bn be such that there exists m N so as an bnn m , then
(i) limsup an limsup bn (ii) liminf an liminf bn
n n n n
4. If an , bn are bounded sequences, then
(i) limsup an bn limsup an limsup bn (ii) liminf an bn liminf an liminf bn
n n n n n n
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5. If an is a bounded sequence, then limsup an u iff for any given 0 .
n
(i) an u for infinitely many values of n. (ii) an u for all except finitely many values of n.
6. Result (5) yields that limit superior of a bounded sequence is largest limit point of sequence.
7. If an is a bounded sequence then liminf an iff for any given 0,
n
(i) an for infinitely many values of n. (ii) an for all except finitely many values of n.
8. Result (7) yields that limit inferior of a bounded sequence is smallest limit point of sequence.
9. lim an l if and only if limsup an liminf an l (l may be finite or infinite)
n n n
10. A sequence is convergent iff its limit superior and limit inferior both are equal to its limit.
11. A sequence is divergent to iff its limit superior and limit inferior both are .
12. A sequence is divergent to iff its limit superior and limit inferior both are .
13. If limit superior and limit inferior of a sequence are not same, then the sequence oscillates finitely.
14. For any sequence an , if k 0, then,
(i) limsup kan k limsup an (ii) liminf kan k liminf an
n n n n
15. For any sequence an , if k 0, then,
(i) limsup kan k liminf an (ii) liminf kan k limsup an
n n n n
1 1
16. (i) limsup an 0 if and only if liminf (ii) limsup an if and only if liminf 0
n n n n
an an
17. Cauchy’s Second theorem for superior and inferior limits: If an is a positive term sequence, then
1 1
an1 an1
(i) limsup an n limsup (ii) liminf liminf an n
n n an n an n
Exercise 3.6
For each of the following sequences, find limit superior and limit inferior :
1 1 1 1
1. 1,2,0,1,0,1,0,1,0,...... 2. 1, , ,1, 2,3,1, , ,1, 2,3,......
2 3 2 3
a n
3. an where an1 a 0, a1 0 4. sin
an 3
140
1
1 n n 1, 4,7,....
1
1 n if n is even
1
5. an where an 2 n 2,5,8,.... 6. an where an
n 1 1 if n is odd
1 n
3 n n 3,6,9,....
7. Let r1, r2 , r3 ,..... be an enumeration of all rational numbers in the closed interval 0,1 then
consider the sequence rn .
(Hint : The sequences 1 to 7 are oscillating finitely)
n
1
1
n 1
8. 1 1 9. 1 n n 10. 1 1
n n
n n
(Hint : The sequences 8,9,10 are constructed from a convergent sequence)
1n
11. 1 n 12. n 1 13. n
n
n
2
1 n 1
14. 2 1 15. 10 1 16. 1 2n 3n
n n
n n
(Hint : The sequences 11 to 16 are unbounded)
1 1 1 1 1 1
17. , , 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 ,...... (Hint : Dancing convergence)
2 4 2 4 2 4
18. Examine the truth of following statements :
(i) limsup an if and only if lim an
n n
(ii) If limsup an , then an is divergent to .
n
(iii) If liminf an , then an is divergent to .
n
Answers
1
1. 1 ; 0 2. 3 ;
3
a
3. (a) If a1 , then limsup liminf a1
a1
a a a
(b) If a1 , then Case (i) : if a1 , then limsup= a1 , lim inf=
a1 a1 a1
a a
Case (ii) : If a1 , then limsup , liminf a1
a1 a1
3 3
4. ; 5. 3 ; 1 6. 1 ; –1 8. e ; –e 9. 1; 1
2 2
11. ; 12. ;0 13. 0 ; 14. 0 ; 0 15. ;
16. ; 17. 0 ; 0
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True false exercise 14. There exists a convergent sequence which
is unbounded.
1. A monotonic sequence is convergent iff it
is bounded. 15. There exists an unbounded sequence which
is convergent.
2. Monotonic sequence can have atmost one
limit point. 16. If the sequence is bounded, then the
supremum of the set of limit points of the
3. Every monotonic sequence of real numbers sequence is limit superior.
is convergent.
17. If the sequence is bounded, then the
4. Every sequence of real numbers has a infimum of the set of limit points of the
lim sup and a limit inf. sequence is limit inferior.
5. Every sequence of real numbers has a 18. There exists an unbounded sequence which
monotone subsequence. is divergent.
6. Every sequence of real numbers has a 19. If a sequence of natural number is not
convergent subsequence. divergent then it has constant subsequence.
7. If lim inf an lim sup an a then 1 1 1
n n 20. The sequence 1 .... is
lim an a . 1 2 n
n convergent.
8. There exists a sequence of real numbers
21. Let an be a sequence such that an2 a 2 ,
an , such that the limits of subsequence
then an a as n .
of an are in 1,1 .
22. If a sequence is divergent to , then limit
9. If every subsequence of a sequence
inferior is .
converges, then the sequence itself must
converge.
23. If a sequence is divergent to , then limit
superior is .
10. There is a bounded sequence in with no
convergent subsequences. 1
24. lim 1 n n e
n
11. Let an n1 be a sequence of real number.
If a2n n1 and a2n1n1 both converge, 1
25. lim 1 n n 1
then the original sequence an converges. n0
12. Limit point of a sequence is the limit point
of the range set.
13. Unbounded sequence cannot have limit
point.
142
Assignment 4. convergent
---------------------- S C Q --------------------- 2n
1
5. The sequence {xn } , where xn 1 ,
1. The value of 3n
n 1 n2
1 1 1 1
n converge to
1 1
lim
n n 2 2 2 3 2 2 3
1. e3 2. e2
1 1
.... is 1
n 2 3. e3 4. None of these
1. 0 2. does not exist 6. The sequence {xn } , where
3. 1 4. None of these
n
1
2. The sequence xn 1 , converge to
n 1
2, when n is even
1. e 2. 0
Sn lowest prime factor ( 1) of n,
when n is odd 3. 1 4. None of these
7. The sequence {xn }, where
has limit point
1. 2 1 1 1
xn 1 2 .... n1 ,
2 2 2
2. 1,2,3,4,5,....
1. increasing but not bounded
3. countable in number
2. increasing and bounded
4. uncountable in number
3. decreasing but not bounded
3. Consider the statements
4. decreasing and bounded
1
(3n)! n 8. The sequence {xn }, where
(A) lim 27
n ( n !)3
1 1 1
xn .... is
1 n 1 n 2 2n
nn n e
(B) lim 1. increasing but not bounded
n (n 1)(n 2) (n n) 4
2. increasing and bounded
Then 3. decreasing and bounded
1. (A) is true but (B) is false. 4. decreasing but not bounded
2. (A) is false but (B) is true. 9. The sequence {xn }, where
3. (A) and (B) both are true.
1 1 1 1
4. Neither (A) nor (B) is true. xn 1 .... is
1! 2! 3! n 1!
4. Let an least power of 2 that divides n. 1. increasing and bounded
Then an is 2. decreasing and bounded
1. divergent to infinity 3. increasing but not bounded
2. bounded 4. decreasing but not bounded
3. having a subsequence converging to 3
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1 1 1 1
1
10. lim [(m 1)(m 2)....(m n)] n , where m 15. lim ...
n n
n n 2 4 4 6
is a fixed positive integer is equal to 1
is
1. 1 2. e 2n 2n 2
1 4 1
3. 4. 1. 2 2.
e e 2
1 1 1 1
e e2 e3 .... e n 3. 2 1 4.
11. lim is equal to 2 1
n n
(CSIR-NET Dec 2015)
1. 0 2. 1
n
1
3. e 4. None of these 16. lim n 1 2 equals
1 1 1
n
1
12. lim (1 2 2 33 .... n n ) is equal to 1. 1 2. e1/2
n n
1. 0 2. 1 3. e 2 4. e 1
3. e 4. None of these (CSIR NET June 2016)
13. Let an sin For the sequence a1, a2 ,...
n 17. Consider the interval (1,1) and a sequence
the supremum is {an }n1 of elements in it. Then,
1. 0 and it is attained. 1. Every limit point of {an } is in (1,1)
2. 0 and it is not attained.
2. Every limit point of {a n } is in [1,1]
3. 1 and it is attained.
3. The limit points of {an } can only be in
4. 1 and it is not attained.
(CSIR-NET June 2012) {1,0,1}
1 1 1 4. The limits points of {an } cannot be in
14. limn ...
n 1 3 3 5 {1,0,1}
1 (CSIR NET June 2016)
equals
2n 1 2n 1 n n n 1
18. lim 2 2 2 2 2 ... is
1 n n n 1 n 2 2n
1. 2 2. equal to
2
1 1. 2. 0
3. 2 1 4. 4
2 1
3. 4.
(CSIR-NET June 2014) 4 3
144
19. Let an be a sequence of reals, then which log x log x
4. lim 1
0 but lim does not
x x x
2
of the following is true ? x
exist
1. an is convergent if a2n and a2 n1 (CSIR NET Dec 2011)
are convergent. 1
23. L lim n n
. Then
2. an is convergent if a2n and a3n n!
1. L 0 2. L 1
are convergent. 3. 0 L 4. L
(CSIR NET June 2017)
3. an is convergent if a2n , a3n and n
n 1
24. Consider the sequence an 1 1 .
a2 n1 are convergent. n
Then
4. an is convergent if ank is 1. limsup an liminf an 1
n n
convergent for any k 1 . 2. limsup an liminf an e
n n
20. Which of the following is/are true ?
1
3. limsup an liminf an
1. There exists a sequence that contains n n e
subsequence converges to every point 1
4. limsup an e, liminf an
n e
of 0,1 and no other point. n
(CSIR NET June 2017)
2. There exists a sequence that contains
25. Let D be a subset of the real line. Consider
subsequence converges to every point the assertion : “Every infinite sequence in
of [0, 1) and no other point. D has a subsequence which converges in
D”. This assertion is true if
3. Both 1 and 2 are true. 1. D [0, )
4. Both 1 and 2 are false. 2. D 0,1 3,4
21. The sequence 3. D [1,1) (1,2]
4. D (1,1]
7, 7 7 , 7 7 7 ,... converges to
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
1 33 1 32 26. Define the sequence an as follows :
1. 2.
2 2
a1 1 and for
1 30 1 29
3. 4.
2 2 n 1 2
n 1, an1 1 an .
(TIFR 2009) 2 an
22. Which of the following statements is true ? Which of the following is true ?
log x log x
1. lim 1 0 and lim 1. lim sup an 2
x x x
2
x 2. lim inf an
log x log x
2. lim 1 and lim 0 3. lim an 2
x x x
x2
4. sup an 2
log x log x
3. lim 1 0 and lim 0 (CSIR NET June 2018)
x x x
x2
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27. If xn is a convergent sequence in and 3. liminf n bn
1
2
yn is a bounded sequence in , then we
1
4. 0 liminf n bn limsupn bn
can conclude that 2
1. xn yn is convergent (CSIR NET June 2019)
30. For n , which of the following is true ?
2. xn yn is bounded
1
3. xn yn has no convergent 1. n 1 n for all, except
n
subsequence possibly finitely many n
4. xn yn has no bounded subsequence 2. n 1 n
1
for all, except
n
(CSIR NET June 2018)
possibly finitely many n
28. Suppose that xn is a sequence of real
3. n 1 n 1 for all, except
numbers satisfying the following. For every
possibly finitely many n
0, there exists n0 such that
4. n 1 n 2 for all, except
xn1 xn n n0
possibly finitely many n
The sequence xn is (CSIR NET June 2019)
1. bounded but not necessarily Cauchy
2. Cauchy but not necessarily bounded ----------------------- M C Q ------------------------
3. convergent
4. not necessarily bounded 1. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
(CSIR NET Dec 2018) xn
1. lim 0 x
29. Consider the sequence n n!
xn
an , an 1 . Let
n 1 1
2. lim x
2 n n n!
n
xn
bn ak n . 3. lim 0 x 1
k 1 n n
Then which of the following is true ? xn
4. lim x 1
1. limn bn 0 n n
1 2. Let Sn and tn be two sequences
2. limsup n bn
2 Sn1 1
such that lim , Sn 0 n
n Sn 2
146
tn1 3
, tn 0 n . Then 1 1
and lim 1. sin 2. sin 2
n tn 2 n! n
1. lim Sn 0 1 1
n 3. sin 4. sin
2n 1 2n
2. lim Sn does not exists finitely
n 6. The sequence {an } defined by
3. lim tn 0
n 1 9
an1 an , n 1, a1 0 . Then,
2 an
4. lim tn does not exists finitely
n
1. converges to 3
3. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
2. monotonic increasing sequence, if
1 1 1 1 1
1. lim 2 3 ... n 0 an 3, n
n n 2 2 2 2
3. monotonic decreasing sequence, if
1 1 1 1 1
2. lim 2 3 ... n does an 3, n
n n 2 2 2 2
not exists 4. bounded sequence
1 7. Which of the following is/are correct ?
1 1 1 1
2 3 nn
lim ... 0 1
1. n log 1 1 as n
3.
n 2 2 2 2
n 1
n 1 log 1
1 1
1 1 1 1
2 3 nn 2. 1 as n
n 1
4. lim ... does
n 2 2 2 2
1
3. n2 log 1 1 as n
not exists n 1
4. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ? 1
4. n log 1 2 1 as n
1 n
1 n
1. lim 0
n 1 2 3....n
(CSIR-NET June 2011)
1
8. If xn and yn are sequences of real
1 n
2. lim does not exist numbers, which of the following is/are
n 1 2 3....n
true?
1 3 4
2 3 n
n 1 1. limsup xn yn limsup xn limsup yn
3. lim 2 .... e
n n
2 3 n n n n
2. limsup xn yn limsup xn limsup yn
1 3 4 n 1
2 3 n n n n
4. lim 2 ....
2 3
n n n 3. liminf xn yn liminf xn liminf yn
n n n
does not exist 4. liminf xn yn liminf xn liminf yn
n n n
5. The subsequence(s) of the sequence
(CSIR-NET June 2011)
1
sin is/are 9. Which of the following is/are correct ?
n
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1
n1
2. if an a , then supn 1 anbn a supn 1 bn .
1. 1 e as n .
n
3. if bn b , then inf n 1 anbn b inf n 1 an .
n
1
2. 1 e as n .
n 4. if bn b ,then inf n 1 anbn b inf n 1 an
n2 (CSIR-NET June 2014)
1
3. 1 e as n .
n 12. Let pn x an x 2 bn x cn be a sequence of
1
n
quadratic polynomials where an , bn , cn ,
4. 1 2 e as n .
n for all n1. Let 0 , 1, 2 be distinct real
(CSIR-NET June 2012)
numbers s.t. limn pn 0 A0 ,
10. Consider the sequence of rational numbers
k limn pn 1 A1 and limn pn 2 A2 .
1
qk k 1 where qk 2 i.e., the
n 1 10n Then
sequence is 1. limn pn x exists for all x .
q1 .1, q2 .1001, q3 .100100001 etc.
2. limn pn x exists for all x .
Which of the following is true ?
1. This sequence is bounded and 3. limn pn 0 1 2 does not exist.
3
convergent in .
4. limn pn 0 1 2 does not exist.
2. This sequence is not bounded. 3
3. This sequence is bounded, but not a (CSIR-NET June 2014)
Cauchy sequence. 13. Let pn x an x 2 bn x be a sequence of
4. This sequence is bounded and Cauchy
quadratic polynomials where an , bn for
but not convergent in .
all n 1. Let 0 , 1 be distinct nonzero real
(CSIR-NET Dec 2013)
11. Let an , bn be given bounded sequences numbers such that lim pn 0 and
n
of positive real numbers. Then ( Here lim pn 1 exist. Then
n
an a means an increase to a as n goes to
1. lim pn x exists for all x .
n
, similarly, bn b means bn decreases to
2. lim p 'n x exists for all x .
n
b as n goes to )
1. if an a , then supn 1 anbn a supn 1 bn . 3. lim pn 0 1 does not exist.
n
2
148
n
4. lim p 'n 0 1 does not exist.
n
2
d n for n a, b . Which of the
a
(CSIR-NET Dec 2015) n
14. Let x1 0, x2 1, and for n 3, define b
following statements are true ? As n ,
x x
xn n1 n2 . Which of the following
2
1. dn converges for all values of a and b
is/are true ? 2. dn converges if a b
1. xn is a monotone sequence. 3. dn converges if a b
2. lim xn
1
. 4. dn converges if a b
n 2
3. xn is a Cauchy sequence. (CSIR NET June 2017)
2 n
4. lim xn
k
. n
n 3 18. Evaluate lim .
n
k 0
2
n2
(CSIR NET June 2016)
15. Which of the following is/are true : 1. 2.
2
1. If every subsequence ank of a real
3. 4.
8 4
sequence an is convergent then an (CSIR NET Dec 2017)
19. Let amn , m 1, n 1 be a double array of
is convergent. real numbers. Define
2. If every subsequence ank of a P liminf liminf amn , Q liminf limsup amn
n m n m
sequence an contains a subsequence R limsupliminf amn , S limsuplimsup amn
n m n m
Which of the following statements are
ank converges to a, then an also necessarily true ?
l
1. P Q 2. Q R
converges to a. 3. R S 4. P S
3. If an is bounded and all convergent (CSIR NET Dec 2017)
20. Given that
subsequences of an converges to a, 1 n
a n 2
10100
then an is convergent to a.
b n 10100 log n
4. All of the above.
1 2
16. Let an be a sequence of real number such c n n ,
1010
an which of the following statements are true ?
that lim an an1 a, then lim is
n n n
1. a n c n for all sufficiently large n
1. convergent 2. divergent
2. b n c n for all sufficiently large n
3. converges to zero 4. converges to a
3. b n n for all sufficiently large n
17. For a, b , consider the sequence
4. a n b n for all sufficiently large n
(CSIR NET June 2018)
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21. Let pn denote the n-th prime number, True false key
when we enumerate the prime numbers in 1. T 2. T 3. F 4. T
the increasing order. For example, 5. T 6. F 7. T 8. T
p1 2, p2 3, p3 5 and so on. Let 9. T 10. F 11. F 12. F
13. F 14. F 15. F 16. T
S sn pn1 pn | n , n 1 .
17. T 18. T 19. T 20. T
Then which of the following are correct ?
21. T 22. T 23. T 24. F
1. sup S
25. F
2. limsup sn
n
3. inf S and inf S 1 Assignment key
4. liminf sn 2 SCQ
n
1. 1 2. 3 3. 3 4. 2
(CSIR NET Dec 2018)
5. 1 6. 1 7. 2 8. 2
22. Suppose that xn is a sequence of positive
9. 1 10. 3 11. 2 12. 2
x
reals. Let yn n . Then which of the 13. 3 14. 2 15. 2 16. 1
1 xn
17. 2 18. 3 19. 3 20. 4
following are true ?
21. 4 22. 3 23. 1 24. 4
1. xn is convergent if yn is 25. 2 26. 1 27. 2
convergent
2. yn is convergent if xn is MCQ
convergent 1. 1,4 2. 1,4 3. 1,3 4. 1,3
5. 1,2,3,4 6. 1,2,3,4 7. 1,2 8. 1,4
3. yn is bounded if xn is bounded
9. 1,2 10. 4 11. 1,3 12. 1,2
4. xn is bounded if yn is bounded
13. 1,2 14. 3,4 15. 1,2,3,4
(CSIR NET June 2019) 16. 1,4 17. 2,3 18. 4 19. 1,3,4
20. 1,4
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Chapter - 4
Infinite Series
4.1 Definitions and examples
A Layman’s approach : Let us start the concept of infinite series with a lay-man point of view (who
offcourse knows the addition of numbers). We consider the infinite series
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 ........ ….(1)
2 4 8 16 32 64 128
If a lay-man is asked to find the sum of the above series using calculator or any other device and
express the sum in decimal representation, then he will start adding the terms with an expectation of
finding the exact sum. In this process he will obtain :
Sum of two terms = 1 0.5 1.5
Sum of three terms = 1.5 + 0.25 = 1.75
Sum of four terms = 1.75 + 0.125 = 1.875
Sum of five terms = 1.875 + 0.0625 = 1.9375
Sum of six terms = 1.9375 + 0.03125 = 1.96875
Sum of seven terms = 1.96875 + 0.015625 = 1.984375
After adding few terms of this series, he will soon come to the conclusion that the sum of this series
can not be found because the process of adding the terms will never have an end as there are infinitely
many terms.
Thus we have concluded that it is impossible to find the exact sum of infinitely many terms.
Offcourse we are right ! But keeping this conclusion on one side for a moment, let us restart the
process of adding the terms of the series (1). After adding ten terms of the series, we shall obtain the
sum 1.998046875. Looking at this number, it seems that after adding one or two or few more terms,
this sum will cross the number 2. So, let us search out the value of the eleventh term, which is,
1
0.0009765625 .
1024
Notice that the number of 0’s after the decimal in this eleventh term is more than the number of 9’s
after the decimal in the sum of first ten terms. Therefore the sum of eleven terms of the series will not
cross the number [Link] fact the sum of any number of terms of the series will never cross the number
[Link], however, we can not find the exact sum of the series but it will go closer and closer towards
152
the number 2 and will never cross it. Mathematicians has chosen the name ‘convergent’ for this
1 1 1 1
behaviour of a series and so we say that the series 1 .... converges to 2. More
2 4 8 16
specifically, this number 2 is ‘defined’ to be the sum of the series. It should be noted that we are not
saying that the exact sum of the series is 2, rather we are defining the sum to be 2. Definitions plays
the same role in the mathematics, as the constitution (or law) plays in a country. Both are never to be
claimed (under normal circumstances).
Let us consider another infinite series
1+2+4+8+16+……… ......(2)
Clearly, the sum of this series will go beyond all bounds and such series are named as divergent.
The main difference between the series (1) and (2) is that the terms of the series (1) are getting smaller
whereas the terms of the series (2) are getting [Link] our intuition (feeling) says by noting the
difference between two series. Those who goes so much by intuition will think that if the terms are
getting smaller, then the series is convergent and if the terms are getting larger then the series is
divergent.
But the following series will work as an eye-opener for such people.
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 ........ ......(3)
2 3 4 5 6 7
The terms of this series are getting smaller and one can feel that this series will become convergent.
By the use of scientific calculator or an efficient computer, it can be found that
Sum of first 50,000 terms = 11.4 (approx).
and Sum of first 1,00,000 terms = 12.1 (approx).
By noticing these predictions, it seems that the series will converge to a number close to 13. But, in
fact, this series is divergent. Let us prove it by simple arithmetic. Write the series by putting the
1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
brackets in the following manner ...... Clearly, the sum of each
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
bracket is . Thus if we want the sum to cross 1,00,000 then at the most 2,00,000 brackets will
2
solve our purpose. Similarly, the sum of the above series can cross any number and therefore it is
[Link], the nature of terms of getting smaller is a necessary condition for a series to be
convergent but it is not sufficient one. Several mathematicians has constructed several sufficient
conditions for an infinite series to be convergent, known popularly as tests.
Def. Infinite Series : If the terms of a sequence are connected by ‘+’ or ‘–’ sign, then it becomes a
series, i.e. if an is a sequence of real numbers, then the expression a1 a2 a3 a4 .........
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is called an infinite series and is denoted by a
n 1
n . Here a1 , a2 , a3 are respectively called 1st, 2nd and
3rd term of the series and an is called nth term or General term of the series.
Def. Sequence of Partial Sums : Let a
n 1
n be a given series and
S1 a1, S2 a1 a2 , S3 a1 a2 a3 ,……, Sn a1 a2 ...... an i.e. S n is the sum of first n terms of
the given series then the sequence Sn is called the sequence of partial sums of the series a
n 1
n .
Def. Convergence, Divergence or Oscillation of a Series : Behaviour of a series a
n 1
n totally
depends on the behaviour of the sequence of its partial sums Sn i.e.,
(i) The series a
n 1
n is said to be convergent if the sequence of its partial sums Sn is convergent.
If the sequence Sn converges to a real number S, then S is called the sum of the series and we
write a
n 1
n S .
(ii) The series a
n 1
n is said to be divergent to or if the sequence Sn is divergent to
or respectively and then we write an or
n 1
a
n 1
n .
(iii) The series a
n 1
n is said to be oscillating finitely or infinitely if the sequence of its partial sums
Sn is oscillating finitely or infinitely respectively.
Results (A)
1. The convergence, divergence or oscillation behaviour of a series remains unchanged by the
addition, omission or alteration of first finite number of terms of the series.
2. If the series an and
n 1
b
n 1
n converges to a and b respectively and p is any number, then
(i) a
n 1
n bn converges to a b (ii) pa
n 1
n converges to pa.
3. Behaviour of a geometric series : The geometric series a ar ar 2 ........ ar n 1 ........
154
a
(i) converges to if r 1 (ii) diverges if r 1
1 r
(iii) oscillates finitely if r 1 (iv) oscillates infinitely if r 1
4. Behaviour of Arithmetico-Geometric series : The series a a d r a 2d r 2 a 3d r 3 ....
is called arithmetico-geometric series and it is convergent if r 1 . If r 1 and
S a a d r a 2d r 2 a 3d r 3 ....
rS ar a d r 2 a 2d r 3 ....
S rS a 1 r a d r r 2 a 2d r 2 r 3 ....
a ar ar ar 2 dr dr 2 ar 2 ar 3 2dr 2 2dr 3 .....
a dr dr 2 dr 3 dr 4 ....
a d r r 2 r 3 ..... a dr
1 r
S
a
dr
1 r 1 r 2
5. Cauchy’s General Principle of convergence : A necessary and sufficient condition for a series
a
n 1
n to be convergent is that for each 0 , there exists a positive integer m such that
am 1 am 2 ......... an whenever n > m.
6. General Necessary condition for convergence : If the series a
n 1
n converges, then lim an 0 .
n
Remarks :
(i) Contrapositive of above statement is : If lim an 0 then
n
a
n 1
n is not convergent.
(ii) Converse of above statement is not true in general i.e., if lim an 0 then it is not necessary that
n
1 1
the series an is convergent. For example,
n 1
n 1 n
and sin n .
n 1
Def. Series of positive terms : A series a
n 1
n , for which an 0 for all n, is called a series of positive
terms.
7. A positive term series a
n 1
n , either converges or diverges to .
8. A positive term series a
n 1
n convergent iff Sn the sequence of its partial sums is bounded above.
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9. Pringshim’s necessary condition for convergence : If a
n 1
n be a positive term convergent series
such that an is decreasing then lim nan 0 .
n
Contrapositive : If a
n 1
n be a positive term decreasing series and lim nan 0 then
n
a
n 1
n is divergent.
1 1 1 1
10. Generalized Harmonic Series or p - Series Test : The series n p 1 2 p 3 p ... n p ...
n 1
is convergent if p 1 and divergent if p 1 .
Remark : In the above test p is any real number, not necessarily an integer.
1 n
11. Let S n denotes the sum of first n terms of the series n
n 1
then S2n 1
2
for all n.
Results (B)
Comparison Tests : The most useful technique to check the convergence or divergence of a given
series is to compare it with another suitably chosen series whose convergence or divergence behaviour
is already known.
1. Value comparison test I : Let an and bn be two positive term series such that a n bn for
n 1 n 1
all n. Then
(i) If bn is convergent, then an is also convergent.
n 1 n 1
(ii) If an is divergent, then bn is also divergent.
n 1 n 1
2. Value comparison test II : Let an and bn be two positive term series such that a n bn
n 1 n 1
for all n m where m is some fixed positive integer. Then
(i) If bn is convergent then an is also convergent.
n 1 n 1
156
(ii) If an is divergent, then bn is also divergent.
n 1 n 1
3. Value comparison test III : Let an and bn be two positive term series such that
n 1 n 1
kbn an Kbn for all n and for two positive numbers k and K. Then the series
an and bn converge or diverge together.
n 1 n 1
4. Value comparison test IV : Let an and bn be two series of positive terms such that
n 1 n 1
k bn an Kbn for all n m for some fixed positive integer m and two positive number k and K.
Then the series an and bn converge or diverge together.
n 1 n 1
an
5. Limit comparison test I : If an and bn are two positive term series such that lim
n bn
l
n 1 n 1
(finite and non-zero), then both the series an and bn converge or diverge together.
n 1 n 1
6. Limit comparison test II : If an and bn are two positive term series, then
n 1 n 1
an
(i) If lim
n bn
0 and bn is convergent, then an is also convergent.
n 1 n 1
an
(ii) If lim
n bn
and bn is divergent, then an is also divergent.
n 1 n 1
7. Ratio comparison test I : If an and bn are two positive term series such that
n 1 n 1
an b
n n m , where m is some fixed positive integer. Then
an1 bn1
(i) If bn is convergent, then an is also convergent.
n 1 n 1
(ii) If an is divergent, then bn is also divergent.
n 1 n 1
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Results (C)
1. If an and
n 1
bn be two convergent series then
n 1
a
n 1
n bn is convergent.
2. If an is a positive term convergent series then
n 1
a
n 1
k
n , k is a positive integer, is also convergent.
Proof : a
n 1
n is convergent.
lim an 0
n
For 1, there exists a positive integer m such that an 0 1 for all n m
an 1 for all n m
ank an for all n m
Now the result directly follows from the comparison test.
3. If a
n 1
n and b
n 1
n be two positive term convergent series then
n 1
an bn is also a convergent
series :
an bn
Proof : We know that an bn , now the result directly follows from the comparison test.
2
4. Let an , bn 0 for all n such that a
n 1
2
n and b
n 1
2
n are convergent series then a
n 1
n bn is also
convergent.
an
5. If an is a positive term convergent series then
n 1
n
n 1
is also convergent.
1
Proof : Take bn in above result.
n2
6. If an and
n 1
bn are two positive term convergent series then
n 1
a
n 1
n bn is also convergent.
Proof : It follows from the above two results.
1
n
Remark : The above result is not valid for arbitrary series. For example, take an bn
n
7. If an2 and
n 1
bn2 are convergent series where an , bn 0 then
n 1
a
n 1
2
n bn2 is also convergent.
158
an2 and bn2 are convergent then a bn is also convergent.
2
8. If n
n 1 n 1 n 1
Proof : an bn an2 bn2 2an bn and a , b , a
2 2 2
n n n bn are convergent.
n 1 n 1 n 1
1
9. If an and
n 1
b
n 1
n are two positive term convergent series and 0 k
2
then the series
a b
k
n n need not be convergent.
n 1
1
10. If an and
n 1
b
n 1
n are two positive term convergent series and k
2
then the series
a b
k
n n is onvergent.
n 1
Results (D)
1 1
1. The series n sin n is convergent if 1 and divergent if 1.
n 1
1 1 1
Proof : Take an
sin and bn and apply the limit comparison test.
n n n
2. This result is also true if sine function is replaced by sin 1, tan, tan 1 .
1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
3. (i) 1 .... (ii) 1 .... (iii) 1 ..... log 2
2 3 4 9 16 6 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 2
(iv) 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 .... (v) 1 .... 2 (vi) 1 ...
2 4 8 4 9 16 12
Def. Telescopic series : Let an be a sequence of real numbers, then the series an an1 and
n 1
an1 an are known as telescopic series because of the telescoping (or collapsing) nature of its
n 1
partial sums.
4. The telescopic series an an1 and an1 an are convergent iff the sequence a n is
n 1 n 1
convergent. Further an an1 a1 lim an and
n
an1 an nlim
an a1 .
n 1 n 1
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Proof : Let S n denotes the partial sum of the series an an1 , then we have
n 1
Sn a1 a2 a2 a3 .... an1 an an an1 a1 an1
an an1 nlim
Sn a1 lim an1 a1 lim an
n n
n 1
Similarly second proof can be done.
1 1 1 1 1 1
5. (i) n n 1 n 2 .... n k k k (ii) n n k k 1 2 .... k .
n 1 n 1
1 1 nk n
Proof : (i) n n 1 n 2.... n k k n n 1 n 2.... n k
n 1 n 1
1 1 1
k n 1 n n 1 n 2 .... n k 1 n 1 n 2 .... n k
1 1
k n 1
an an1 where an
n n 1 .... n k 1
1
k
a1 lim an
n
1k 1k 0 k1k
1 1 n k n 1 1 1
(ii)
n1 n n k
k n1 n n k k n1 n n k
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
k n1 n n 1
....
n k 1 n 1 n 2
....
n k
1 1 1 1
k n1
an an1 , where an
n n 1
.....
n k 1
1
k
a1 lim an
n
1k 1 12 .... 1k 0 1k 1 12 .... 1k .
Example 1 : Show that the following series are not convergent :
1
n2
3n 1
1 n
(i)
n 1 n 1
(ii)
n 1 2n 1
(iii) 2
n 1 n
n2
Solution : (i) Let
n 1
an
n 1 n 1
160
n2 1
lim an lim lim 0
n n n 1 n 1 1
n n2
Therefore, the given series is not convergent.
3n 1
(ii) Let n 1 2n 1
an
n 1
1
3
3n 1 n 30
lim an lim lim
n n 2n 1 n 1 2
2
n
Therefore, the given series is not convergent.
1 1
1 log n
(iii) Let y nn log y log n n log n
n n
1
log n
lim log y lim lim n 0 [Applying L’ Hospital rule]
n n n n 1
1
lim y e0 1 0 or lim n n 1 ......(1)
n n
1
1 n
Let the given series be a
n 1
n , then an 2
n
1
So, lim an lim 2
1 [Using (1)]
n n
1n
n
Thus, an is a series of positive terms such that lim an 0 . Hence
n 1
n
a
n 1
n is divergent.
Example 2 : Show that the series a
n 1
n where an n4 1 n4 1 is convergent .
Solution : Here an n4 1 n4 1 0 for all n
Rationalizing, we have
n 4 1 n 4 1 n4 1 n 4 1
an
n 4 1 n 4 1
n 4 1 n 4 1 2
n 4 1 n 4 1 1 1
n 2 1 4 1 4
n n
1 a 2 2
Let bn , then lim n lim 1 [non-zero and finite]
n2 n b n 1 1 11
n
1 4 1 4
n n
Applying comparison test , an and
n 1
b
n 1
n converge or diverge together.
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1
But by p - series test,
n 1
bn
2
n 1 n
is convergent and therefore an is also convergent.
n 1
1 2 3 4 5 6
Example 3 : Test the convergence of the series 2 2 2 2 2 2 ............
3 4 5 6 7 8
2n 1 2n
Solution : Here an
2n 1 2n 22
2
1 1
2n 1 1
2n 2n
2n
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
4n 2 1 4n 2 1 4n 2 1 1
2n n 2n n
1
Let us compare an with bn where bn 2
n 1 n 1 n
1
1
an 2n
2 2
bn 1 1
4 1 1
2n n
a 1 1
lim n , which is non-zero and finite.
n b
n 4 1 1 4
an and bn converge or diverge together.
n 1 n 1
1 1
Since bn
n 1 n 1 n
2
is of the form n
n 1
p
with p 2 1 .
b
n 1
n is convergent. Hence a
n 1
n is convergent.
1
Example 4 : Test the convergence of the series n
n3
3
log n
.
1
Solution : Here an 3
n log n
1
Since log n 1 for all n 3 , so 1
log n
1 1 1
3
3
n log n n
and n
n 1
3
is convergent by p - series test.
1
Using comparison test, given series n
n 1
3
log n
is convergent.
162
Exercise 4.1
1. Examine the convergence of the following series : ( GNC )
1
n
n2
n 2 2n 4
(i) n n 1
(ii) 3n 1
(iii) n4
(iv) 2n 2 n 3
n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1
1
1 2 3 1 n 1 1
(v) ...
2 3 4
(vi)
n 1 n
(vii) cos n
n 1
(viii) cos n
n 1
2
2. Examine the convergence of the following series : ( GP and 2GP )
n 1
3 1 1 1
(i) (ii) ...
n 1 4 3 32 33
1 1 1 1 3 4 3 4
(iii) ...... to (iv) .......... to
2 32 23 34 5 52 53 54
2n 3n
(v) a b a b a b .... to
2 2 3 3
(vi)
n 1 6n
3. Examine the convergence of the following series : ( LCP )
1 1
(i) n n 1
(ii) n n 1 n 2
n 1 n 1
1 1 1 1 3 5
(iii) ... (iv) ...
1 4 2 5 3 6 1 2 3 2 3 4 3 4 5
n 1 1 1
(v) (vi) ...
n 1 2 3n3 1 2 2 3 3 4
2 3 4 5 2 1 3 1 4 1
(vii) p p p ... (viii) 3 3 3 ...
p
1 2 3 4 3 1 4 1 5 1
1
1
(ix) (x)
n 1 n
1
n 1 1
n n n
4. Examine the convergence of the following series : ( RLCP, ELCP )
(i) n3 1 n3 (ii) n 2 1 n 2 1
n 1 n 1
n 1 n
1 1
(iii) (iv) n 1 3 n 3
n 1 n n 1
1 n 1
(v) an 3
n3 1 n (vi) n log
n 1
n
5. Examine the convergence of the following series : ( VCP )
cos n 1
(i)
n 1
3
(ii)
n 2 log n
(iii) e
n 1
n2
2
n
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1 1
(iv)
n 1 log n
log n
(v)
n 1 log log n
log n
6. Examine the convergence of the following series : ( LCG )
a 5a 2 2n1 3 n
1
(i)
6 10
...... n1
2 2
a ....., where a 0 (ii) 2
n 1
n
3n
7. Examine the convergence of the following series : ( VCG )
1 1
(i)
n 1 n!
(ii) 2
n 1
n 1
3
8. Examine the convergence of the following series : ( - result )
1 1 1 1
(i)
n 1
sin
n
(ii) sin
n 1 n2
(iii)
n 1
n
sin
n
1 1 1 1 1
(iv) sin (v) tan (vi) tan 1
n 1 n n n 1 n n n 1 n
(vii) cot
n 1
1
n2
9. Examine the convergence of the following series : ( P, LP )
1 1 1
(i) 1 2
2
2
..... . (ii) a
n 1
log n
3 3 3
4 9 16
1 x x2
10. Examine the convergence of the series ......., where x 0 ( LCG + GNC )
1 x 1 x 2 1 x3
.
1
11. Examine the convergence of the series x
n 1
n
x n
, x 0 ( LCG + LCG )
12. (i) If an is a convergent series of positive terms, prove that
n 1
a
n 1
2
n is also convergent. Is the
converse true ? If not show by an example. ( VCO )
an
(ii) If an is a positive term convergent series, then prove that
n 1
1 a
n 1
an 1 is also
n
convergent. ( LCO )
an
(iii) If an 1
n is a positive term convergent series, then prove that 1 a
n 1
is also convergent.
n
( LCO )
164
an
(iv) If an is a positive term series, then prove that
n 1
1 n a
n 1
2
is convergent. ( LCP )
n
an
(v) If a
n 1
n is a positive term series, then show that the series 1 a
n 1
and a
n 1
n have same
n
behaviour i.e., they converge or diverge together.
(vi) If a
n 1
n is a positive term divergent series and k is a positive integer then show by an
example that a
n 1
k
n may be convergent or divergent.
13. Find the sum of the following series by converting them into a suitable telescopic series :
1 1 1
(i)
n 1 n n 1
(ii)
n 1 n n 7
(iii) n n 1 n 2
n 1
1
1
2n 1
(iv) 4n
n 1
2
1
(v) n 4 n 5
n 1
(vi) n n 1
n 1
2 2
n n
(vii) 2n 1 2n 1
n 1
2 2
(viii) n
n 1
4
n2 1
xn x 2 x3
14. By using the fact e x 1 x ...... , find the sum of the following series :
n0 n 2 3
n2 n 1
n2
(i) (ii)
n 1 n n 1 n
1 4 42 .... 4n1 1 1 2 1 2 3
(iii)
n 1 n
(iv)
1
2
3
....
1
n1
15. By using the fact that
n 1 n
log 2, find the sum of the following series :
1 1
n n 1
1 1 1 1
(i)
n 1 n n 1
(ii)
n 1 n n 1
(iii)
23 45 67 89
.....
16. Let an be a sequence of positive real numbers then which of the following cases imply that the
series a
n 1
n is convergent.
3 4
3 1
(i) lim n 2 an (ii) lim n 3 an
n 2 n 2
1
2
(iii) lim n 2 an
n 3
(iv) n a
n 1
2 2
n is convergent
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17. Let an and
n 1
b
n 1
n be two positive term series such that lim an l ( non-zero and finite ) then
n
the series an bn and
n 1
b
n 1
n have same behaviour i.e., they converge or diverge together.
18. Let an be a sequence of real numbers such that a
n 1
n l is convergent then show that
lim an l i.e., an is a convergent sequence.
n
19. Give an example of a sequence an such that lim an1 an 0 but the sequence an is
n
divergent.
20. Let an be a sequence of real numbers such that the series a
n 1
n1 an is convergent then show
that the sequence an is a convergent sequence.
Answers
1. (i) divergent (ii) divergent (iii) divergent (iv) divergent
(v) divergent (vi) divergent (vii) divergent (viii) divergent
2. (i) convergent (ii) convergent (iii) convergent
(iv) convergent (v) convergent only if both a and b are 1 (vi) convergent
3. (i) convergent (ii) convergent (iii) convergent (iv) convergent
(v) divergent (vi) divergent (vii) convergent if p 2 and divergent if p 2
(viii) convergent (ix) convergent if 1 and divergent if 1 (x) divergent
4. (i) convergent (ii) divergent (iii) convergent (iv) divergent
(v) convergent (vi) convergent
5. (i) convergent (ii) divergent (iii) convergent (iv) convergent
(v) convergent
6. (i) convergent if 0 a 1 and divergent if a 1 (ii) convergent
7. (i) convergent (ii) convergent
8. (i) divergent (ii) convergent (iii) convergent (iv) convergent (v) convergent
(vi) divergent (vii) convergent
1 1
9. (i) convergent (ii) convergent if a and divergent if a
e e
166
10. convergent if 0 x 1 and divergent if x 1.
11. convergent if x 1, x 1 and divergent if x 1 .
1 1 1 1 1 1
13. (i) 1 (ii) 1 .... (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) 1
7 2 7 4 2 5
1 1
(vii) (viii)
8 2
e4 e 3e
14. (i) 2e 1 (ii) 2e (iii) (iv)
3 2
e 4 e
15. (i) 1 2log 2 log (ii) 2log 2 1 log (iii) 1 log 2 log
4 e 2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.2 D’ alembert’s ratio test
an
D’ alembert’s ratio test : If an is a series of positive terms such that lim
n 1
n an 1
l , then a
n 1
n
(i) is convergent if l > 1 (ii) is divergent if l < 1
(iii) may converge or diverge if l = 1 (i.e., the test fails if l = 1) (iv) is convergent if l
Example : Test the convergence or divergence of the series
1 x x2 x n 1
........ n 2 ....., where x 0 .
3 36 243 3 .n
x n 1 xn
Solution : Here an and an 1 is also convergent.
3n . n 2 3n 1 n 12
x n 1 3n 1 n 12 3
2
an 1
So, n n 1
an 1 x 3 n2 x n
x n 1 3n 1 n 12 3
2
an 1
n n 1
an 1 x 3 n2 x n
3
Thus, by D’Alembert’s Ratio test, a
n 1
n converges if
x
1 i.e., x < 3 and diverges if
3
1 i.e., x 3 .
x
an
When x 3, lim 1 . Thus, Ratio test fails.
n an 1
3n 1 1
Now, when x 3, an 2.
3 n
n 2
3n
1
an
n 1 n 1 3n
2
which is convergent by p-test.
Hence the given series a
n 1
n converges if x 3 and diverges if x > 3.
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Exercise 4.2
Discuss the convergence or divergence of the following series :
12 . 22 22 . 32 32 . 42 2n . n! n2 n!
1.
1!
2!
3!
.... 2.
n 1 nn
3.
n 1 n!
4. n
n 1
n
1
n 1 n
1 n
1
5.
n 1 n3 1
x 6.
n 1
n
7.
n 1
x n cos
n
Answers
1. convergent 2. convergent 3. convergent 4. convergent
5. convergent if x 1 and divergent if x 1 6. divergent
7. convergent if x 1 and divergent if x 1
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.3 Cauchy’s root test
1
Cauchy’s root test : If an is a series of positive terms such that lim an n l, then
n 1
n
a
n 1
n
(i) is convergent if l < 1 (ii) is divergent if l > 1
(iii) may converge or diverge if l = 1 (i.e., the test fails if l = 1) (iv) is divergent l .
Example : Examine the convergence of the following series
2 3
1 2 3 4
x x 2 x3 ........ .
2 3 4 5
Solution : Neglecting the first term, we have
1
n 1
n 1
n 11
n x
an . x n so that an n
x
n2 n2 1
2
n
1
1 1
Now lim an n
lim n x x
n n 2
1
n
Thus, by Cauchy’s Root Test, a
n 1
n converges if x < 1 and diverges if x > 1.
n
1
1
n 1
n
an n
When x = 1,
n2
n
2
1
n
168
n
1
1
and lim an lim n
e 1
0
2
n n
n
e2 e
1 2
2
n
a
n 1
n does not converge. Being a series of positive terms, it must diverge.
Hence the given series is convergent if x < 1 and divergent if x 1.
Exercise 4.3
Test the convergence or divergence of the following series :
n2 1 2 3
n
n log n n 22 2 33 3 44 4
1.
n 1
2. 22 . n n
3. 2 3 4 ......
n 1 n 1 1 1 2 2 3 3
n
1
1
4. n n 1 e n . r n , where r 0 5 n1
n
5. 6. 7.
log log n
n
n 1 n 1 n 1 n2
Answers
1. convergent 2. convergent 3. convergent 4. convergent
5. convergent if 0 r 1 and divergent if r 1 6. convergent 7. convergent
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.4 Raabe’s test and logarithmic test
a
Raabe’s test : If an is a series of positive terms such that lim n n 1 l , then
n an 1 a n is
n 1 n 1
convergent if l > 1 and divergent if l < 1.
an
Logarithmic test : If an is a series of positive terms such that lim n log
n 1
n an 1
l , then a
n 1
n is
convergent if l > 1 and is divergent if l < 1.
Example : Discuss the convergence of the series
3 3.6 2 3.6.9 3
1 x x x ........ .
7 7 . 10 7 . 10 . 13
Solution : Neglecting the first term, we have
3 . 6 ......3n
an xn
7 . 10 . 13........3n 4
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3 . 6 . 9........3n 3n 3
and an 1 x n 1
7 . 10 . 13 ........3n 43n 7
7
1
a 3n 7
1 3n 1 1
So, lim n lim nlim
n 3n 3
n a
n 1 x 1 1 x x
n
1 1
Thus, by Ratio test, a
n 1
n converges if
x
1 i.e., x 1 and diverges if 1 i.e. x 1 .
x
If x = 1, then the ratio test fails.
an 3n 7
When x = 1,
an 1 3n 3
a 3n 7 4 4n
Therefore, n n 1 n 1 n
an 1 3n 3 3n 3 3n 3
a 4n 4 4
lim n n 1 lim lim 1
n an 1 n 3n 3 n 3 3
3
n
Thus, by Raabe’s test, the series converges.
Hence the given series converges if x 1 and diverges if x > 1.
x 2! 3! 4!
Example 2 : Discuss the convergence of the series 1 2 x 2 3 x3 4 x 4 ........ .
2 3 4 5
n! n 1! n 1
Solution : Neglecting the first term, we have an x n and an 1 x
n 1 n
n 2 n 1
n 1
an n! n n 2 1
So, x
an 1 n 1 n
n 1! x n 1
n 1 n
n 1 2 2 2
n 1 1 1
1 n 1 n n 1
1
n
n 1 x 1
n
1 x
n n 1 1 1
n n n
n n 2
2
1 e
2
an e 1 e 2 2
n n nlim
2
Now, lim lim 1
n an1 e x x n
170
e
Thus, by D’ Alembert’s ratio test, the series converges if 1 i.e. if x e and diverges if
x
e
1 i.e. if x e .
x
an
If x = e , then lim 1 , the ratio test fails.
n an 1
n 1
2
1
1
an n
Now when x = e , we have n 1
an 1 1 e
1
n
an
Since the expression involves the number e, so we do not apply Raabe’s test but apply
an 1
logarithmic test, therefore
an 2 1
log n 1 log 1 n 1 log 1 log e
an 1 n n
2 1
n 1 log 1 log 1 1
n n
2 1 4 1 8 1 1 1
n 1 . 2 . 3 ...... 2 3 ...... 1
n 2 n 3 n n 2n 3n
1 3 3 1 3
n 1 2 ........ 1 1 2 ........ 1
n 2n 2n n 2n
1 3
2 ........
2n 2n
an 1 3 1 3 1
lim n log lim n 2 ........ lim ........ 1
n an 1 n 2n 2n n 2 2n 2
Thus, by log test, the series diverges.
Hence the given series a
n 1
n converges if x < e and diverges if x e .
Exercise 4.4
Discuss the convergence of the following series :
1 1 1 1 1. 3 2 1 . 3 . 5 3
1. ...... 2. 1 x x x ......, where x 0
log 2 p
log3 p
log 4 p 2 2.4 2.4.6
1 . 3 . 5...... 2n 1 x 2 n
n!2 n
3.
n 1 2 . 4 . 6...... 2n 2n
4.
n 1 2 n !
x , where x 0
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n!
5. x( x 1)( x 2)....( x n 1)
n1
Answers
1. divergent 2. convergent if x 1 and divergent if x 1
3. convergent if x2 1 and divergent if x2 1 4. convergent if x 4 and divergent if x 4
5. convergent if x 2 and divergent if x 2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.5 D’morgan and bertrand’s test and Gauss test
D’morgan and bertrand’s test : If a
n 1
n is a series of positive terms such that
a
lim n n 1 1 log n l , then
n
a n is convergent if l 1 and divergent if l 1 .
an 1
n 1
an
Gauss test : If a
n 1
n is a series of positive terms such that
an1
1 1n
n n
where
0 and n is a bounded sequence, then a
n 1
n is convergent if 1 and divergent if 1 .
Remarks : 1. The test never fails as we know that the series diverges for 1 .
an
2. Gauss test is applied after the failure of Ratio Test and when it is possible to expand in powers
an 1
1
of by Binomial theorem or by any other method.
n
Example : Test the convergence of the series
12 12 . 32 12 . 32 . 52 2
x x ......., where x 0
22 22 . 42 22 . 42 . 62
Solution : Neglecting the first term, we have
12 . 32 ........ 2n 12 n
an 2 2 x
2 . 4 ...... 2n 22
12 . 32 ........ 2n 12 2n 32 n 1
and an 1 x
22 . 42 ...... 2n 22 2n 42
an 2n 4 2 1
So,
an 1 2n 32 x
172
an 1
Now lim
n an 1 x
1 1
Thus, by D’ Ratio Test, a
n 1
n converges if
x
1 i.e. x 1 and diverges if 1 i.e. x 1 .
x
an
When x = 1, then lim 1 . Thus, Ratio test fails.
n an1
an 2n 42 2n 42 4n2 16n 16
Now, when x = 1,
an 1 2n 32 2n 32 4n 2 12n 9
an 4n 2 16n 16 4n2 16n 16 4n2 12n 9
1 1
an 1 4n 2 12n 9 4n2 12n 9
7
n 4
4n 7 n
2 =
4n 12n 9 12 9
n2 4 2
n n
7
an 4
n 1 n ......(1)
n 1 4 9
a 12
n n2
a 4
So, lim n n 1 1
n
an 1 4
Thus Raabe’s Test is not applicable.
7
an 4
From (1), n 1 n
n 1 4
a 12 9
2
n n
7 12 9 5 9
an 4 4 2 2
n 1 1 n n n n n
n 1
a 12 9 12 9
4 2 4 2
n n n n
Multiplying by log n, we get
5 9 9
a 2 5
n n 1 1 log n n n log n n log n
12 9
4 2 n
12 9
an 1 4 2
n n n n
Taking limits as n
9
a 5
lim n n 1 1 log n lim n lim log n
n n 12 9 n n
an 1 4 2
n n
5 log n
0 0 1 lim 0
4 n n
By D’ Morgan’s test, the series a
n 1
n is divergent.
Thus the given series is convergent if x < 1 and divergent if x 1 .
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Exercise 4.5
Discuss the convergence of the following series :
p p
1 1 2 2. 4 2. 4.6
p
2
1. ...... 2. 1 ......
1 1 2 3 3.5 3.5.7
1 3 5....(2n 1) 1
2n !
3. 4. n! x n , where x 0
n 1 2 4 6.....(2n) (2n 1)
2
n 1
Answers
1. convergent if 1 i.e., 1 and divergent if 1 i.e., if 1.
p p
2. convergent if 1 i.e., if p 2 and divergent if 1 i.e., if p 2
2 2
1 1
3. convergent 4. convergent if x and divergent if x
4 4
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.6 Cauchy’s integral and condensation test
Cauchy’s integral test : If for x 1, f x is a non-negative monotonically decreasing integrable
function of x such that f n an for all positive integral values of n, then the series
n 1
an and the
n
sequence I n where I n
1
f x dx converge or diverge together.
Cauchy’s condensation test : If an is a decreasing sequence of non-negative terms, then the two
series an and
n 1
2
n 1
n
a2n converge or diverge together.
Results :
1
1. The series log n
n 2
p
always divergent.
1
Proof : Here an
log n p
174
Case (i) : When p = 0, an = 1
Since lim an 1 0, an diverges .
n
n2
Case (ii) : When p < 0, let p = q where q > 0.
1
Since lim an lim
n n log n q
lim log nq 0 , so
n
n2
an diverges.
Case (iii) : When p > 0. Since log n p is an increasing sequence, an is a decreasing sequence.
Thus, by Cauchy’s condensation test, the series
n2
an and 2n a2n converge or diverge together.
n2
1 1 1 2p
Now,
n2
2n a2n 2n
n2 log 2
n p
n2
2n
n log 2 p
log 2 p
n2 np
1 1
2n 2 2
Consider bn p so that bn n 1 lim bn lim
n
2 1
n n n n 1n
n n
So, by Cauchy’s root test,
n 1
bn is divergent.
n2
2n a2n is divergent
n2
an is divergent
Hence
n2
an is divergent for all values of p.
1
2. The series n log n
n2
p
, where p 0 , is convergent if p 1 and divergent if 0 p 1 .
1
Proof : Here an
n log n p
1 1
Case (i) If p 0 , then for all n 2
n log n p
n
1 1
Since
n2 n
diverges, so by comparison test
n2 n log n p
diverges.
Case (ii) If p > 0
Since n log n p is an increasing sequence, an is a decreasing sequence.
Thus, by Cauchy’s condensation test, the series a
n 2
n and 2
n2
n
a2n converge or diverge together.
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1 1 1 1
Now,
n2
2n a2n 2n
n2 2 log 2
n n p
n 2 n log 2
p
log 2 p
n 2 np
1
As
n2 n
p
is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p 1 , so
n2
2n a2n is convergent if p > 1 and
divergent if p 1 .
a
n2
n is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p 1 .
Hence a
n2
n is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p 1 .
1
3. The series n log n
n2
p
, where p 0 , is convergent if p 1 and divergent if 0 p 1 .
1
Proof : Here an
n log n p
Case (i) : When p = 0, an = 1
Since lim an 1 0, an diverges .
n
n2
Case (ii) : When p < 0, let p = q where q > 0.
1
Since lim an lim
n n n log n q
lim n log n q 0 , so
n
n2
an diverges.
Case (iii) : When p > 0. Since n log n p is an increasing sequence, an is a decreasing
sequence.
Thus, by Cauchy’s condensation test, the series
n2
an and 2n a2n converge or diverge together.
n2
1 1
Now,
n2
2n a2n 2n
n2 2 log 2
n n p
n2
2n n
2 . n log 2 p
1 1 1
n p 1
n p 1
n2 2 . n log 2
p p
log 2 p n2 2 . np
1 1 1
If p > 1, then 2n p1 1 so that n p 1
1 and n p 1 p
.
2 2 .n np
176
1
But the series
n2 np
converges for p > 1.
1
2
n2
n p 1
.n p
converges 2a
n2
n
2n
converges for p > 1.
1 1 1
If p = 1, then
n2
2n a2n
log 2
n2 n
. But
n2 n
diverges.
So 2a
n2
n
2n
diverges for p = 1.
1 1 1
If p < 1, then 1 p > 0 so that 2n p1 1 i.e., n p 1
1 and n p1 p
2 2 .n np
1
But the series
n2 np
diverges for p < 1.
1
2
n2
n p 1
.n p
diverges. 2a
n2
n
2n
diverges for p < 1.
Hence a
n2
n converges for p > 1 and diverges for p 1 .
p
log n
4. The series , where p 0 , is convergent if p 1 and divergent if 0 p 1 .
n 2 n
1
5. The series n log n log log n
n 3
p
, where p 0 , is convergent if p 1 and divergent if 0 p 1 .
1
Example 1 : Test for convergence of the series
n 1 n n 1
1 1
Solution : Here an , n 1 . Let f x , x 1
n n 1 x x 1
For x 1, f x is positive and decreasing.
1 1
n n n
dx
Now I n f x dx dx
1 1
x x 1 1 x x 1
n
x n 1
log x log x 11 log log log
n
x 11 n 1 2
1 1 1
So, lim I n lim log log log1 log log 2 finite
n n 1 2 2
1
n
Hence, by Cauchy Integral Test, a n 1
n is convergent.
1
Example 2 : Using Cauchy’s condensation test, discuss the convergence of the series
n2 n log n p
.
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Exercise 4.6
Test for convergence the series :
1 1 1 1
1.
n2 n log n 3
2.
n2 log n
3.
n2 n log n
4.
n2 n log n
2
1 log n log n
5.
n2
3
6.
n 1 n
7.
n 1
n
n log n 2
Answers
1. convergent 2. divergent 3. divergent 4. divergent
5. convergent 6. divergent 7. convergent
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True false exercise a
12. If an is convergent, then nn is
convergent.
1
1. np is convergent for all p 1 .
an
n 1
13. If is a convergent series of positive
a
2. n
11 terms, then 1 na may be divergent.
9 n
n 1 10
1 1
14. n(n 1)(n 2)(n 3) 18
n 1
3. The series n2 n n is convergent.
n 1
1 1
15. n(n 3) 18
n 1
4. The series n2 1 n is convergent.
n 1
Assignment
1 (n 1)(3n 1) 1
5. log log log . ---------------------- S C Q ---------------------
4 n1 n(3n 4) 3
1. Consider the statements
1 1 .... 1
1
6. The series a 2 n, a 0 is (A) The series sin n is divergent.
n 1
convergent for 0 a
1 1 2 3 4 56
e
. (B) The series ...
2
3 4 2
5 6
2 2
72 82
is convergent.
n 1
7. The series log n
is convergent.
Then
n 1
1. Both the statements (A) and (B) are true
8. If lim an 0 , then the series
n
an may 2. (A) is true but (B) is false.
diverge. 3. (A) is false but (B) is true.
4. Neither (A) nor (B) is true.
1 2 n
9. The series .... ... is
4 6 2 n 1 2. Which of the following is convergent
convergent. series ?
10. A series of negative terms diverges to . 1
1. cos n
n 1
11. If an 2
and bn 2
are convergent series
1 2 3 n
of positive real numbers, then an bn is 2. 7
11
7
2 1
7
3 1
... 7
n 1
...
convergent.
3n 2
3. n log 3n 2 1
n 1
180
4. None of above
3. un and vn both converges
1 n 1 n 1
n ,if n is odd
3. If bn
1 , if n is even 4. un and vn both diverges
n n 1 n 1
then (n!)n
8. If S1 and
bn are convergent
n 2
1. both bn and n 1 ( n )
2. both bn and bn are divergent
S2
1
then which one of
n 1 (2n 1)(2n 1)
3. bn is convergent but bn is not
the following statement is correct ?
4. bn is convergent but bn is not
1. Both S1 and S 2 are convergent
a
1 1
4. The series n sin n converges, if 2. S1 is divergent and S 2 is convergent
n 1
3. S1 is convergent and S 2 is divergent
1 1
1. a 2. a 4. Both S1 and S 2 are divergent
3 3
1 1 9. For which real number m does the infinite
3. a 4. a
2 2 (n 1) n
5. For which real number ‘t’ does the infinite
series nm
converge
n 1 n 1 1
series n t
converge 1. m
3
2. m
2
1 1 3
1. t 2. t 3. m 1 4. m
3 2 2
1 1
3. t 1 4. t
3
2
10. The series sin n n2 is
6. Which of the following series is divergent ? 1. convergent 2. divergent
1 1 1 1 3. oscillatory 4. None of these
1. n sin n 2. n2 sin n
1
11. The series n n 1 n 2 n 3
is
1 n
3. n n 1
4. 3
n 3 1. convergent 2. divergent
7. If un n 1 n , vn n4 1 n2 , then 3. oscillatory 4. None of these
12. Which of the following series is divergent ?
1. un converges but vn diverges 1 1
n 1 n 1 1. sin n 2. sin n2
2. un diverges but vn converges 3.
1
tan
1
n
4. None of these
n 1 n 1 n
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9 4
13. The series xlog n , x 0 is convergent on 1. 1 2.
2
3.
9
4. 2
n 1
1 1 1
the interval 19. lim ... is
n n n 1 2n
1 1
1. 0, 2. ,e 1. e 2. 2 3. log e 2 4. e 2
e e
3. (0, e) 4. (1, e)
20. For a 0 , the series aln n is convergent
(GATE 2011) n 1
if and only if
1 2
14. Using the fact that 2 . 1. 0 a e 2. 0 a e
1 n 6 1 1
3. 0 a 4. 0 a
e e
1
2n 1 2
equals (CSIR NET June 2017)
21. Let A n : n 1 or the only prime
1
2 2 factors of n are 2 or 3 }, for example,
1. 2. 1
1
12 12 6 A, 10 A. Let S nA . Then
n
2 2
3. 4. 1 1. A is finite
8 8 2. S is a divergent series
(CSIR-NET June 2012) 3. S 3
4. S 6
15. The sum of the series (CSIR NET June 2017)
100
1 1 2 1 2 3
2 n is
1
.... equals 22. The difference log 2 n
1! 2! 3! n 1
e 3e e
1. e 2. 3. 4. 1 1. less than 0
2 2 2
2. greater than 1
(CSIR-NET June 2015)
1
1 2 n1 3. less than
16. lim 4 j 3 equals 2 101
100
n n
j 0
1
1. 4 2. 16 4. greater than
3. 1 4. 8 2 101
100
(CSIR-NET Dec 2016) (CSIR NET June 2018)
17. The value of the series
23. Given an ,bn two monotone sequences
1 2 3 4
....
2 22 23 24
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4
of real numbers and that a b n n is
n
18. The sum of the series 4
n 1
n
is convergent, which of the following is true ?
182
2. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
1. an is convergent and bn is
3
n 2
1
convergent 1. The infinite series 1
n
is
2. Atleast one of a , bn n is convergent
n2 1
convergent 2. The infinite series n2 1 xn , x 0 is
3. an is bounded and bn is bounded convergent, if x 1
4. At least one of an ,bn is bounded n2 1
3. The infinite series n2 1 xn , x 0 is
(CSIR NET June 2018)
24. Let x be a real number such that x 1 . divergent, if x 1
4. None of these
Which of the following is FALSE ?
3. The series
1. If x , then x m
3 6 9....3n
m 0 7 10 13.... 3n 4 xn , x 0 is
2. If x
m 0
m
then x 1. converges, if x 1
2. diverges, if x 1
3. If x then mx
m0
m1
3. converges, if x 1
4. diverges , if x 1
xm
4. converges in 4. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
m1 m
1
(CSIR NET Dec 2018)
n 1
3 3 n
1. The series log n
is
convergent
----------------------- M C Q ------------------------
1 1 1
2. The series 1 ....
3 22 5 32 7 42
1. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ?
is convergent
1
1. The infinite series 1
1
is 3. (1) is convergent while (2) is divergent
n n
4. (1) is divergent while (2) is convergent
convergent 5. Which of the following(s) is/are correct,
1 where un 0 for all n :
2. The infinite series {(n 3
1) 3 n} is
convergent
1. un is a convergent series
un
3. (1) is convergent while (2) is divergent is also convergent series
1 un
4. (1) is divergent while (2) is convergent
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2. un2 is a convergent series convergent
1 1 1
u 4. The series 1 ... is
n is also convergent series 2! 3! 4!
n
divergent
3. un is a convergent series
un2 is also convergent series (CSIR-NET Dec 2011)
4. None of the above 9. Let an n 1 be a sequence of positive
6. Which of the following(s) is/are true ?
numbers s.t. a1 a2 a3 . Then which
1 2 3 n
1. .... 2 .... is of the following is/are always true?
2 5 10 n 1
1. limn an 0 .
convergent
an
n(n 4) 0.
(n 2)(n 3)(n 5) is convergent
2. limn
2. n
an
3. (1) is convergent while (2) is divergent 3. n 1
converges.
n
4. (1) is divergent while (2) is convergent
an
7. If S n denotes the sum of n term of the 4. n 1
converges.
n2
1 1 1 (CSIR-NET Dec 2013)
series 1 .... ...., then
2 3 n 10. Let ak be an unbounded, strictly
1. Sn n 2. Sn n
increasing sequence of positive real
3. Sn n 4. Sn numbers and xk ak 1 ak / ak 1 . Which
8. Which of the following(s) is/are correct ? of the following statements is/are correct ?
1. The series am
1. For all n m, k m xk 1
n
1 1 1 an
p
p
.... ...
(log 2) (log3) (log n) p
1
n
2. There exists n m s.t. xk
converges for p 0 k m
2
2. The series 3. x converges to a finite limit.
k 1 k
1 1 1
.... ...
p p 4. x diverges to
(log 2) (log3) (log n) p k 1 k
diverges for p 0 (CSIR-NET Dec 2014)
1 1 1 11. Let xn be an arbitrary sequence of real
3. The series 1 ... is
2! 3! 4! numbers, then
184
n log 1 1/ n
1. xn for some 1 p
p 1
4.
n 1
n 1
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
x for p q
q
14. Let an n0 be a sequence of positive real
n
n 1
x
1
for 1 p
p
2. n numbers. Then, for K limsup an n ,
n 1 n
which of the following are true ?
x for p q 1
q
n
n 1
1. if K , then a r n
n
is convergent
3. Given any 1 p q , there is a real n 0
for every r 0
x
p
sequence xn such that n
n 1
2. if K , then a r
n 0
n
n
is not
x
q
but
n 1
n
convergent for any r 0
4. Given any 1 q p there is a real 3. if K 0, then a r
n 0
n
n
is convergent
x
p
sequence xn such that n for every r 0
n 1
but
xn .
q 4. if K 0, then a r
n 0
n
n
is not
n 1
convergent for any r 0
12. Let an be a sequence of real numbers
(CSIR NET June 2019)
satisfying an an1 . Then the
n 1
series an xn , x is convergent
n0
1. nowhere on
2. everywhere on
3. on some set containing 1,1
4. only on 1,1
(CSIR NET June 2017)
13. Which of the following are convergent ?
1. n 2
n 1
2 n
2. n
n 1
2 n
2
1
3.
n2
n log n
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True false key
1. F 2. T 3. F 4. F
5. T 6. F 7. F 8. T
9. F 10. F 11. F 12. T
13. F 14. T 15. F
Assignment key
SCQ
1. 1 2. 4 3. 3 4. 1
5. 2 6. 3 7. 2 8. 2
9. 4 10. 2 11. 2 12. 1
13. 1 14. 4 15. 3 16. 1
17. 2 18. 3 19. 3 20. 3
21. 3 22. 3 23. 4
MCQ
1. 2,4 2. 1,2,3 3. 3,4
4.2,4 5. 1,3 6. 1,3
7. 2,3 8. 2,3 9. 2,4 10. 1,2,4
11. 1,4 12. 3 13. 1
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Chapter - 5
Alternating and Arbitrary Series
5.1 Alternating series
Def. Alternating series : A series with terms alternatively positive and negative is called an
alternating series. Thus the series a1 a2 a3 a4 ...... where an 0 for each n, is an alternating
series and is briefly written as 1
n 1
n 1
an .
Def. Absolutely convergent series : A series
n 1
an is said to be absolutely convergent if the series
|a
n 1
n | is convergent.
Def. Conditionally convergent series : If
n 1
an converges and |a
n 1
n | diverges, then the series
n 1
an is called conditionally convergent series (or semi-convergent or non-absolutely convergent).
Remark : If an is a series of positive terms, then an | an | . Therefore, for a series of
n 1 n 1
positive terms, the concepts of convergence and absolute convergence are the same.
Remark : Since |a
n 1
n | is a series of positive terms, it either converges or diverges. All the tests for
testing the convergence of a series of positive terms can be used for testing the convergence of the
series |a
n 1
n | . However these tests cannot give any information about the conditional convergence of
the series.
Results :
1. Leibnitz Test on Alternating Series : The alternating series 1
n 1
n 1
an a1 a2 a3 a4 ......
where an 0 for all n , converges if (i) an an 1 for all n and (ii) lim an 0
n
2. Every absolutely convergent series is convergent.
188
Remark : Absolute convergence convergence, but convergence need not imply absolute
convergence i.e., the converse of above theorem need not be true.
1n 1 1 1 1
For example, consider the series
n 1 n
1 ........
2 3 4
1
It is an alternating series. Here an . Clearly an 0 for all n
n
1 1
Since, , an an 1 for all n and lim an lim 0
n n 1 n n n
1n 1
1n 1
1
By Leibnitz‟s test,
n 1 n
converges. But the series
n 1 n
is divergent .
n 1 n
Remark : The divergence of | an | does not imply the divergence of
n 1
a
n 1
n .
1n 1
1
1n1
For example n 1 n
is divergent whereas
n 1 n
n 1 n
is convergent.
3. If
n 1
an is an absolutely convergent series, then the series of its positive terms and the series of its
negative terms are both convergent.
4. If
n 1
an is conditionally convergent, then the series of its positive terms and the series of its
negative terms are both divergent.
5. Roughly speaking an absolutely convergent series converges because its terms are “small” while a
conditionally convergent series converges because of “cancellation” between its positive and
negative terms.
6. A series with mixed signs cannot converge if the series of its positive terms is convergent
(divergent) and the series of its negative terms is divergent (convergent).
7. If an2 and
n 1
bn2 are convergent then
n 1
a
n 1
n bn is absolutely convergent.
an2 bn2
Proof : an2 bn2
2
an2 bn2
an bn and now the result follows from the comparison test.
2
an
8. If an2 is convergent then
n 1
nn 1
is absolutely convergent and hence convergent.
1
Proof : Take bn in above result.
n
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9. If
n 1
an and
n 1
bn are convergent series then
n 1
anbn need not be convergent. For example,
1
n
take an bn .
n
10. If an is a convergent series and k then
n 1
a
n 1
k
n may or may not be convergent.
1
n
This is in a contrast with the positive term series. For example, a
n 1
n where an
n
is
convergent but a n 1
2
n is divergent.
1
1
n1
11. The alternating series , a 0 is convergent by Leibnitz test but not absolutely
n1 an b
convergent by p-test.
1
1
n1
12. The alternating series is convergent by Leibnitz test but not absolutely
n1 n
convergent by p-test.
1
1
n1
13. The alternating series is convergent by Leibnitz test but not absolutely
n1 log n
convergent by Cauchy condensation test.
an b
1
n1
14. The alternating series , a 0, c 0 is not convergent by contrapositive of general
n1 cn d
necessary condition.
Example 1 : Test for convergence and absolute convergence of the series
1
n 1
n 1
n 2 1 n
Solution : Let a 1
n 1
n
n 1
n 1
n2 1 n 1n 1 bn , say
n 1
It is an alternating series where bn n2 1 n
n2 1 n n2 1 n2 1
Now, bn n 2 1 n n 2 1 n 0 for all n
n2 1 n n2 1 n n2 1 n
190
1
and bn 1
n 12 1 n
Clearly bn bn 1 for all n
1
Also lim bn lim 0
n n
n2 1 n
Thus, by Leibnitz‟s test, the series is convergent.
1
Now, | an |
n 1 n
2
1 |a | n
Taking cn , we have lim n lim
n n c
n
n
n 1 n
2
1 1
lim which is finite and non-zero.
n 1 2
1 2 1
n
So, by comparison test, | an | and
n 1
c
n 1
n converge or diverge together. But
1
cn
n 1 n 1 n
diverges, so |a
n 1
n | also diverges.
Hence the given series is conditionally convergent.
1n 1 cos 2 n
Example 2 : Test the convergence and absolute convergence of the series
n 1 n n
,
1n 1 cos 2 n
Solution : Let an
n 1 n 1 n n
cos 2 n cos 2 n 1
1
Now | an |
n n
n n
3 for all n and n 1
3
converges by p-test.
n2 n 2
So, by comparison test, the series |an 1
n | converges.
Thus, the given series is absolutely convergent.
Since every absolutely convergent series is convergent, therefore, the given series is convergent.
1n x 1n
Example 3 : Test the convergence of the series
n 1 2n . n 2
.
1n x 1n 1n 1 x 1n 1
Solution : Let an so that an 1
2n . n 2 2n 1 n 12
| an | | x 1|n 2n 1 n 12 n 1
2 2
1 1 1
Now, we have n 2 2 2 1
x 1
n 1
| an 1 | 2 . n n | x 1| n | x 1|
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2
| an | 1 1 2
lim lim 2 1
n | a
n 1 |
n
n | x 1| | x 1|
Thus, by ratio test, the series |a
n 1
n | is convergent
2
if 1 i.e., if | x 1| 2 i.e., if 2 x 1 2 i.e. if 3 x 1
| x 1|
2
Also, |a
n 1
n | is divergent if
| x 1|
1 i.e. if | x 1| 2 i.e., if x 1 2 or x 1 2
i.e., if x 1 or x 3 .
At x = 1 or – 3 , the ratio test fails.
1n 2n
1n
At x = 1 : a
n 1
n
n 1
n
2 .n 2
2 1n . bn , say
n 1 n n 1
1
where bn
n2
1 1
Now, bn and bn 1
n 2
n 12
Clearly, bn bn 1 for all n
1
Also lim bn lim 0
n n n2
So, by Leibnitz‟s test, |a
n 1
n | is convergent.
1n 2n
12 n . 2n 1
At x = – 3 : an 2 which is convergent.
n 1 n 1 2n . n 2 n 1 2n . n 2 n 1 n
x 1n
When | x 1| 2, lim 0
n 2n . n 2
Thus, |a
n 1
n | does not converge for | x 1| 2 .
Hence the given series is convergent if 3 x 1 .
192
Exercise 5.1
Examine the convergence, conditional convergence and absolute convergence of the following series :
Type I
3 4 5
1n 1 n
1. 2 ......
2 3 4
2.
n 1 2n 1
n 1
1 n
1n 1 n
3.
n 1 10n 1
4.
n 1 n2
n
5. 1
n 1
n 1
5n 7
Type II
1 1 1 1 1 1
6. 1 ...... 7. 1 2
2 2 ......
3! 5! 7! 2 3 4
n 1
1 1 1
1
8. 1 2 3 ...... 9.
4.3 4 .5 4 .7 n 1 n n
1n 1
1n 1 n
10. n 1 n!
11. n 1 5n
n2 log 2 log 3 log 4
12. 1
n 1
n
2n 5
13.
22
2 2 .....
3 4
log 2 log 3 log 4
1 1
14.
23
3 3 ...... 15. 1 n 1
n2 n 12
3 4 n 1
1n 1 sin n
sin nx
16. , real 17. 1n
n 1 n2 n 1 n3
2n n100
18. n 1
1n 1
n!
19. n 1
1n
2n !
2
x x x 2 x3
20. 1 ...... 21. x ......
1! 2! 2! 3!
22. 1 cos
n 1 n
Type III
1 1 1 1 1 1
23. 1 ...... 24. 1 ......
2 3 4 3 5 7
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
25. .... 26. ...
5 7 9 11 log 2 log 3 log 4
1n 1 1 1 1
27. n 1 n
28.
2 1
3 1
4 1
.....
1n 1
1n 1
29. n 1 n 1
30. n 1 3n 2
n 1
1 . n
1n n 5
31. n 1 n2 1
32. n 1 n n 1
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1 1 1
1 ......
1n 1
33. n a
34. 1n 2 3
n
n
n 1 n 1
1
35. 1
n 1
n 1
sin
n
Type IV
1 1 1
36. ...., p 0
2 log 2 p 3 log3 p 4 log 4 p
x3 x5
37. x ......,
3 5
Answers
1. not convergent 2. not convergent 3. not convergent
4. not convergent 5. not convergent 6. absolutely convergent
7. absolutely convergent 8. absolutely convergent 9. absolutely convergent
10. absolutely convergent 11. absolutely convergent 12. absolutely convergent
13. absolutely convergent 14. absolutely convergent 15. absolutely convergent
16. absolutely convergent 17. absolutely convergent 18. absolutely convergent
19. absolutely convergent 20. absolutely convergent 21. absolutely convergent for all values of x.
22. convergent 23. conditionally convergent 24. conditionally convergent
25. conditionally convergent 26. conditionally convergent 27. conditionally convergent
28. conditionally convergent 29. conditionally convergent 30. conditionally convergent
31. conditionally convergent 32. conditionally convergent 33. conditionally convergent
34. conditionally convergent
35. absolutely convergent if p 1 and conditionally convergent if 0 p 1 .
36. conditionally convergent
37. not convergent for x 1 and conditionally convergent for x 1 and absolutely convergent for
x 1.
194
5.2 Arbitrary series
Abel’s Test : If a
n 1
n is convergent and the sequence bn is monotonic and bounded, then
n 1
an bn is convergent.
Dirichlet’s Test : If
n 1
an has bounded partial sums and bn is a monotonic sequence converging
to zero, then a
n 1
n bn is convergent.
Example 1 : Test the convergence of the series :
1 1 1
(i) 1 2
2
........
3.2 5.3 7 . 42
1 1 1 1
(ii) 3 3 3 ......
log 2 2 log3 3 log 4 4 log5
Solution : (i) The given series can be obtained by multiplying the terms of the series
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2
2 2 ........ with the terms of the sequence 1, , , ,........
2 3 4 3 5 7
1n 1 1
Let an
n2
, bn
2n 1
then the given series can be written as
n 1
an bn .
1
Now | an |
n2
, therefore | a
n 1
n | is convergent by p - test.
a
n 1
n is convergent. ( Every absolutely convergent series is convergent.)
Also bn is a monotonically decreasing sequence of positive terms.
So, by Abel‟s test, the series an 1
n bn is convergent.
1n 1 1
(ii) If we take an , bn 3 , then the given series can be written as an bn .
log n 1 n n 1
By Leibnitz test, the series a
n 1
n is convergent and bn is clearly a monotonically decreasing
sequence of positive terms.
So, by Abel‟s test, the series an 1
n bn is convergent.
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cos nx
Example 2 : Test the convergence of the series
n 1 np
, where p 0 .
1
Solution : Let an cos nx, bn
np
, p 0 , then the given series can be written as a
n 1
n bn .
Let Sn denotes the nth partial sum of the series a
n 1
n , then
Sn cos x cos 2 x cos3x ........ cos nx
n 1 nx
cos x x sin
2 2
x
sin
2
n 1 nx
cos x sin
2 2
x
sin
2
n 1 nx n 1 nx
cos x sin cos x sin
2 2 2 2 1
| Sn |
x x x
sin sin sin
2 2 2
( absolute values of sine and cosine are 1 )
x x
Sn cosec Sn is bounded for all x for which sin 0 i.e., for which
2 2
x
r i.e. for which x 2r , r 0, 1, 2,..... . Also bn is clearly a monotonically decreasing
2
1
sequence with lim bn lim 0
n n np
cos nx
So, by Dirichlet‟s test, a
n 1
n bn
n 1 np
, p 0 is convergent for all x 2r , r 0, 1, 2,.... .
When x 2r , we have cos nx 1.
cos nx 1
Hence
n 1 n p
n 1 n
p
, where p 0 , is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if 0 p 1 .
196
Exercise 5.2
1. Test the convergence of the series :
1 1 1 1 1 1
(i) 1 2 3 ...... (ii) 1 ........
4.3 4 .5 4 .7 5 2 9 3 13 4
2. Show that the convergence of a
n 1
n implies the convergence of each of the following series :
1
n 1
1
(i)
n 1 n
an (ii)
n 1 n
an (iii)
n 1 np
an , where p 0
n
1
1
1
(iv) n 1
n
n a n
(v)
n2 log n
an (vi) n 1
1 an
n
1n 1
n
1
3. Show that the series n 1 n
1 is convergent.
n
sin nx
4. Is the series
n2 n 2 log n
convergent ?
5. Show that the following series are convergent :
1n 1
1n1
(i)
n 1 n
, not an integer 1 (ii)
n 1 n
, not an integer 1
Answers
1. (i) Convergent (ii) Convergent 4. Convergent
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.3 Insertion and removal of parentheses
Given a series an , we can construct many other series
n 1
b
n 1
n by keeping the order of the terms an
fixed, but inserting parentheses that group together finite number of terms. For example, the
following series
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 .......
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
is obtained by inserting the parentheses from the series
1 1 1 1 1
1 ......
2 3 4 5 6
Similarly, the latter series can be obtained by removing the parentheses from the former one. In this
section, we shall try to find the answer of the following question : “Do the insertion or removal of
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parentheses affects the behaviour of a series ”. Let us take the series 111111 ........ , which is
an oscillating series.
But if we insert the parentheses taking two terms in one group, we obtain
1 11 11 1 ......... 0 0 0....... 0 , which is a convergent series.
Also, the former series can be obtained by removing the parentheses from the latter one. Thus, in
general, insertion and removal of parentheses can affect the behaviour of a series. However, it is an
interesting fact that insertion or removal of parenthesis does not affect the convergence or the value of
a convergent series. Before going towards this fact, let us define insertion and removal of parentheses
in a formal way.
Def. Let a
n 1
n be an infinite series and let mn be a strictly increasing sequence of positive
integers so that m1 m2 m3 ...... and let the parentheses are inserted in the following manner
a a
1 2
..... am1 am11 am2 2 ..... am2 am2 1 am2 2 ..... am3 ......
Suppose
b1 a1 a2 ........ am1
b2 am1 1 am12 ...... am2
b3 am2 1 am2 2 ........ am3
Then the series bn is said to have been obtained from an by a grouping of its terms ( or by
n 1 n 1
inserting parentheses ). Obviously, an is obtained from bn by removal of parentheses.
n 1 n 1
Results :
1. Insertion of Parentheses : Any series obtained from a convergent series by inserting the parentheses
converges and has the same sum as the original series.
2. Removal of Parentheses : If the series bn with parentheses converges to S and if
n 1
a
n 1
n obtained
from it by the removal of parentheses also converges, then a
n 1
n also converges to S.
198
3. If the series b
n 1
n with parentheses converges to S and if the sum of the absolute values of the
terms in bn tends to zero as n tends to infinity, then the series a
n 1
n obtained on removing the
parentheses, will also converge to S.
Remark : If bn amn11 amn12 ...... amn , then the sum of the absolute values of the terms in
bn amn11 amn12 ...... amn
1 3 7
Example 1 : Show that the series 1 1 1 ........ is convergent, but when the
2 4 8
parentheses are removed, it oscillates.
Solution : The given series with parentheses is
1 3 7 1 1 1
b
n 1
n 1 1 1 ........ ........
2 4 8 2 4 8
1
1
which is convergent, being a geometric series with common ratio 1 and its sum = 2 1.
2 1
1
2
2n 1
Now, bn 1 .
2n
2n 1 2n 1 1
Sum of the absolute values of the terms in bn |1| n
1 n
2 n 2 as n
2 2 2
Thus, the sum of absolute values of terms in bn does not tend to 0.
1 3 7
So, the series
n 1
an 1 1 1 ........ obtained on removing the parentheses in
2 4 8
b
n 1
n , is
not convergent. Now, let us find the behaviour of a
n 1
n . Let S n denote the nth partial sum of the
series a
n 1
n ,
1 1 n
1
1 3 7 1 1 1 2 2
then S2 n 1 1 1 ... to 2n terms .... to n terms
2 4 8 2 4 8 1
1
2
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1
1 0
lim S2 n 2
n 1
1 and lim S2 n1 lim S2 n a2 n1 1 1 2 . Hence, the series
n n
a
n 1
n is
2
oscillatory.
Exercise 5.3
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1. Can the brackets be removed from the series 1 ........
3 2 5 7 4 9 11 6
without affecting its convergence? [Ans. Yes]
1 1 1 1 1
2. Show that the series 3 2 2 2 2 2 ........ is convergent but when the
2 3 4 5 6
parentheses are removed, it does not converge.
2 8 26
3. Show that the series 1 1 1 ........ is convergent but when parentheses are
3 9 27
removed, it oscillates finitely.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.4 Rearrangement of terms
Rearrangement of series : It is a well-known fact that a finite sum keeps the same value, no matter
how the terms of the sum are arranged. However, this property is not always true for infinite series.
Let us start our concept formally :
A rearrangement of a series a
n 1
n is a series b
n 1
n whose terms are the same as those of a
n 1
n but
occur in a different order.
Let us consider the alternating harmonic series whose sum is log 2 ( which is stated but not proved )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
i.e. log 2 1 ....... ……(1)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
log 2 .......
2 2 4 6 8 10 12
1 1 1 1 1
log 2 0 0 0 0 ....... ……(2)
2 2 4 6 8
200
Adding (1) and (2), we obtain
3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
log 2 1 0 0 0 0 +………
2 2 2 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 8 8
3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
log 2 1 ..... ……(3)
2 3 2 5 7 4 9 11 6
The series on the R.H.S. of (3) is just a rearrangement of the series on the R.H.S. of (1) but they
converge to the different sums.
We shall prove that rearranging an absolutely convergent series has no effect on its sum but that
rearranging a conditionally convergent series can have drastic effect.
Before that we define „rearrangement‟ precisely :
Def. Let ni be a sequence of positive integers where each positive integer occurs exactly once
among the ni . If an is a series and if bi ani , then
n 1
bi is a rearrangement of
i 1
a
n 1
n .
Remark : By the definition of rearrangement, it is clear that corresponding to any number of terms
(say n) in the first series, we can find a number m such that m terms of the second series contain all
the n terms ( and may be some others ) of the first and conversely.
Dirichlet’s theorem : A series obtained from an absolutely convergent series by a rearrangement of
terms converges absolutely and has the same sum as the original series.
Remark : Consider the alternating harmonic series
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 ..... …….(1)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
which is known to be conditionally convergent. We can find a rearrangement of series (1) that will
converge to any pre-assigned real number, say, for example, 2011. By the theorems of alternating
series we know that the series of positive terms and of negative terms of a conditionally convergent
series are divergent, therefore
1 1 1 1
1 ...... diverges to .
3 5 7 9
1 1 1 1 1
and ...... diverges to .
2 4 6 8 10
The partial sums of the above two series are unbounded. Let n1 be the smallest positive odd integer
1 1 1
such that 1 ...... 2011 …….(2)
3 5 n1
1 1 1 1
Then, 1 ......... 2011
3 5 n1 2
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1 1 1
This is so because and is the smallest term on the L.H.S. of (2) due to whose contribution
2 n1 n1
the sum just exceeds the number 2011.
Now let n2 be the smallest odd integer greater than n1 such that
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 .... ...... 2011
3 5 n1 2 n1 2 n2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Then, 1 .... ...... 2011
3 5 n1 2 n1 2 n2 4
Continuing in this fashion we may construct a rearrangement of the series (1) that converges to 2011.
Very Important Note : In the above found rearrangement we have n1 positive terms, then one
negative term, then n2 positive terms, then one negative term and so on. The reason behind taking
1 1
one negative term is that the terms of the series (1) are monotonically decreasing and so . But
2 n1
if we are working with an arbitrary series, then it is not necessary that the first negative term of the
series is greater than n1th positive term. In that case more than one negative terms will be required to
reduce the sum just less than the pre - assigned number.
Riemann’s Rearrangement Theorem : By a suitable rearrangement of the terms, a conditionally
convergent series can be made
(i) to converge to any pre-assigned number , or
(ii) to diverge to or , or
(iii) to oscillate finitely or infinitely.
Pringsheim’s Method : Let an be a sequence of positive terms decreasing to zero as n . Then by
Leibnitz‟s test, the alternating series 1
n 1
n 1
an is convergent. Let the terms of the series
1
n 1
n 1
an be rearranged by taking alternatively positive and negative terms.
1
If lim n an and k , then the alteration in the sum due to this rearrangement is log k .
n 2
1 1 1 1 1
Example 1 : In particular, if an
n
so that 1
n 1
n 1
an 1n 1 1 ........
n 1 n 2 3 4
then we know that the series is conditionally convergent and its sum is log 2.
202
1
Also, lim n an lim n . 1. So, if the terms are rearranged by taking alternatively positive
n n n
and negative terms, then the sum of the new series is
1 1 1
log 2 log k 2log 2 log k log 4k
2 2 2
Example 2 : What is wrong with the following ?
3 3 3 3 3 3 ........ 3 3 3 3 3 3 ........
6 6 6 ........ 23 3 3 ......
3 + 3 + 3 + ......= 0
Solution : The series 3 + 3 + 3 +........ is divergent and tends to infinity, so that
23 3 3 ........ 3 3 3 ........ is an indeterminate form .
On account of this fallacy, we get an absurd result.
Example 3 : Criticise the following paradox :
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
log 2 1 ........ 1 ........ 2 ........
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 2 4 6 8 10
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 ...... 1 ........ 0
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1
Solution : The given series 1 ........ 1n 1 is conditionally convergent and
2 3 4 n 1 n
hence can be made to converge to any limit by a rearrangement of terms (Riemann‟s theorem). Hence
we can not rearrange the terms of a conditionally convergent series and expect the same sum.
Thus the rearrangement of the terms in the above series is a fallacy.
Example 4 : Find the sum of the series :
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(i) 1 ........ (ii) 1 ........
2 4 3 6 8 5 3 2 5 7 4 9
1 1 1 1 1 1
Solution : (i) The given series 1 ........ is a rearrangement of the terms of
2 4 3 6 8 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
conditionally convergent series. 1 ........ 1n 1 whose sum is log 2.
2 3 4 5 6 n 1 n
Here the rearranged given series is formed by taking alternatively one positive and two negative terms
1 1 1 1
so that k . Thus, the sum of the rearranged given series log 2 log k log 2 log
2 2 2 2
1 1
log 2 log 2 log 2
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
(ii) The given series is 1 ........ is a rearrangement of the terms of conditionally
3 2 5 7 4 9
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1 1 1 1 1 1
convergent series 1 ........ 1n 1 whose sum is log 2.
2 3 4 5 6 n 1 n
Here the rearranged series is formed by taking alternatively two positive and one negative terms so
that
2
k 2
1
1 1 3
Thus, the sum of the rearranged given series log 2 log k log 2 log 2 log 2
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
Example 5 : Find what rearrangement of the series 1 ...... will reduce its sum to zero.
2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 1
Solution : The given series is 1 ...... 1n 1
2 3 4 5 n 1 n
It is conditionally convergent with sum log 2.
Let it be rearranged by taking alternatively positive and negative terms so that k .
1
Thus, the sum of the rearranged series log 2 log k
2
1 1 1
But it is given to be zero, so log 2 log k 0 log k 2log 2 log 2 2 log k
2 4 4
Hence to get the sum zero, one positive term should be followed by four negative terms and the
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
rearranged series is 1 ........
2 4 6 8 3 10 12 14 16 5
Exercise 5.4
1. Explain the fallacy in the following :
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1
1 .... 2 1 ....
2 3 4 5 6 2 3 3 4 5 5 6
1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
2 1 ...... 2 1 ........
2 3 3 4 5 5 6 3 2 5 3 7 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 ........ ……(1)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
204
1 1 1
Also we know that 1 ........ converges and that its sum S is log 2 which is different from
2 3 4
zero. Therefore, from (1), we have S 2S or 1 2 .
2. Find the sum of the series :
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(i) 1 ........ (ii) 1 ........
3 5 2 7 9 11 4 3 5 2 4 7 9 11 6 8
1 1 1 1 1
3. What dearrangement of the series 1 will reduce its sum to log 2?
2 3 4 5 2
1 1 1 1
4. Find how the series 1 ...... should be dearranged so that the sum is doubled.
2 3 4 5
1 2
1
5. Assuming that
n 1 n2
6
, find the value of 2n 1
n 1
2
.
Answers
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2. (i) log 12 (ii) log 6 3. 1 .......
2 2 4 3 6 8 5 10 12 7
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
4. k 4, Dearranged series is 1 ....... 5.
3 5 7 2 9 11 13 15 4 17 8
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True false exercise 2. pn is divergent but qn not
1. If an is convergent, then so is an
2
. 3. pn and qn both are convergent
4. pn and qn both are divergent
an an
2
2. If is convergent, then so is .
1 1 1 3. Which of the following series is absolutely
3. The series 1 .... is absolutely
4 9 16 convergent ?
convergent.
(1) n 1
4. If an is convergent, then
1. n 2.
an is also n
convergent.
1 (1) n
3. log(n 1) 4. 3
5. If an is conditionally convergent, then n2
the series of its positive terms is
convergent. 4. Using the fact that
1 1
1 n1
6. The series
n
1 01 1000
n
converges
1 n
log 2, 1 n n 1 equals
absolutely.
1. 1 2log 2 2. 1 log 2
1
7. The series converges
3. log 2
2
4. log 2
2
n2 n2 1
absolutely. (CSIR-NET June 2011)
5. Which of the following series is
Assignment convergent ?
---------------------- S C Q ---------------------
1 sin n
1. n 1 n
2. n 1 n
2
(1) n n 1
1. The series (2n 1) is
n 1
log n
1
n
3. log n 4.
n 1 n 1 n
1. convergent 2. divergent
3. unbounded 4. None of these (CSIR-NET June 2013)
6. Let an ,bn be sequences of real
2. If an be the alternating series and
numbers satisfying an bn for all n1.
qn , pn are series of negative and
Then
positive terms respectively if an is
conditionally convergent, then
1. n
an converges whenever b
n n
pn qn
converges.
1. is convergent but not
2. n
an converges absolutely whenever
206
b converges absolutely.
n n
3. always converges but may not converges
absolutely
3. b converges whenever
n n a
n n
4. converges to 0 may not converges
converges.
absolutely.
4. b converges absolutely whenever
a
n n
10. If n is absolutely convergent, then
n an converges absolutely. n 1
which of the following is NOT true ?
(CSIR-NET Dec 2013)
7. If
a is absolutely convergent, then
n 1 n
1. a
mn
n 0 as n
which of the following is NOT true ?
2. e an
is divergent
m n am as n .
1. n 1
2.
n 1 n
a sin n is convergent. 3. a
n 1
n sin n is convergent
3. ean is divergent.
n 1
4. a
n 1
2
n is divergent
2
4. n 1 n
a is divergent.
11. The value of the product
(CSIR-NET Dec 2013)
1 1 1 1 1 1
n 1 1 ... 1 ...
8. Let Sn . Which of the following 1! 2! 3! 1! 2! 3!
k 1 k
1. 1 2. e 2 3. 0 4. log e2
is true ?
n 12. Let an n2 be a sequence of real numbers
1. S for every n 1.
2n 2 satisfying a1 1 and an1 an 1 for all
n 1. Then which of the following is
2. S n is a bounded sequence.
necessarily true ?
a
3. S S 0 as n . 1
2n 2n1 1. The series 2
diverges
n 1 n
4.
Sn
1 as n . 2. The sequence an n1 is bounded
n
a
1
(CSIR-NET Dec 2015) 3. The series 2
converges
n 1 n
9. Let an and bn be two sequences of
a
n 1 n 1 1
4. The series converges
real numbers such that the series a 2
n and n 1 n
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
b 2
n converges, then the series a ,b
n 1
n n
13. Which of the following is true ?
1
n
is 1. n 1 n
does not converge
1. absolutely convergent
2. may not convergent
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1
2.
n 1 n
converges 3. It is given that the series a
n 1
n is
1 convergent, but not absolutely convergent
3. m n
m1 n 1
2
converges
and an 0 . Denote by s k the partial
1 n 1
4. m n
m1 n 1
2
diverges
k
(CSIR NET June 2019)
sum an , k 1,2,.... Then
n 1
1. sk 0 for infinitely many k
----------------------- M C Q ------------------------
2. sk 0 for infinitely many k and sk 0
1
1. For n 2, let an . Then
n log n for infinitely many k
3. it is possible that sk 0 for all k
1. The sequence an n 2 is convergent.
4. it is possible that sk 0 for all but a
n 2 an is convergent.
2. The series
finite number of values of k
2
3. The series n2
a is convergent.
n (CSIR NET Dec 2011)
4. Let un n1 be a sequence of real numbers
1
n
4. The series n2
an is convergent.
satisfying the following conditions :
(CSIR-NET June 2015)
1 1 un 0, for all n 1
n
2. Let a0 , a1, a2 ,.... be a sequence of real un
2 un1
,for all n 13
numbers. For any k 1, let Sn k 0 a2 k .
n 2
Which of the following statements are
Which of the following statements are necessarily true ?
correct? 1. u
n1
n does not converge in .
1. If lim Sn exists, then m0
am exists.
u
n
2. n converges to zero.
n13
2. If lim Sn exists, then m0
am need not
n
exist.
3. u
n13
n converges to a non-zero real
number.
3. If m0
am exists, then lim Sn exists.
n un
4. If un1 , for all 2 n 13 , then
2
4. If m0
am exists, then lim Sn need not
n
exist. u
n1
n is a negative real number.
(CSIR-NET June 2015) (CSIR NET Dec 2018)
208
True false key
1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T
5. F 6. T 7. T
Assignment key
SCQ
1. 1 2. 4 3. 4 4. 1
5. 2 6. 2 7. 4 8. 1
9. 1 10. 4 11. 1 12. 3
MCQ
1. 1,3,4 2. 2,4 3. 2
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Chapter - 6
L.C.D.
6.1 Graphs
Domain : Let y f ( x) be a function, then the values of x for which the function is defined is called
the domain of the function f ( x) .
Range : The set of all values that can be attained by a function is called its range.
Boundedness : If we can draw two lines parallel to x-axis such that the graph completely lies between
these lines, then the function is bounded.
Monotonicity : If a function is either increasing or decreasing then it is monotonic. A function f is
increasing if for x y , we have f x f y and is decreasing if for x y , we have
f x f y and A function f is strictly increasing if for x y , we have f x f y and is strictly
decreasing if for x y , we have f x f y .
Remark : If the graph of a function is rising, then it is strictly increasing and if the graph of the
function is rising or parallel to x-axis, then it is increasing. If the graph of a function is falling, then it
is strictly decreasing and if the graph of the function is falling or parallel to x-axis, then it is
decreasing.
One-One : If every line parallel to x-axis intersects the graph at atmost one point, then the function is
one-one.
Onto : If every line parallel to x-axis intersects the graph in atleast one point, then the function is onto.
Continuity and Differentiability : The points at which the graph of the function has a break are the
points of discontinuity and the other points are the points of continuity. The points at which the graph
of the function has no break and no sharp corner are the points of differentiability. If a function is
differentiable at a point then it is continuous at that point. If a function is discontinuous at a point, then
it is not differentiable at that point.
Periodic function : The function f is periodic if there exist T 0 such that f x f x T x
and T is called the period of f.
Remark : If the graph of the function repeats regularly after some interval then the function is periodic
and the interval is its period.
210
Fundamental Period : If f is periodic then f x f x T x , then the smallest positive value of
T is called the function of period of f.
Note : Fundamental period of a periodic function may not exist.
Zeros : The values of the function where it cuts the x-axis are the zeros of the function.
Even function : Let f x be a real-valued function of a real variable, then f is even if f x f x .
Remark : Graph of an even function is always symmetric about y-axis i.e., its graph remains unchanged
after reflection about the y-axis
Odd function : Let f x be a real-valued function of a real variable, then f is odd if f x f x
Remark : Graph of and odd function is symmetric about opposite quadrants its graph remains unchanged
after rotation of 180 about the origin.
Greatest integer function : The greatest integer function or floor function to be the integer less than
or equal to the real number x. In other words, the greatest integer function rounds down a real number
to the nearest integer.
Fractional part function : The fraction part function x is defined to be the difference between x
and its floor function x i.e., x x x .
Logarithmic function : Logarithm of a number is the power to which base must be raised to obtain
that number i.e., log a x N a N x
Result : The function y a1x b1 a2 x b2 ... an x bn is continuous on and differentiable on
b b b
1 , 2 ,..., n .
a1 a2 an
Exercise 6.1
Draw the graph of the functions given below and discuss the following properties : Domain, range,
boundedness, f max , f min , fsup , finf , monotonicity, one – one, onto, continuity, differentiability,
periodic, period, zeroes and asymptotes.
1. (i) y x (ii) y x 2 (iii) y x3 (iv) y x 4
1 1 1 1
2. (i) y (ii) y 2
(iii) y 3
(iv) y
x x x x4
1 1 1 1
3. (i) y x x2 (ii) y x
3
x3 (iii) y x4 (iv) y x5
1 1
4. (i) y (ii) y 3
x x
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5. (i) y x (ii) y x 1 x 2 (iii) y x 1 x 2 x 3
(iv) y 2 x 1 2 x 1 (v) y x 1 x x 1
6. (i) y x (ii) y x 1 (iii) y x 1
(iv) y x 1 x 1 (v) y 2 x (vi) y x 2
7. (i) y x (ii) y x 1 (iii) y x 2
(iv) y 2 x (v) y x 1 x 1
8. (i) y sin x (ii) y cos x (iii) y tan x
(iv) y cot x (v) y cosec x (vi) y sec x
x
1
9. (i) y e x (ii) y e x (iii) y 2 x (iv) y
2
10. (i) y log 2 x (ii) y log 1 x (iii) y log 2 x
2
(iv) y log 1 x (v) y loge x (vi) y loge x
2
11. (i) y sinh x (ii) y cosh x
12. (i) y x (ii) y x (iii) y x (iv) y x
(v) y x (vi) y x
13. (i) y x
(ii) y x (iii) y x (iv) y x
(v) y x (vi) y x
14. (i) y x 2 x (ii) y x3 (iii) y (iv) y
2 3
x x
15. (i) y sin x (ii) y sin x (iii) y sin x (iv) y cos x
(v) y cos x (vi) y cos x (vii) y tan x (viii) y tan x
(ix) y tan x (x) y cot x (xi) y cot x (xii) y cot x
(xiii) y sec x (xiv) y sec x (xv) y sec x (xvi) y cosec x
(xvii) y cosec x (xviii) y cosec x
212
x x
16. (i) y e (ii) y e
17. (i) y log x (ii) y log x (iii) y log x
18. (i) y sinh x (ii) y cosh x
19. (i) y sin 2 x (ii) y cos 2 x (iii) y tan 2 x (iv) y cot 2 x
x x
(v) y sec 2 x (vi) y cosec2 x (vii) y sin (viii) y cos
2 2
x x x x
(ix) y tan (x) y cot (xi) y sec (xii) y cosec
2 2 2 2
20. (i) y sin x (ii) y cos x
21. (i) y sin x (ii) y cos x
22. (i) y max x , x 1 , x 1 (ii) y min x , x 1 , x 1
Answers
1. (i) domain , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically increasing, one-one,
onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none
(ii) domain , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic (increasing on (0, ) and decreasing on
(,0) ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes
: x 0 , asymptotes : none.
(iii) domain , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically increasing, one-one,
onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none
(iv) domain , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic (increasing on (0, ) and decreasing on
(,0) ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no,
zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none.
2. (i) domain {0} , range {0} , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not
exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically decreasing on
(,0) (0, ) , one-one, not onto, continuous on {0} , differentiable on {0} ,
periodic : no, zeroes : none, asymptotes : x 0, y 0 .
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(ii) domain {0} , range (0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic (increasing on (,0) and
decreasing on (0, ) ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on {0} , differentiable on
{0} , periodic : no, zeroes : none, asymptotes : x 0, y 0 .
(iii) domain {0} , range {0} , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not
exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically decreasing on
(,0) (0, ) , one-one, not onto, continuous on {0} , differentiable on {0} ,
periodic : no, zeroes : none, asymptotes : x 0, y 0 .
(iv) domain {0} , range (0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic (increasing on (,0) and
decreasing on (0, ) ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on {0} , differentiable on
{0} , periodic : no, zeroes : none, asymptotes : x 0, y 0 .
3. (i) domain [0, ) , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
f min 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , monotonically increasing, one-one, not onto, continuous
on [0, ) , differentiable on [0, ) , periodic : no, zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none.
(ii) domain , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin
does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically increasing, one-one, onto,
continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none.
(iii) domain [0, ) , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , monotonically increasing, one-one, not onto, continuous
on [0, ) , differentiable on [0, ) , periodic : no, zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none.
(iv) domain , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin
does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically increasing, one-one, onto,
continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none.
4. (i) domain (0, ) , range (0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf 0 , monotonically decreasing, one-one, not onto,
continuous on (0, ) , differentiable on (0, ) , periodic : no, zeroes : none, asymptotes :
x 0, y 0 .
214
(ii) domain 0 , range 0 , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not
exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically decreasing, one-
one, not onto, continuous on 0 , differentiable on 0 , periodic : no, zeroes : none,
asymptotes : x 0, y 0 .
5. (i) domain , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic (increasing on (0, ) and decreasing on
(,0) ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on 0 , periodic : no,
zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none.
(ii) domain , range [1, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 1 , fsup does not exist, finf 1 , non-monotonic (increasing on [2, ) , decreasing on
(,1] and constant on [1, 2] ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on
{1,2} , periodic : no, zeroes : none, asymptotes : none.
(iii) domain , range [2, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 2 , fsup does not exist, finf 2 , non-monotonic (increasing on [2, ) , decreasing on
(, 2] ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on {1,2,3} , periodic :
no, zeroes : none, asymptotes : none.
(iv) domain , range [2, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
1
fmin 2 , fsup does not exist, finf 2 , non-monotonic ( increasing on , and decreasing
2
1 1
on , ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on ,
2 2
periodic : no, zeroes : none, asymptotes : none.
(v) domain , range (,1] , bounded above and unbounded below, fmax 1 ,
fmin does not exist, fsup 1 , finf does not exist, non-monotonic (increasing on (, 1] and
decreasing on [1, ) ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on
{0, 2, 1} , periodic : no, zeroes : x 0, x 2 , asymptotes : none.
6. (i) domain , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically increasing, not one-
one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : [0,1) ,
asymptotes : none.
(ii) domain , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist,
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fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically increasing, not one-
one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : [1, 2) ,
asymptotes : none.
(iii) domain , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically increasing, not one-
one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : [1,0) ,
asymptotes : none.
(iv) domain , range {2n: n } , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not
exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically increasing, not
one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes :
[0,1) , asymptotes : none.
(v) domain , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist,
2
fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically increasing, not one-
1
one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : 0, ,
2 2 2
asymptotes : none.
(vi) domain , range {0} , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic, not one-one, not onto, continuous on
{ n : n } , differentiable on { n : n } , periodic : no, zeroes : 1,1 ,
asymptotes : none.
7. (i) domain , range [0,1) , bounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 0 , fsup 1 , finf 0 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing on (n, n 1), n ), not one-
one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : yes with period 1,
zeroes : , asymptotes : none.
(ii) domain , range [0,1) , bounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 0 , fsup 1 , finf 0 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing on (n, n 1), n ), not one-
one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : yes with period 1,
zeroes : , asymptotes : none.
(iii) domain , range [0,1) , bounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
216
fmin 0 , fsup 1 , finf 0 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing on (n, n 1), n ), not one-
one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : yes with period 1,
zeroes : , asymptotes : none.
(iv) domain , range [0,1) , bounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
1
fmin 0 , fsup 1 , finf 0 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing on n, n , n ), not
2 2
one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : yes with period
2 2
1, zeroes : , asymptotes : none.
2
(v) domain , range [0, 2) , bounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 0 , fsup 2 , finf 0 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing on (n, n 1), n ), not
one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : yes with period
1, zeroes : , asymptotes : none.
8. (i) domain , range [1,1] , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 1 , fsup 1 ,
finf 1 , non-monotonic (piecewise increasing and decreasing), not one-one, not onto,
continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : yes with period 2 , zeroes : x n , n ,
asymptotes : none.
(ii) domain , range [1,1] , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 1 , fsup 1 ,
finf 1 , non-monotonic (piecewise increasing and decreasing), not one-one, not onto,
continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : yes with period 2 ,
zeroes : x (2n 1) , n , asymptotes : none.
2
(iii) domain (2n 1) : n , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax
2
does not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-monotonic
(piecewise increasing), not one-one, onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on its
domain, periodic : yes with period , zeroes : x n , n , asymptotes :
x (2n 1) , n .
2
(iv) domain n : n , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not
exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-monotonic (piecewise
decreasing), not one-one, onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on its domain,
periodic : yes with period , zeroes : x (2n 1) , n , asymptotes : x n , n .
2
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(v) domain n : n , range (1,1) , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax
does not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-monotonic
(piecewise increasing and decreasing), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its domain,
differentiable on its domain, periodic : yes with period 2 , zeroes : none, asymptotes :
x n , n .
(vi) domain (2n 1) : n , range (1,1) , unbounded above and unbounded
2
below, fmax does not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist,
non- monotonic (piecewise increasing and decreasing), not one-one, not onto, continuous on
its domain, differentiable on its domain, periodic : yes with period 2 , zeroes : none,
asymptotes : x (2n 1) , n .
2
9. (i) domain , range (0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin
does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf 0 , monotonically increasing, one-one, not onto,
continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : none, asymptotes : y 0 .
(ii) domain , range (0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin
does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf 0 , monotonically decreasing, one-one, not onto,
continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : none, asymptotes : y 0 .
(iii) domain , range (0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin
does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf 0 , monotonically increasing, one-one, not onto,
continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : none, asymptotes : y 0 .
(iv) domain , range (0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin
does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf 0 , monotonically decreasing, one-one, not onto,
continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : none, asymptotes : y 0 .
10. (i) domain (0, ) , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin
does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically increasing, one-one, onto,
continuous on its domain, differentiable on its domain, periodic : no, zeroes : x 1 ,
asymptotes : x 0 .
(ii) domain (0, ) , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin
does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically decreasing, one-one, onto,
218
continuous on its domain, differentiable on its domain, periodic : no, zeroes : x 1 ,
asymptotes : x 0 .
(iii) domain (,0) , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically decreasing, one-one,
onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on its domain , periodic : no, zeroes : x 1 ,
asymptotes : x 0 .
(iv) domain (,0) , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically increasing, one-one,
onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on its domain, periodic : no, zeroes : x 1 ,
asymptotes : x 0 .
(v) domain (0, ) , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin
does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically increasing, one-one, onto,
continuous on its domain, differentiable on its domain, periodic : no, zeroes : x 1 ,
asymptotes : x 0 .
(vi) domain (,0) , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically decreasing, one-one,
onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on its domain, periodic : no, zeroes : x 1 ,
asymptotes : x 0 .
11. (i) domain , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin
does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, monotonically increasing, one-one, onto,
continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none.
(ii) domain , range [1, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 1 , fsup does not exist, finf 1 , non-monotonic ( increasing on [0, ) and decreasing on
(,0] , not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes :
none, asymptotes : none.
12. (i) domain , range [0,1) , bounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin 0 ,
fsup 1 , finf 0 , non-monotonic (piecewise increasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous
on , differentiable on , periodic : yes with period 1, zeroes : , asymptotes :
none.
(ii) domain , range [0,1) , bounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin 0 ,
fsup 1 , finf 0 , non-monotonic ( increasing on (0, ) and decreasing on (,0) ), not one-
one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : ,
asymptotes : none.
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(iii) domain , range {0} , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin
0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic ( increasing on (0, ) and decreasing on
(,0) ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic :
no, zeroes : [0,1) , asymptotes : none.
(iv) domain , range {0} , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic ( increasing on (0, ) and decreasing on
(,0) ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic :
no, zeroes : (1,1) , asymptotes : none.
(v) domain , range {0} , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 0 , fmin 0 , fsup 0 , finf
0 , monotonic ( constant ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on ,
periodic : no, zeroes : , asymptotes : none.
(vi) domain , range {0} , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 0 , fmin 0 , fsup 0 ,
finf 0 , monotonic ( constant ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on
, periodic : no, zeroes : , asymptotes : none.
13. (i) domain , range {0} , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 0 , fmin 0 , fsup 0 , finf
0 , monotonic ( constant ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on ,
periodic : no, zeroes : , asymptotes : none.
(ii) domain , range {0} , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 0 , fmin 0 , fsup 0 , finf
0 , monotonic ( constant ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on ,
periodic : no, zeroes : , asymptotes : none.
(iii) domain , range {0} , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 0 , fmin 0 , fsup 0 , finf
0 , monotonic ( constant ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on ,
periodic : no, zeroes : , asymptotes : none.
(iv) domain , range {0} , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 0 , fmin 0 , fsup 0 , finf
0 , monotonic (constant ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on ,
periodic : no, zeroes : , asymptotes : none.
(v) domain , range {0} , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 0 , fmin 0 , fsup 0 , finf
0 , monotonic ( constant ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on ,
periodic : no, zeroes : , asymptotes : none.
220
(vi) domain , range {0} , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 0 , fmin 0 , fsup 0 , finf
0 , monotonic ( constant ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on ,
periodic : no, zeroes : , asymptotes : none.
14. (i) domain , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic ( increasing on [0, ) and decreasing on
(,0] ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no,
zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none.
(ii) domain , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
f min 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic ( increasing on [0, ) and decreasing on
(,0] ) , not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no,
zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none.
(iii) domain [0, ) , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist, fmin
0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , monotonically increasing, one-one, not onto, continuous on
its domain, differentiable on its domain, periodic : no, zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none.
(iv) domain , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
f min 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic ( increasing on [0, ) and decreasing
on (,0] ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no,
zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none.
15. (i) domain , range [1,1] , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 1 , fsup 1 ,
finf 1 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto,
continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes : x n , n , asymptotes :
none.
(ii) domain , range [0,1] , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 0 , fsup 1 , finf
0 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto,
continuous on , differentiable on {n : n } , periodic : yes with period , zeroes :
x n , n , asymptotes : none.
(iii) domain , range [0,1] , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 0 , fsup 1 ,
f min 0 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto,
continuous on , differentiable on {n : n } , periodic : yes with period , zeroes :
x n , n , asymptotes : none.
(iv) domain , range [1,1] , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 1 , fsup 1 ,
finf 1 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto,
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continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : yes with period , zeroes :
x (2n 1) , n , asymptotes : none.
2
(v) domain , range [0,1] , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 0 , fsup 1 ,
finf 0 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto,
continuous on , differentiable on 2n 1 : n , periodic : yes with period ,
2
zeroes : x (2n 1) , n , asymptotes : none.
2
(vi) domain , range [0,1] , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 0 , fsup 1 ,
finf 0 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto,
continuous on , differentiable on 2n 1 : n , periodic : yes period ,
2
zeroes : x (2n 1) , n , asymptotes : none.
2
(vii) domain (2n 1) : n , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax
2
does not exist, fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing
and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on
{n : n } {(2n 1) : n } , periodic : yes with period , zeroes :
2
x n , n , asymptotes : x (2n 1) , n .
2
(viii) domain (2n 1) : n , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax
2
does not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-monotonic
(increasing on (0, ) and decreasing on (,0) ), not one-one, onto, continuous on its
domain, differentiable on 2n 1 : n {0} , periodic : no, zeroes :
2
x n , n , asymptotes : x (2n 1) , n .
2
222
(ix) domain (2n 1) : n , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax
2
does not exist, fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing
and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on
{n : n } {(2n 1) : n } , periodic : yes with period , zeroes :
2
x n , n , asymptotes : x (2n 1) , n .
2
(x) domain {n : n } , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not
exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-monotonic ( piecewise
increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on
{n : n } , periodic : no, zeroes : x (2n 1) , n , asymptotes : x n , n .
2
(xi) domain {n : n } , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does
not exist, fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, f min 0 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and
decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on
{n : n } {(2n 1) : n } , periodic : yes with period , zeroes :
2
x (2n 1) , n , asymptotes : x n , n .
2
(xii) domain {n : n } , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does
not exist, fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and
decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on
{n : n } , periodic : yes with period , zeroes : x (2n 1) , n , asymptotes :
2
x n , n .
(xiii) domain (2n 1) : n , range (1,1) , unbounded above and unbounded
2
below, fmax does not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-
monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its
domain, differentiable on its domain, periodic : yes with period 2 , zeroes : none,
asymptotes : x (2n 1) , n .
2
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(xiv) domain (2n 1) : n , range [1, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax
2
does not exist, fmin 1 , fsup does not exist, finf 1 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing
and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on its
domain, periodic : yes with period , zeroes : none, asymptotes : x (2n 1) , n .
2
(xv) domain (2n 1) : n , range [1, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax
2
does not exist, fmin 1 , fsup does not exist, finf 1 , non-monotonic (piecewise increasing and
decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on its domain,
periodic : yes with period , zeroes : none, asymptotes : x (2n 1) , n .
2
(xvi) domain (2n 1) : n , range (1,1) , unbounded above and unbounded
2
below, fmax does not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-
monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its
domain, differentiable on its domain, periodic : yes with period 2 , zeroes : none,
asymptotes : x n , n .
(xvii) domain {n : n } , range [1, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not
exist, fmin 1 , fsup does not exist, finf 1 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and
decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on its domain,
periodic : yes with period , zeroes : none, asymptotes : x n , n .
(xviii) domain {n : n } , range [1, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does
not exist, fmin 1 , fsup does not exist, finf 1 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and
decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on its domain,
periodic : yes with period , zeroes : none, asymptotes : x n , n .
16. (i) domain , range [1, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
f min 1 , fsup does not exist, finf 1 , non-monotonic ( increasing on (1, ) and decreasing on
(,1) , not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on {0} , periodic : no,
zeroes : none, asymptotes : none.
224
(ii) domain , range [1, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
f min 1 , fsup does not exist, finf 1 , non-monotonic ( increasing on (0, ) and decreasing
on (,0) ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on {0} , periodic :
no, zeroes : none, asymptotes : none.
17. (i) domain {0} , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-monotonic ( increasing on
(0, ) and decreasing on (,0) ), not one-one, onto, continuous on its domain,
differentiable on its domain, periodic : no, zeroes : x 1, 1, asymptotes : x 0 .
(ii) domain (0, ) , range [1, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic ( increasing on (1, ) and decreasing on
(0,1) ), one-one, not onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on (0, ) {1} , periodic :
no, zeroes : x 1 , asymptotes : x 0 .
(iii) domain {0} , range (1,1) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not
exist, fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic ( increasing on (1,0) (1, ) and
decreasing on (, 1) (0,1) ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on {0} , differentiable
on {0, 1} , periodic : no, zeroes : x 1, 1, asymptotes : x 0 .
18. (i) domain , range [0, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 0 , fsup does not exist, finf 0 , non-monotonic ( increasing on (0, ) and decreasing on
(,0) ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on {0} , periodic : no,
zeroes : x 0 , asymptotes : none.
(ii) domain , range [1, ) , unbounded above and bounded below, fmax does not exist,
fmin 1 , fsup does not exist, finf 1 , non-monotonic ( increasing on (0, ) and decreasing on
(,0) ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : no, zeroes
: none, asymptotes : none.
19. (i) domain , range [1,1] , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 1 , fsup 1 ,
finf 1 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto,
n
continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : yes with period , zeroes : x , n,
2
asymptotes : none.
(ii) domain , range [1,1] , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 1 , fsup 1 ,
finf 1 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto,
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continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : yes with period , zeroes :
x (2n 1) , n , asymptotes : none.
4
(iii) domain (2n 1) : n , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax
4
does not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-monotonic
(piecewise increasing ), not one-one, onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on its
n
domain, periodic : yes with period , zeroes : x , n , asymptotes :
2 2
x (2n 1) , n .
4
n
(iv) domain : n , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does
2
not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-monotonic
(piecewise decreasing ), not one-one, onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on its
domain, periodic : yes with period , zeroes : x (2n 1) , n , asymptotes :
2 4
n
x , n.
2
n
(v) domain : n , range (1,1) , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax
2
does not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-monotonic
(piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its domain,
differentiable on its domain, periodic : yes with period , zeroes : none, asymptotes :
n
x , n.
2
(vi) domain (2n 1) : n , range (1,1) , unbounded above and unbounded
4
below, fmax does not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-
monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its
domain, differentiable on its domain, periodic : yes with period , zeroes : none,
asymptotes : x (2n 1) , n .
4
226
(vii) domain , range [1,1] , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 1 , fsup 1 ,
finf 1 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto,
continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : yes with period 4 , zeroes :
x 2n , n , asymptotes : none.
(viii) domain , range [1,1] , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 1 , fsup 1 ,
finf 1 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto,
continuous on , differentiable on , periodic : yes with period 4 , zeroes :
x (2n 1) , n , asymptotes : none.
(ix) domain (2n 1) : n , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax
does not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-monotonic
(piecewise increasing ), not one-one, onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on its
domain, periodic : yes with period 2 , zeroes : x 2n , n , asymptotes :
x (2n 1) , n .
(x) domain 2n : n , range , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax does
not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-monotonic (piecewise
decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its domain, differentiable on its domain,
periodic : yes with period 2 , zeroes : x (2n 1) , n , asymptotes : x 2n , n .
(xi) domain (2n 1) : n , range (1,1) , unbounded above and unbounded
below, fmax does not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-
monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its
domain, differentiable on its domain, periodic : yes with period 4 , zeroes : none,
asymptotes : x (2n 1) , n .
(xii) domain 2n : n , range (1,1) , unbounded above and unbounded below, fmax
does not exist, fmin does not exist, fsup does not exist, finf does not exist, non-monotonic
(piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto, continuous on its domain,
differentiable on its domain, periodic : yes with period 4 , zeroes : none, asymptotes :
x 2n , n .
20. (i) domain , range {0, 1} , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 1 , fsup 1 ,
finf 1 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto,
continuous on n : n 4n 3 : n , differentiable on
2
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n : n 4n 3 : n , periodic : yes with period 2 , zeroes :
2
x n , n , asymptotes : none.
(ii) domain , range {0, 1} , bounded above and bounded below, fmax 1 , fmin 1 , fsup 1 ,
finf 1 , non-monotonic ( piecewise increasing and decreasing ), not one-one, not onto,
continuous on 2n : n 2n 1 : n , differentiable on
2
2n : n 2n 1 : n , periodic : yes with period 2 , zeroes :
2
x n , n , asymptotes : none.
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6.2 Monotonic and periodic functions
Def. Monotonically increasing function : A function f : D is said to be monotonically
increasing if f x2 f x1 for all x2 x1 where x1, x2 D .
Def. Monotonically decreasing function : A function f : D is said to be monotonically
decreasing if f x2 f x1 for all x2 x1 where x1, x2 D .
Def. Strictly monotonically increasing function : A function f : D is said to be strictly
monotonically increasing if f x2 f x1 for all x2 x1 where x1, x2 D .
Def. Strictly monotonically decreasing function : A function f : D is said to be strictly
monotonically decreasing if f x2 f x1 for all x2 x1 where x1, x2 D .
Remark : Some authors use the terms non-decreasing, non-increasing, increasing and decreasing
functions in place of increasing, decreasing, strictly increasing and strictly decreasing functions
respectively.
Def. Bounded function : A function f : D is said to be bounded if there exist two real numbers
k and K such that k f x K for all x D . A function which is not bounded is said to be an
unbounded function.
Results :
1. A function f is monotonically increasing iff f is monotonically decreasing.
2. Let f : a, b be a monotonic function, then f is bounded.
228
1
3. Let f : a, b be a monotonic function, then f need not be bounded. For example, f x
x
on (0, 1) is monotonically decreasing but not bounded.
4. Let f and g be two monotonically increasing functions, then f g is also monotonically increasing.
5. Let f and g be two monotonically increasing functions, then f g need not be monotonically
increasing. For example, f x x, g x x are monotonically increasing functions but
f x g x x is not monotonic.
6. Let f and g be two monotonically increasing functions, then f g need not be monotonically
increasing. For example, f x x g x are monotonically increasing functions but
f x g x x 2 is not monotonic.
Def. Even functions : A function f x is said to be an even function if f x f x for all x
Here, it is assumed that x is in the domain of f x wherever x is in the domain of f x .
The graph of an even function is always symmetrical about y-axis, i.e., the curve on the left hand side
of y-axis is the mirror image of the curve on its right hand side.
Def. Odd function : A function f x is said to be an odd function if f x f x for all x
The graph of an odd function is always symmetric in opposite quadrants, i.e., the curve in the first
quadrant is identical to the curve in third quadrant and the curve in second quadrant is identical to the
curve in fourth quadrant.
Def. Periodic functions : A function f x is said to be a periodic function if there exists a positive
real number T such that f x T f x for all x .
We know that sin x 2 sin x 4 .... sin x and, cos x 2 cos x 4 .... cos x for
all x .
Therefore, sin x and cos x are periodic functions.
Def. Period : If f x is a periodic function, then the smallest positive real number T is called the
period or fundamental period of function f x if f x T f x for all x .
Remark : A constant function is periodic but it has no fundamental period. If f x c then
f x f x T for all T i.e., T 0 is a period of f. But fundamental period of f does not exist as
has no smallest positive number.
Some theorems on periodic functions :
1. If f x is a periodic function with periodic T and a, b such that a 0 , then af x b is
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periodic with period T.
2. If f x is a periodic function with period T and a, b such that a 0 , then f ax b is
T
periodic with period . For example, sin x is a periodic function with period 2 . Therefore,
a
x 2
sin 2 x, sin 3x 2 and sin 1 are periodic with periods , and 4 , respectively.
2 3
m
3. Let f x and g x be two periodic functions such that : Period of f x , where m, n and
n
r
m, n are co-prime, and period of g x , where r and s are co-prime. Then,
s
LCM of m, r
f g x is periodic with period T given by T , provided that there does not
HCF of n, s
exist a positive number k T for which f k x g x and g k x f x , else k will be the
period of f g x .
f
4. The above result is also true for functions , f g and fg .
g
5. f o g is periodic if g is periodic.
Proof : If g is periodic, then g x g x T
f o g x T f g x T f g x f o g x
f o g is also periodic.
6. A monotonic periodic function is always a constant function.
Exercise 6.2
1. Show that sin n x,cosn x,secn x,cosecn x are periodic functions with period 2 and according as
n is odd or even.
2. Show that tan n x,cot n x are periodic functions with period whether n is even or odd.
3. Show that sin x , cos x , tan x , cot x , sec x , cosec x are periodic with period .
4. Show that sin x cos x , tan x cot x , sec x cosec x are periodic with period .
2
5. Show that sin 1 sin x , cos1 cos x ,cosec1 cosec x ,sec1 sec x are periodic with period 2
230
whereas tan 1 tan x and cot 1 cot x are periodic with period .
6. Show that sum of two monotonically increasing functions is again a monotonically increasing
function.
7. Repeat the above exercise for decreasing, strictly increasing and strictly decreasing functions.
8. Show that the set of all monotonically increasing functions defined on does not form a vector
space.
9. Show that the set of all monotonic functions defined on does not form a vector space.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.3 Limits
Def. Limits of a Function : Let f be a function defined for all points in some neighbourhood of a
point „a‟ except possibly at the point a itself. We say that the function f tends to the limit „l‟ as x tends
to a, if for each given 0, there exists > 0 such that, f x l whenever 0 x a we,
then write : lim f x l . It should be noted that the inequality 0 x a excludes the possibility
xa
0 x a i.e. the possibility of x a .
Def. Right hand limit : We say that the function f tends to l as x tends to a through values greater
than a, if to each 0 , there exists 0 s.t. f x l whenever a x a
i.e., x a, a f x l , l
We then write : lim f x l . This limit is known as right hand limit.
x a
Def. Left hand limit : We say that the function f tends to l as x tends to a through values less than a if
for each 0, there exist 0 such that f x l whenever a x a
i.e., x a , a f x l , l .
We then write : lim f x l . This limit is known as left hand limit.
x a
Def. Limit : If lim f x l and lim f x l both exists and are equal, then their common value is
x a x a
the value of lim f x .
x a
Results (A) : Algebra of limits :
1. The limit of a function, if it exists, is unique.
2. If lim f x l then lim k f x kl
xa xa
3. If lim f x l and lim g x m , then lim f x g x l m
xa xa x a
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4. If lim f x l and lim g x m then lim f x g x lm
xa xa x a
f x l
5. If lim f x l and lim g x m , and m 0 then lim
xa xa xa g x
m
6. If lim f x l then lim f x l , provided f x 0
xa x a
7. If lim f x l and lim g x m , then lim g f x need not exist and if exist then it need not be
xa xa xa
equal to m.
8. If lim f x l and lim g x m , then lim g f x exist and is equal to m, provided that either
xa xa xa
g is continuous or f is not equal to l in the neighbourhood of x a .
9. lim f x 0 iff lim f x 0 .
xa xa
10. If lim f x l , then lim f x l . Converse of this is not true.
xa x a
11. lim f x l iff lim f x l 0 .
xa xa
12. If lim f x 0 and g x is bounded in some deleted neighbourhood of a, then lim f x g x 0
xa x a
Results (B) : Inequalities and limits :
1. Let f be defined on a domain D such that f x k for all x D then lim f x k
xa
2. Let f and g be defined on a common domain D and let f x g x x D, then
lim f x lim g x , provided these limit exist.
x a x a
3. Squeeze Principle : Let f, g, h be three functions defined on D and let f x g x h x for all
x D. If lim f x lim h x l then lim g x exists and equals l.
x a x a x a
Result (C) : Sequential criteria :
1. Sequential criteria for limit : Let f be a function defined in some neighbourhood of a point „a‟
except possibly at the point a itself. Then lim f x l iff for every sequence xn , xn a
xa
converging to a, the sequence f xn converges to l. i.e., xn a f xn l .
2. It is enough if we consider sequence of rational and irrational in this criteria.
232
3. Let f be a function defined in some neighbourhood of a point „a‟ except possibly at the point a
itself. If there exists sequences xn and yn which both converge to a, but the sequences
f xn and f yn do not both converge to the same number, then lim f x does not exist.
xa
1
Example : Prove that limsin does not exist.
x0
x
1 1 1
Proof : Let f x sin . Consider the sequences xn and yn .
x n
2n
2
1
Then both xn 0 and yn 0 , but f xn sin sin n 0 0 ,
xn
1
while f yn sin sin 2n 1 1 . Thus, lim f xn lim f yn .
yn 2 n n
3. Cauchy‟s Criterion for finite limits : A function f tends to a finite limit as x tends to „a‟ iff for
every 0, there exists a neighbourhood N of „a‟ s.t. f x1 f x2 x1, x2 N ; x1, x2 a.
Limits at infinity and Infinite Limits :
1. A function f x is said to tend to l as x , if given 0, there exists a positive number k such
that f x l x k and we write lim f x l .
x
2. A function f x is said to tend to l as x , if given if given 0, there exists a positive
number k such that f x l x k , and we write lim f x l .
x
3. A function f x is said to tend to as x tends to a, if given if given k 0, however large, there
exists a positive number such that f x k for 0 x a , and we write lim f x .
xa
4. A function f x is said to tend to as x tends to a, if given k 0, however large, there exists a
positive number such that f x k for 0 x a and we write lim f x .
x a
5. A function f x is said to tend to as x if given k 0, however large, there exists k 0
such that f x k x k and we write lim f x .
x
6. A function f x is said to tend to as x , if given k 0, however large, there exists k 0
such that f x k x k and we write lim f x .
x
7. A function f x is said to tend to as x , if given k 0, however large, there exists k 0
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such that f x k x k and we write lim f x .
x
8. A function f x is said to tend to as x , if given k 0, however large, there exists a
number k 0 such that f x k x k and we write lim f x .
x
Remarks :
1. In most of problems of evaluating limits, we calculate L.H.S. and R.H.S. and if they are equal, the
common value gives the limit of the function and if they are unequal, we say that the limit does not
exist.
2. In finding L.H.S. i.e. lim f x , we put x a h , and solve the limit lim f a h
xa h 0
3. In finding R.H.S. i.e. lim f x , we put x a h and solve the limit lim f a h
xa h 0
Some standard limits :
log 1 x
x x
1 1 1
1. lim 1 lim 1 e 2. lim 1 x x e 3. lim 1
x
x x
x x 0 x 0 x
a x 1 xp ap
4. lim log a a 0 5. lim pa p1 p 0 and a 0
x 0 x x a x a
sin x
6. lim 1
x 0 x
x 2 25
Example 1 : Find lim
x5 x 2 x 30
Solution : lim
x 2 25
lim
x 2 52
lim
x 5 x 5 lim x 5 10
x5 x x 30 x5 x 6 x 5 x 30 x5 x 6 x 5 x5 x 6 11
2 2
x 2 4 x 12
Example 2 : Find lim
x 2 x2
x2 if x 2
Solution : x 2
x 2 if x 2
x 2 x 6
if x 2
x 4 x 12 x 2 x 6 x2 x 6 if x 2
2
x2 x2 x 2 x 6 if x 2 x 6 if x 2
x 2
x 2 4 x 12 x 2 4 x 12
R.H.L. = lim lim x 6 8 and L.H.L. = lim lim x 6 8
x2 x2 x2 x2 x2 x2
234
x 2 4 x 12
Since L.H.L. R.H.L., therefore lim does not exist.
x 2 x2
x11
Example 3 : Find lim x 1 e 1
x
1
1
1 2 e
x 1
1
Solution : lim x 1 e x1 1 lim
e 1x 1
lim
x 1
( L‟s Hospital Rule )
x
x 1 x 1
x 1 x 1
2
1
lim e x1 1
x
Exercise 6.3
1. Do the following limits exist ? If yes, find them :
1 1 x
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim
x0 x x 0 x x0 x
(iv) lim
x (v) lim
x
x0 x x 2.4 x
2. Do the following limits exist ? If yes, find them :
1 1
1
x 1
1 e e
x x
(i) lim 2 (ii) lim 1
(iii) lim 1 1
x 1 x 0 x 0
1 e x
ex e x
1 1
e 1
x
e x
(iv) lim 1
(v) lim 1
x0 x0
e 1
x
e 1
x
3. Do the following limits exist ? If yes, find them :
1 1
p x ex e x 1
(i) lim x e , p0 (ii) lim x 1 1 (iii) lim x 1
x x0 x0
x
e e 1 e x
x
1
1 e x xp 1
p , p 0
(iv) lim (v) lim , p0 (vi) lim x 1 e x
x0 x x0 1 x0
1 e x
2x 1
(vii) lim
x0 x
4. Do the following limits exist ? If yes, find them :
(i) lim log x 2 9
x3
(ii) lim log x 1 log x
x
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x 1 x
(iii) lim log (iv) lim log
x0 x 1 x x
5. Do the following limits exist ? If yes, find them :
1
log
log 1 x log 1 x x
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim
x0 x x0 x x x
1 log x
(iv) lim x p log , p 0 (v) lim x p log x, p 0 (vi) lim
x x x0 x ex
1
log x
(vii) lim e x log x (viii) lim , p0
x0 x xp
6. Do the following limits exist ? If yes, find them :
1
(i) lim sin x (ii) lim cos x (iii) limsin
x x x 1 x 1
1 1
(iv) lim x sin (v) lim x cos
x 0 x x 0 x
sin x x
7. (i) lim (ii) lim where, denotes the greatest integer function.
x 0
x x 0 sin x
3x 2 when x 1
8. Find lim f x , where f x 2
x 1
4 x 3x when x 1
9. If lim f x and lim g x does not exist, can lim f x g x exist ?
x a x a x a
10. If lim f x and lim f x g x both exists, then does it follow that lim g x exist ?
x a xa x a
11. If lim f x and lim g x do not exist, then give examples to show that lim f x g x and
x a x a x a
lim f x g x may or may not exist.
xa
1 0, if x 0
0, if x
12. For the functions f x n and g x sin x , show that
sin x, otherwise x , otherwise
lim f x 0, lim g x 1 but lim g f x does not exist.
x0 x0 x0
0, if x 0
13. For the functions f x 0 and g x , show that lim f x 0, lim g x 1
1, otherwise x0 x0
but lim g f x 0 1 .
x0
236
14. Using the sequential criteria prove that the limit of the Dirichlet‟s function
1, if x is rational
f x does not exist at any point.
0, if x is irrational
x, if x is rational
15. Using the sequential criteria prove that lim f x 0 where f x
x0
x, if x is irrational
Answers
5
1. (i) No (ii) Yes, (iii) No (iv) No (v) Yes,
6
2. (i) No (ii) No (iii) No (iv) No (v) No
3. (i) Yes, 0 (ii) Yes, 0 (iii) Yes, 0 (iv) Yes, (v) Yes, 0 (vi) Yes, (vii) Yes, log 2
4. (i) No (ii) Yes, 0 (iii) Yes, (iv) Yes, 0
5. (i) Yes, 1 (ii) Yes, –1 (iii) Yes, 0 (iv) Yes, 0 (v) Yes, 0
(vi) Yes, 0 (vii) Yes, 0 (viii) Yes, 0
6. (i) No (ii) No (iii) No (iv) Yes, 0 (v) Yes, 0
7. (i) Yes, 0 (ii) Yes, 1 8. 1
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.4 Continuity
Def. Continuity at a point : A function f is said to be continuous at a point „a‟ if given 0, there
exists a 0, s.t. f x f 0 whenever x a . Equivalently, a function f is continuous at
x a, if lim f x f a i.e. if lim f x lim f x f a .
x a x a x a
Def. Continuity from the left : A function f is said to be continuous from the left at a point „a‟ if
given 0, there exists a 0 s.t. f x f a whenever a x a Equivalently, f is
continuous from the left at x a if lim f x f a .
x a
Def. Continuity from the right : A function f is said to be continuous from the right at a point „a‟ if
given 0, there exists a 0 s.t. f x f a whenever a x a Equivalently, f is
continuous from right if lim f x f a .
x a
Def. Continuity in a closed interval : A function f is said to be continuous in a closed interval [a, b]
if it is (i) continuous at each point of (a, b) (ii) right continuous at a. (iii) left continuous at b.
Def. Continuity on a set : A function f is said to be on a set A if it is continuous at each point of A.
Def. Discontinuity of a function : A function f which is not continuous at a point „a‟ is said to be
discontinuous at „a‟ and „a‟ is called point of discontinuity of f.
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Types of discontinuity :
Def. Removable discontinuity : If lim f x exists but is not equal to f a , then f is said to have a
x a
removable discontinuity at „a‟. Such a discontinuity can be removed by assigning a suitable value to
the function f at x a .
sin x
if x 0
e.g., consider the function f defined by : f x x then f has a removable singularity at
0 if x 0
sin x
if x 0
x 0 , which can be removed if we redefine the function as : g x x
1 if x 0
Def. Discontinuity of first kind or Jump discontinuity : A function f is said to have a discontinuity
of the first kind at x a , if lim f x and lim f x both exist but are not equal. Further, a function f
xa xa
is said to have a discontinuity of the first kind from the left at a if lim f x f a lim f x and
xa xa
a function f is said to have a discontinuity of the first kind from the right at x a if
lim f x f a lim f x .
x a xa
1 if x 0
e.g., Consider the function f defined by : f x then f has a discontinuity of the first
1 if x 0
kind from the right at x 0 .
Def. Discontinuity of second kind :
(i) A function f is said to have a discontinuity of the second kind from the left at x a if lim f x
xa
does not exist.
(ii) A function f is said to have a discontinuity of second kind from the right at x a if lim f x
xa
does not exist.
(iii) A function f is said to have a discontinuity of second kind at x a if neither lim f x nor
xa
1
sin x0
lim f x exist. e.g. the function f x x has a discontinuity of second kind at x 0 .
x a
0 x0
238
Def. Mixed discontinuity : A function f is said to have the mixed discontinuity at x a , if f has a
discontinuity of second kind on one side of x a and on the other side a discontinuity of first kind or may
0 if x 0
be continuous. e.g., the function f defined by f x 1 has a mixed discontinuity at x 0
sin x if x 0
Results (A) : Algebra of continuous functions :
1. If f and g are two continuous functions at a, then k f , f g , fg ,
f
g
g a 0 are continuous at a.
2. If f is continuous at x a and g is discontinuous at x a , then f g is discontinuous at x a .
3. If f is continuous at x a and g is discontinuous at x a and f is non-zero in some
neighbourhood of x a , then f g is discontinuous at x a
4. If a function f is continuous at a, then f is also continuous at a. But converse is not true.
1 1
5. If f, g are two continuous functions at a, then max f , g f g f g and
2 2
1 1
min f , g f g f g are also continuous at a.
2 2
6. Composition of two continuous functions is a continuous function i.e., if f is continuous at x a
and g is continuouos at x f a , then g o f is continuous at x a .
7. The set of all functions f : D continuous at a D is a real vector space.
Results (B) : Neighbourhood properties :
Theorem 1. Local boundedness property : If a function f : D is continuous at x a , then it
is bounded in some neighbourhood of a.
Proof : Suppose f is continuous at x a . Then for 1, there exists a 0 such that
f x f a 1 whenever x a , x D
1 f x f a 1 whenever x a , x D
f a 1 f x f a 1 for all x a , a D
f x is bounded in a neighbourhood of a.
Theorem 2. Local sign invariability property : If a function is continuous at a point, then its sign is
invariable near the point. Symbolically, if f is continuous on a, b and let a c b, then
(i) f a 0 implies that there exists 0, s.t. f x 0 x a, a
(ii) f c 0 implies that there exists 0, s.t. f x 0 x c , c .
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(iii) f b 0 implies that there exists 0, s.t. f x 0 x b , b .
Proof. (i) Since f is continuous on a, b , so f is right continuous on a. Thus for any 0 , there
exists a 0 such that f x f a whenever xa , a )
f a f x f a
Taking sufficiently small, the result follows. Part (ii) and (iii) can be done on similar lines
Remark : The above theorem can also be given for negative sign as follows.
Theorem 3. If a function f is continuous an a, b , then
(i) f a 0 implies that there exists 0 such that f x 0 for all x in [a, a )
(ii) f c 0 implies that there exists 0 such that f x 0 for all x in c , c
(iii) f b 0 implies that there exists 0 such that f x 0 all x in (b , b]
Results C : Images and inverse images :
Theorem 1. Let f : be a continuous function and K be any real number then the sets
(i) A {x : f ( x) 0} is open (ii) B x : f x 0 is open
(iii) C {x : f ( x) 0} is closed (iv) D {x : f ( x) 0} is closed
(v) E {x : f ( x) 0} is closed
Proof. (i) Let a be any element of A , then f a 0
Now f is given to be continuous at a, for given 0 there exists 0 such that x a , a
f x f a , f a
a a , a A a , a A .
Hence A is a neighbourhood of a. But a is an arbitrary point of set A, we get that A is neighbourhood
of all its points and hence A is an open set.
(ii) Similar.
240
(iii) We can write C A B and we have proved that A and B are open sets, so A B is also
an open set. Therefore C is a closed set.
(iv) Clearly D B and B is open.
(v) E A and A is open.
Theorem 2. Let f : be a continuous function and k be any real number then the sets
(i) {x : f ( x) k} is open (ii) {x : f ( x) k} is open
(iii) {x : f ( x) k} is closed (iv) {x : f ( x) k} is closed
(v) {x : f ( x) k} is closed
Proof : Consider the function g x f x k and apply the theorem (1).
Theorem 3. Let f , g : are continuous functions then
(i) the set x : f x g x is open. (ii) the set x : f x g x is open.
(iii) the set x : f x g x is closed. (iv) the set x : f x g x is closed.
(v) the set x : f x g x is closed.
Proof : Consider the function h x f x g x and apply the theorem (1).
Theorem 4. Open set criterion of continuous function : A function f : is continuous on
iff for each open set A , f 1 A is an open set in .
Proof : (i) The condition is necessary : Let the function f be continuous on and let A an open
set. We have to show that f 1 ( A) is open.
If f 1 A then obviously f 1 ( A) is open as is an open set
If f 1 ( A) , Let a f 1 ( A) . Then f (a) A . Since A is an open subset of containing f a ,
there exists 0 such that ( f ( a ) , f ( a) ) A
Now f is continuous at a ; there exists a number > 0 such that
| f ( x) f (a) | whenever xa
or x (a , a ) f ( x) ( f (a) , f (a) )
or f ( a , a ) f ( a) , f ( a) A
or (a , a ) f 1 ( A)
Hence f 1 ( A) is open
(ii) The condition is sufficient : Suppose for each open set A in , f 1 ( A) is open in . We have to
show that f is continuous on .
Let a ; then f a
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Now for 0, f ( a) , f (a) is an open interval and therefore an open set in . By our
assumption f 1 f (a) , f (a) is open set containing a. Consequently there exists a number
0 such that
(a , a ) f 1 ( f (a) , f (a) )
or f (a , a ) ( f (a) , f (a) )
Hence for a given 0 there exists 0 such that
| x a | | f ( x) f ( a ) |
Therefore, f is continuous at a. Since a is any point of , f is continuous on .
Theorem 5. Closed set criterion of continuous function : A function f : is continuous on
iff for every closed set B in , f 1 B is closed in .
Proof : First , we consider that f is continuous on and let B be a closed subset of . We have to
show that f 1 ( B) is closed in
Now B is closed in R, so B will be open in and therefore f 1 ( R B) will be open in . Also
f 1 ( B) f 1 ( B)
Thus we have f 1 ( B) is an open set in and consequently f 1 ( B) is a closed set in .
Conversely, let f 1 ( B) be closed in for every closed set B in . We have to show that f is
continuous. Let A be an open set in . Then A will be closed in R and therefore by our
hypothesis f 1 ( A) will be a closed set in . But f 1 ( A) f 1 ( A) . Thus f 1 ( A) is
closed in and hence f 1 ( A) is open in whenever A is open in . Therefore , f is continuous.
Results D : Continuity on the intervals :
Theorem 1. Boundedness theorem : If a function f is continuous in a closed interval [a, b], then it is
bounded.
Proof : Let f be a continuous function on a closed interval I a, b . We have to prove that f is
bounded on a, b . Let, if possible, f be not bounded above on a, b . Let c be the mid point of
a, b , then f must be unbounded above in at least one of the intervals a, c and c, d . Let us denote
1
this sub-interval by I1 a1, b1 . Clearly, length I1 b a .
2
Let c1 be the mid point of a1, b1 , then f must be unbounded above in atleast one of the intervals
242
a1, c1 and c1, b1 . Let us denote this sub-interval by I 2 a2 , b2 .
1 1
Clearly, length I 2 length I1 2 b a .
2 2
Continuing like this, we get a nested sequence of closed intervals I I1 I 2 ........... such that
1
length I n (b a) lim length ( I n ) 0
2n n
By nested interval property,
n 1
I n is non-empty and contains exactly one element, say x0 i.e., x0 I n
n 1
Since f is given to be continuous on I so it is also continuous on x0. Thus given any 0 , these exists
a 0 such that f x f x0 whenever x x0
i.e. f x f x0 whenever x x0 , x0 ......(1)
Now, since length I n 0 as n , we can find a positive integer m s.t. I m x0 , x0
If x is any point of I m , then x x0 , x0 .
Thus using (1), we can say that for any x x0 , x0 f x f x0 ......(2)
Now if x is any point of I m , then
f x f x f x0 f x0 f x f x0 f x0 f x0 [Using (2)]
This shows that f is bounded above on I m , which contradicts the fact that f is unbounded above in
each subinterval I n . Hence f is bounded above on I .
Similarly, we can show that f is bounded below on I and so, f is bounded on I.
1
Remark : This result does not hold good if interval is not closed e.g., f x on 0,1 is
x
continuous but not bounded.
Theorem 2. Maximum-minimum theorem :
If a function f ( x) is continuous on closed interval [a, b], then it attains its bounds.
or
If a function f ( x) is continuous on closed interval [a, b], then it attains its supremum and infimum
at least once in a, b .
or
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If a function f ( x) is continuous on closed interval a, b , then it has an absolute maximum and an
absolute minimum on a, b .
Proof : Since the function f is continuous on the closed interval a, b it is bounded on a, b . Let M
and m be the supremum and infimum of f in a, b respectively. We shall show that there exist points
x1, x2 a, b such that f x1 M , f x2 m
Since M is supremum of f on a, b , so f ( x) M x [a, b]
Suppose if possible f x M for any x a, b ; then f ( x) M x a, b .
Therefore , M f ( x) 0 x [a, b]
Since f x is continuous on a, b and M is constant, therefore M f x is continuous on a, b .
1
Since M f ( x) 0 for any x a, b , therefore is continuous on a, b and hence it is
M f ( x)
1
bounded on a, b , i.e., there exists a number k 0 such that k for all x [a, b]
M f ( x)
1
M f ( x) x [a, b]
k
1
or f ( x) M , x [ a, b]
k
1 1
M is an upper bound of f on a, b . But M M sup f ( x) on a, b .
k k
This is a contradiction. Hence there exists a point x1 [a, b] such that M f x1
Similarly, we can show that there exists a point x2 a, b such that m f x2 .
Hence f attains its bounds on a, b .
Remark : A continuous function defined on an open interval may be bounded or unbounded. Further,
if it is bounded then it may or may not attain its bounds i.e., f max and f min may or may not exist.
Theorem 3. Location of roots theorem : If a function f is continuous on a closed interval a, b and
f a and f (b) are of opposite signs, then there exists at least one point c a, b s.t. f c 0 .
Proof : Since f a and f b are of opposite signs, we consider f a 0 and f b 0
244
Let S x : x [a, b] , f x 0
Since f a 0 , there fore a S and hence S f(a)
Also S a , b , so x b x S a b
f(b)
Thus S a non-empty bounded above set and hence by
completeness axiom, S has its l. u. b.
Let u l.u.b. S , It is clear that a u b . We shall show that f u 0
(i) Let, if possible, f u 0, by continuity of f at u, there exists 0 such that
f x 0 for all x u , u . Since u l.u.b S , there exists x1 S such that u x1 u
x1 u , u f x1 0 . But since x1 S f x1 0
This contradiction implies that f u 0
(ii) Let, if possible f u 0 , by continuity of f at u, there exists 0 such that f x 0 for all
x u , u f u 0 u S , a contradiction to the fact that u l. u. b. S
2 2
This contradiction implies that f u 0
Hence f u 0 and so u a, u b . Thus u a, b such that f u 0
Theorem 4. Intermediate Value Theorem :
Let f be a function continuous on the closed and bounded interval a, b . If k be any real number
between f a and f b then there exists a real number c between a and b a c b such
that f c k .
or
If a function f is continuous in the closed interval a, b , then f x must take at least once all values
between f a and f b .
Proof : Consider the function g ( x) f ( x) k and just apply the location of roots theorem.
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Remark : Converse of this result is not true. i.e., if a function f defined on a closed interval a, b and
assumes every value between f (a) and f (b), then it is not necessary that function is continuous.
Theorem 5. Image of a closed interval is closed interval : If a function f ( x) is continuous on closed
interval a, b , then f a, b is a closed and bounded interval. Further, f a, b f min , f max . Moreover,
if f is an increasing function, then f a, b f (a), f (b) and if f is a decreasing function, then
f a, b f (b), f (a) .
Proof : It directly follows from the Intermediate value theorem and boundedness theorem.
Remark : If a function f ( x) is continuous on a, b , then f (a, b) may or may not be an open interval.
Theorem 6. Fixed point theorem : Let f : a, b a, b be a continuous function, then f must have
atleast one fixed point i.e., there exist atleast one point x such that f x x .
Proof : Consider the function g x f x x and then apply the intermediate value theorem. Note
that g a 0 and g b 0 .
Theorem 7. Preservation of intervals theorem : Let I be an interval and let f : I be a
continuous function then f I is an interval.
Proof : Let y1, y2 f I and suppose y1 y y2 . It is sufficient to prove that y f I , which
follows from the Intermediate value theorem.
Results E : Sequential criterion of continuity :
Theorem 1. Continuity criterion : A function f defined on an interval I is continuous at a I iff for
every sequence an in I which converges to a, the sequence f an converges to f (a) .
Theorem 2. Discontinuity criterion : Let f be a function defined on an interval I and a I be any
point. If there exists a sequence an in I s.t. an a but f an
f a then f is discontinuous at a.
1, when x is irrational
Example : Prove that the Dirichlet’s function f defined on by f x
1, when x is rational
is discontinuous at every point.
246
Solution : For any rational number a, consider a sequence of irrational numbers converging to a and
for any irrational number b consider a sequence of rational numbers converging to b. Then apply the
discontinuity criterion.
g x if x is rational
Theorem 3. Show that the function f defined as f x where g x and
h x if x isirrational
h x are continuous functions, is continuous at the points a where g a h a .
Example : Thomae function : The Thomae function is defined as
1 m
n , if x 0 where m , n and m, n have no common primefactors
n
T x 1, if x 0
0, if x is irrational
Show that f is continuous at each irrational number and discontinuous at each rational number.
Solution : Suppose a is an irrational number. Then T a 0 . Let n . Since a is not rational, there
m
does not exist m such that a . For each n , let n the distance from a to the nearest
n
m
rational number of the form . Then a n , a n contains no rational number with denominator n.
n
1
Let 0 then by the Archimedean property there exist n0 such that . Choose
n0
min 1, 2 ,...., n . Then a , a contains no rational number with denominator n0 .
0
Consider arbitrary x a , a .
m
(i) Suppose x is rational, say x 0 (where m , n and m and n have no common prime
n
1 1 1
factors). Then T x , where n n0 , so T x T a .
n n n0
(ii) If x is irrational, then T x 0 . So T x T a 0 0 0
In both cases, (i) or (ii), x a , a T x T a .
Therefore, T is continuous at a, which is an arbitrary irrational number.
(b) Let a be a rational number. Then T a 0 . However, since the irrationals are dense in , there
exists a sequence an of irrational numbers such that an a . By the sequential criterion of
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continuity at a , if T were continuous at x then T an T a . But for all n , T an 0 . This
would imply that T a 0 , which would contradict T a 0 . Therefore, T cannot be continuous at a.
Results F : Discontinuities of monotonic functions :
Theorem 1 : Suppose f is montonically increasing and bounded on an open interval I a, b , where
a b . Then
(i) for all c (a, b], lim f x exists and equals sup f x : a x c
xc
(ii) for all c [a, b), lim f x exists and equals inf f x : c x b
xc
(iii) for all c a, b , lim f x f c lim f x ;i.e., f c f c f c
xc xc
(iv) for all c d in a, b , lim f x lim f x ;i.e., f c f d
xc xd
Proof : Suppose f is monotonically increasing and bounded on the open interval I a, b , where
ab.
(i) Suppose c (a, b], and let A f x : a x c . Then A is nonempty since f x1 A for any
a x1 c . Also, A is bounded above since f is bounded on I. Thus, by the completeness property,
u sup A . We shall prove that lim f x u .
xc
Let 0 , then by definition of supremum, y A such that u y . Since y A, y f x0 for
some x0 a, c . So we have u f x0 .
Let c x0 . Then 0 and c x c x0 x c by definition of .
f x0 f x u since f is monotonic on a, b
u f x u
f x u
Therefore, lim f x u
xc
Other proofs can be done similarly.
Theorem 2 : Suppose f is monotonically decreasing and bounded on an open interval I a, b ,
where a b . Then
248
(i) for all c (a, b], lim f x exists and equals inf f x : a x c
xc
(ii) for all c [a, b), lim f x exists and equals sup f x : c x b
xc
(iii) for all c a, b , lim f x f c lim f x ;i.e., f c f c f c
xc xc
(iv) for all c d in a, b , lim f x lim f x ;i.e., f c f d
xc xd
Theorem 3 : If a function f is monotonic on an interval I then the only discontinuities of f in the
interior of I are the jump discontinuities i.e., of first kind.
Theorem 4 : For a function f that is monotone on an interval I, the set of discontinuities of f in I must
be a countable set.
Proof : We prove the theorem for monotonically increasing functions, and leave the proof for
monotonically decreasing functions. Suppose f is monotonically increasing on I. Let, the set of points
of discontinuities of f in the interior of I is the set S c I : f c f c .
Let I c denotes the open interval f c , f c . By above theorem it is clear that for any c d , the
intervals I c and I d are disjoint i.e., I c I d . Thus, the set S has a one-one correspondence with a
collection of pairwise disjoint open intervals. But we know that any collection of pairwise disjoint
intervals is countable so S must be countable.
Remark : Some author use the term “atmost countable” in place of “countable”.
Results G : Continuity, compactness and connectedness :
1. Image of a compact set is compact under a continuous mapping.
2. Image of a connected set is connected under a continuous mapping.
3. Characterisation of compact set : A set A is compact iff any continuous function on A attains
supremum and infimum.
4. If A is non-compact, then there exist a continuous and unbounded function on A.
Results H : Continuity, monotonicity and inverses :
1. If f is continuous and invertible, then f 1 need not be continuous. For example, Let
f : (1,0] 1,2 0,4 be a map such that f x x 2 is continuous, one-one and onto and hence
f 1 exist but is not continuous on its domain.
2. Inverse function theorem for continuous and monotonic functions : Let f : I I is an interval
be a continuous and strictly monotonic function, then f 1 is also continuous and strictly monotonic
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in the same sense as that of f.
3. If a function is continuous and one-one, then it is strictly monotonic.
4. If a function is strictly monotonic, then it is one-one also. However converse is not true. For
x, x
example, consider the function f : defined by f x
x, x
5. Let f : I be a monotonic function such that f I is an interval, then f is continuous.
Results I : Set of discontinuities :
1. A function can have atmost countable discontinuities of first kind.
2. For any countable set A, there exist a function having set of discontinuities as the set A.
3. For any open and closed set A, there exist a function having set of discontinuities as the set A.
4. There is no function having set of discontinuities as the set .
Results J : Homeomorphic intervals :
Def. Homeomorphic intervals : Two intervals A and B of are said to be homeomorphic if there is a
function f : A B such that f is one-one, onto, continuous and f 1 is continuous.
1. Any two intervals of same type (open, closed, semi-open) are homeomorphic.
or
If I1 and I 2 are two intervals of the same type then there exist a one-one onto continuous function
f : I1 I 2 such that f 1 is continuous.
2. Let I1 and I 2 be any two bounded intervals ( open, closed or semi-open ) then there always exist a
continuous and one-one function from I1 to I 2 . But there may or may not exists a continuous onto
function from I1 to I 2 .
Exercise 6.4
1. Examine the continuity of the following functions ( based on exponential function ) at the indicated
points. Also point out the type of discontinuity, if any :
250
1x 1x 1x
e 1 if x 0 e e if x 0
(i) f x 1x at x 0 (ii) f x 1x
1
at x 0
e 1 e e
x
0 if x 0 1 if x 0
1x x12
xe if x 0 e if x 0
(iii) f x 1
at x 0 (iv) f x 1
at x 0
1 e 1 e
x x2
0 if x 0 0 if x 0
x 1
if x 0 if x 0
(v) f x 1 e x (vi) f x 1 e x
1 1
at x 0 at x 0
0 if x 0 0 if x 0
1 2
x 2
(vii) f x e if x 2 at x 2
0 if x 2
2. Examine the continuity of the following functions (based on trigonometric functions) at the
indicated points. Also point out the type of discontinuity, if any :
1 1
cos x0 x sin if x 0
(i) f x x at x 0 (ii) f x x
0 x0 0 if x 0
1 2 1
x cos if x 0 x cos if x 0
(iii) f x x at x 0 (iv) f x x at x 0
0 if x 0 0 if x 0
1
cos x if x 0 x sin 1 if x 0
(v) f x at x 0 (vi) f x x at x 0
cos x if x 0 0 if x 0
3. Examine the continuity of the following functions (based on modulus functions) at the indicated
points. Also point out the type of discontinuity, if any :
x
if x 0
(i) f x x at x 0 (ii) f x x x 1 at x 0 , 1
1 if x 0
x x x
if x 0 if x 0
(iii) f x x at x 0 (iv) f x x x at x 0
2
1 if x 0 0 if x 0
x
if x 0
(v) f x x 2 at x 0
0 if x 0
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4. Examine the continuity of the following functions (based on greatest integer functions) at the
indicated points. Also point out the type of discontinuity, if any :
2 x 1
(i) f x 1 x x 1 at x 0 (ii) f x at x ,1
3x x 2
1
x 2 1 x x if x
(iii) f x 2 at x 1 (iv) f x 2 at all real numbers.
x 1
0 if x
5. Examine the continuity of the following functions at the indicated points. Also point out the type of
discontinuity, if any :
sin 1 x
x2 4 if x 0
if x 2
(i) f x x 2 at x 2 (ii) f x 2 x at x 0
4 if x 2 1 if x 0
2
x 4 x3 2 x 2
x3 8 if x 0
(iii) f x at x 2 (iv) f x tan 1 x at x 0
x2
0 if x 0
sin a 1 x sin x
if x0
x
6. Let f : be such that f x c if x 0
1 1
x bx 2 2 x 2
if x0
3
bx 2
Determine the values of a, b, c for which the function is continuous at x 0 .
1 1
7. Let f be function defined on 0,1 by setting : f x 1 if x , r 1, 2,... and
r
r 1 r
1 1 1
f 0 0, f 1 1 . Examine for the continuity of f at x 1, , , ,...
2 3 4
8. Find the points of discontinuity of the following functions :
n x n x x 2enx x
(i) f x lim , x (ii) f x lim , x
n n x n x n enx 1
9. Let f be a real valued function defined as follows : f x x if 1 x 1 and
252
f x 2 f x for all x . Show that f is discontinuous at every odd integer.
x x is rational
10. Show that the function f defined on by f x is continuous only at x 0 .
x x is irrational
x if x is rational 1
11. Show that the function f defined as f x is continuous only at x .
1 x if x isirrational 2
sin x if x is rational
12. Show that the function f defined as f x is continuous only at
cos x if x isirrational
x n , n .
4
sin x if x is rational
13. Show that the function f defined as f x is discontinuous for all x .
cosh x if x isirrational
2 x 1 if x is rational
14. Show that the function f defined as f x is discontinuous for all x .
2 x 1 if x isirrational
15. By using the intermediate value theorem prove the following :
(i) Let I be an interval. Let f : I be a continuous function such that f x 0 for all
x I . Show that either f x 0 for all x I or f x 0 for all x I .
(ii) Let f : be a continuous function taking values in or in . Then show that f is a
constant function.
(iii) Any polynomial of odd degree with real coefficients has atleast one real zero.
(iv) Let p be a real polynomial of odd degree, then show that p : is an onto function i.e.,
range of p x is .
(v) If p x is an even degree polynomial with real co-efficient then range of p x is
[ f min , ) if highest degree term is positive
(, f max ] if highest degree term is negative
(vi) Show that x4 5x3 7 has atleast two real roots.
(vii) Let p x a0 a1x .... a2 n x 2 n , where a0a2 n 0 (i.e., a0 and a2n are of opposite signs).
Show that p has atleast two real roots.
16. Let f : be continuous. Assume that f r 0 for r . Show that f 0 .
17. Let f , g : be continuous. If f x g x for x , then show that f g .
18. Let f : be a function such that f x y f x f y x, y , then prove that
(i) f 0 0 (ii) f x f x i.e., f is an odd function
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(iii) f nx nf x for all n (iv) f nx nf x for all n
(v) f rx rf x for all r (vi) If f is continuous at one point of then it is continuous on
(vii) If f is continuous on then f x kx where k f 1
19. Let f : be a function such that f x y f x f y x, y , then prove that
(i) f is either zero function or nowhere zero.
f x
(ii) If f 0 , then f x y
f y
(iii) If f kx f x , k
k
(iv) If f is continuous at x 0 , then f is continuous on .
(v) If f is continuous on , then f x a x for some a.
20. Show that the following functions are homeomorphisms :
xa
(i) f : a, b 0,1 defined by f x
ba
x
(ii) f : a, 1, defined by f x , a 0
a
(iii) f : a, , a defined by f x x
(iv) f : , defined by f x tan 1 x
2 2
d c
(v) f : a, b c, d defined by f x x a c
ba
21. Does it follow from the above exercise that every two open intervals ( bounded or unbounded) are
homeomorphic.
22. Does there exist a continuous function f : 0,1 0, which is onto ?
23. Does there exist a continuous function f : a, b 0,1 which is onto ?
24. Give and example of a function which is discontinuous on the following sets and continuous
elsewhere :
(i) 1, 2,3 (ii) (iii)
25. Does there exist a continuous function f : 0,1 0,1 1,2 which is onto ?
254
Answers
1. (i) No (ii) No (iii) Yes (iv) No (v) Yes (vi) No (vii) Yes
2. (i) No (ii) Yes (iii) Yes (iv) Yes (v) No (vi) No
3. (i) No (ii) Yes (iii) No (iv) No (v) No
1
4. (i) No (ii) Continuous only at x (iii) No (iv) No
2
5. (i) Yes (ii) Yes (iii) No (iv) Yes
3 1
6. a , c , b is arbitrary 7. No
2 2
8. (i) 0 (ii) nowhere
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6.5 Differentiability
Def. Let f : a, b be a function and c a, b , then f is said to be differentiable at c, if
f x f c
lim exists. The limit in case if exists, is called the derivative or the differential co-
xc xc
efficient of the function f at x c and is denoted by f c .
f x f c
Def. Left Hand Derivative : Let f : a, b be a function and c a, b . If lim or
xc xc
f c h f c
lim exists, then this limit is called the left hand derivative of f at c and is denoted by
h0 h
f c 0 or f c or L f c .
f x f c
Def. Right Hand Derivative : f : a, b be a function and c a, b . If lim or
xc xc
f c h f c
lim exists, then this limit is called the right hand derivative of f at c and is denoted by
h0 h
f c 0 or f c or R f c . Clearly, the derivative f c exists iff L f c R f c
Def. Differentiability in an interval : A function f : a, b is said to be differentiable in the
open interval a, b if f c exists for each c such that a c b . A function f : a, b is said to
be differentiable in the closed interval a, b if
(i) f c exists for each c a, b (ii) R f a exists and (iii) L f b exists.
A function f : I is said to be differentiable on I if f is differentiable at every point of I .
Results :
1. If a function is differentiable at a point, then it is continuous at that point.
Proof : Let f : I be a function which is differentiable at a point c I .
f x f c
We have f x f c xc, x c
xc
f x f c f x f c
lim f x f c lim x c lim lim x c
xc xc
xc xc xc xc
f 'c 0 0 lim f x f c f is continuous at x c .
xc
256
Remark : Converse of above result is not true in general. For example, the function, f x x is
continuous at x 0 but not differentiable at x 0 .
2. Let f : a, b and g : a, b be differentiable at c a, b , then
(i) f is differentiable at c and f c f c where .
(ii) f g is differentiable at c and f g c f c g c
(iii) fg is differentiable at c and fg c f c g c f c g c
f f f c g c f c gc
(iv) is differentiable at c and c provided g c 0 .
g c
2
g g
1 1 g c
(v) is differentiable at c and c , provided g c 0
g c
2
g g
3. Suppose Da I denote the set of all functions f : I which are differentiable at a I and
suppose Ca I denote the set of all functions f : I which are continuous at a I . Then both
Da I and Ca I are real vector spaces and Da I is a subspace of Ca I
4. If f is differentiable at x a and g is non-differentiable at x a , then f g is not differentiable
at x a .
5. If f is differentiable at x a and g is non-differentiable at x a and f 0 , then f g is not
differentiable at x a .
6. Chain Rule : Let f and g be two functions such that range of f domain of g, f is differentiable at
c and g is differentiable at f c , then the composite function g o f is differentiable at c and
g o f ' c g f c f c .
7. Inverse function theorem for derivatives : Let f be continuous one-one function defined on an
interval and f be differentiable at c with f c 0. Then the inverse of the function f is
1
differentiable at f c and its derivative at f c is .
f c
8. Let g x be a differentiable function at x a and function f is defined as f ( x) g ( x) , then
(i) If g a 0 then f ( x) is also differentiable at x a .
(ii) If g a 0 and g ' a 0 then f ( x) is also differentiable at x a .
(iii) If g a 0 and g ' a 0 then f ( x) is not differentiable at x a .
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9. To check the continuity and the differentiability of the function f x , break the function into
branches.
g x if x is rational
10. Let f x where g x and h x are differentiable functions on
h x if x is irrational
, then the function f x is differentiable at the points where g ' x h ' x .
cos 3n x for all x is continuouos everywhere
1
11. The function f defined by f x n
n1 2
but differentiable nowhere. (The proof is beyond the scope).
x, if 0 x 1
Example 1 : A function f is defined on by f x
1, if x 1
Examine the differentiability at x 1
f x f 1 x 1 f x f 1 1 1
Solution : L.H.D. : lim lim 1 R.H.D. : lim lim 0
x1 x 1 x1 x 1 x1 x 1 x1 x 1
Since L.H.D. R.H.D., therefore f ' 1 does not exist.
Example 2 : Examine the derivability of the function f x x at the origin.
x if x0
Solution : x
x if x0
f x f 0 x 0 f x f 0 x0
L.H.D. lim lim 1 , R.H.D. lim lim 1
x0 x0 x0 x x0 x0 x0 x
Since L.H.D. R.H.D., therefore f ' 0 does not exist.
Hence the function is not differentiable at x 0 .
2 1
x sin if x0
Example 3 : Show that the function f defined as f x x
x0
0 if
is differentiable at x 0 but f ' x is not continuous at x 0 .
1
x 2 sin
f x f 0 x lim x sin 1 0
Solution : f ' 0 lim lim
x0 x0 x0 x x0 x
1 1
If x 0, then f ' x 2 x sin cos
x x
258
But lim f ' x does not exist. Thus, f ' x is not continuous at x 0 but f ' 0 exists.
x0
x2 f a a2 f x
Example 4 : If f is differentiable at x a , find lim
xa xa
f x f a
Solution : Since f is differentiable at x a , therefore lim exists and
x a xa
f x f a
f ' a lim
xa xa
Now, lim
x2 f a a2 f x
lim
x2 a2 f a a2 f a a2 f x
xa xa xa xa
lim
x 2
a2 f a a2 f x f a x a f a a f x f a
lim
2 2
2
xa xa xa
xa xa
f x f a
lim x a f a a 2 lim 2af a a 2 f ' a
xa xa xa
Exercise 6.5
x 2 1 when x 1
1. Show that the function f x has no derivative at x 1
1 x when x 1
px 1 if x 1
2. Show that the function f x 2 is continuous at x 1 , for all values of p.
x p if x 1
Find the left hand and right hand derivatives of f x at x 1 . Hence find the condition for the
existence of the derivative at that point.
3. Examine the continuity and differentiability of the following functions :
(i) f x x 1 (ii) f x x x 1 (iii) f x x 1 2 x 2
(iv) f x x 1 x 1 (v) f x x 2 x x 2
4. Examine the continuity and differentiability of the following functions :
1 1
x sin when x 0 x cos when x 0
(i) f x x (ii) f x x
0 when x 0 0 when x 0
1 1
x a sin when x a x a cos when x a
2
(iii) f x xa (iv) f x xa
0 when x a
0 when x a
5. For what value of n, the following functions is continuous and differentiable at x 0 :
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n 1 n 1
x cos when x 0 x sin when x 0
(i) f x x (ii) f x x
0 when x 0
0 when x 0
1x 1x 1x
xn e e if x 0 x n e 1 if x 0
(iii) f x 1x
1
(iv) f x 1x
e e
x
e 1
0 if x 0 0 if x 0
n 1 1
x tan if x 0
(v) f x x
if x 0
0
6. Examine the continuity and differentiability of the following functions :
(i) f ( x) sin x (ii) f ( x) sin x 3 (iii) f ( x) cos x
(iv) f ( x) cos x 4 (v) f ( x) sin x (vi) f ( x) sin x 3
(vii) f x cos x (viii) f ( x) cos x 4
1 2
x 1 sin log x for x 0
7. Test the continuity and differentiability of the function f x 3
for x 0
0
at x 0 .
1 sin x for 0 x
2
8. A function f x is defined as f x
2 x
2
for x
2
2
Examine its continuity and differentiability at x .
2
9. If f is differentiable at x a , find
x f a a f x x2 f a a2 f x xn f a an f x
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim
x a xa xa xa xa xa
10. Generalization of above exercise : Let the functions f and g be differentiable at x a , then find
g a f x f a g x
lim
xa xa
11. (i) If f is an even differentiable function, then prove that f ' is an odd function.
260
(ii) If f is an odd differentiable function, then prove that f ' is an even function.
12. Examine the differentiability of the following functions :
x 2 if x is rational x3 if x is rational
(i) f x (ii) f x 2
0 if x is irrational 6 x if x is irrational
13. Give an example of a function f : which is continuous and differentiable at exactly one
point of .
14. If f x x , then show that f ' 0 , f " 0 exist but f "' 0 does not exist.
3
Answers
2. p 2
3. (i) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x 1
(ii) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x 0,1
(iii) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x 1, 2
(iv) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x 1,1
(v) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x 2,0,2
4. (i) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x 0
(ii) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x 0
(iii) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x a
(iv) continuous and differentiable for all x
5. (i) continuous for m 0 and differentiable for m 1
(ii) continuous for m 0 and differentiable for m 1
(iii) continuous for m 0 and differentiable for m 1
(iv) continuous for m 0 and differentiable for m 1
(v) continuous for m 0 and differentiable for m 1
6. (i) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x n : n
(ii) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x 3 n : n
(iii) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x 2n 1 : n
2
(iv) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x 4 2n 1 : n
2
(v) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x 0
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(vi) continuous for all x and differentiable for all x 3
(vii) continuous and differentiable for all x
(viii) continuous and differentiable for all x
9. (i) f a a f ' a
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.6 Rolle’s theorem and its applications
Def. Local maximum : Let f : I be a function and c I be any point. The function f is said to
have a local maximum at c if there exists a neighbourhood N of c such that f x f c for all x N
Def. Local minimum : Let f : I be a function and c I be any point. The function f is said to
have a local minimum at c if there exists a neighbourhood N of c such that f x f c for all x N
Def. Local extremum : A function f is said to have a local extremum at c if either it has a local
maximum or a local minimum at c. This fact is also called as that f has an extreme value at c.
Theorem 1. Fermat theorem or Local extreme value theorem : Let f be a continuous function on
an interval I and c is an interior point of I. If f has an extreme value at c and the derivative of f exists
at c then f c 0 .
Proof : Let us first consider that f has a local maximum at c. Suppose f ' c 0 , then there exists a
f x f c
neighbourhood N of c such that 0 for all x N , x c . If x N and x c, then we
xc
f x f c
have f x f c x c 0 . But this contradicts the hypothesis that f has a local
xc
maximum at c. Thus we have f ' c 0 . Similarly we cannot have f ' c 0 . Therefore we must
have f ' c 0 . If f has a local minimum at c then the proof can be done on same lines.
Corollary : Let f be a continuous function on an interval I and c is an interior point of I. If f has an
extreme value at c then either the derivative of f does not exist at c or it is zero.
Remark : The function f x x on the interval 1,1 has a local minimum at x 0 , but it is not
differentiable at x 0 .
262
Theorem 2. Rolle’s Theorem : If a function f with domain [a, b] is such that it is
(i) continuous in the closed interval a, b (ii) differentiable in the open interval (a, b)
(iii) f a f b then there exists c a, b such that f c 0
Proof : If f vanishes identically on I, then any c in a, b will satisfy the conclusion of the theorem.
Hence we suppose that f does not vanish identically; replacing f by f if necessary, we may
suppose that f assumes some positive values. By the Maximum-minimum theorem, the function f
attains the value sup f x : x I 0 at some point c in I. Since f a f b 0 , the point must lie
in a, b ; therefore f ' c exists. Since f has a local maximum at c, we conclude from the Fermat
theorem that f ' c 0 .
Corollary 1 : Between theorem :
Let f ( x) be a continuous and differentiable function on , then between any two real roots of f ( x) ,
there exists at least one root of f '( x) .
Proof : It directly follows from the Rolle’s theorem.
Corollary 2 : For a polynomial equation p( x) 0 , between any two consecutive roots and of
p ' x 0 there exists at the most one root of p( x) 0 .
Proof : Let if possible, p x 0 has two or more roots between and . Then by corollary 1, there
exists atleast one root of p ' x 0 between and , which is not possible.
Remark : Sometimes the statement of the Rolle’s theorem is also given as :
Let f be a function defined on a, a h such that
(i) f is continuous on a, a h (ii) f is differentiable on a, a h (iii) f a f a h ,
then there exists a real number , 0 1 , such that f a h 0.
Example 1 : Verify Rolle’s theorem for
(i) f x x x 3 e x /2 in 3,0 (ii) f ( x) cos 2 x in 0,
4 2
x
Solution : (i) Given f x x( x 3)e 2
1
x x x
f x ( x 3)e 2
xe 2
x( x 3)e 2
2
x
x( x 3)
x 3 x
2
=e
2
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x
4 x 6 x 2 3x 2x x 2 x 6
e
2
=e
2 2
Here f x and f ( x) are defined over R
f (x) is continuous over 3,0 , f x is derivable over 3,0 and f 0 f 3 0
Rolle’s theorem is applicable for f x
c c 6
c 2
there exists c 3,0 such that f ( x) 0 e 2 0 c 2 or 3
2
Out of the two values 2 belongs to 3,0 . Hence the Rolle’s theorem is verified.
(ii) Given f ( x) cos 2 x so that f (0) f 0 . Since cos is continuous over R, therefore
4 2
the function is continuous over 0,
2
Now f ( x) sin 2 x so that f ( x) exists over 0 ,
4 2
So, the function verifies all the condition of Rolle’s theorem
there exists c 0, such that f (c) 0 sin 2 c 0 c 0
2 4 4
c 0,
4 2
Hence the Rolle’s theorem is verified.
Exercise 6.6
1. Verify Rolle’s Theorem in the following :
2
(i) f x x a x b in a, b (ii) f x 2 x 1 3 in 0,2
3 4
(iii) f x e x sin x in 0,
2. Let f x ( x a) ( x b) ( x c) where a b c , then f ' x 0 has two roots belonging to
a, b and b, c one each
3. Prove the following :
(i) f x 7 x3 3x 2 x 74 has exactly one real root.
264
(ii) f x 5x3 6 x 2 3x 2017 has exactly one real root.
(iii) f x x 2 n1 ax b, a 0 has exactly one real root.
(iv) There is no real number k for which x3 3x k 0 has two distinct roots in 0,1 .
(v) There is no real number k for which the equation x3 12 x k 0 has two real roots in 1,1 .
(vi) f x x 2n ax b, a, b has atmost two real roots.
Hint : Notice the roots of the derivative.
4. Prove the following :
(i) Between any two roots of e x cos x 1, there exists atleast one root of e x sin x 1 0
(ii) Between any two real roots of e x sin x 1 there is at least one real root of e x cos x 1 0
(iii) Between any two real roots of f x e x sin x x , there is at least one real root of
g ( x) cos x sin x e x .
(iv) Between any two real roots of f x e x cos x x , there is atleast one real root of
g x cos x sin x e x .
Hint : g ( x) is either the derivative of f ( x) or a multiple of derivative of f ( x) . In (i) and (ii) use
the original value in the derivative and in (iii) and (iv) take e x common from the derivative and
notice that e x 0 for all x .
5. Prove the following :
(i) The quadratic equation 3 px2 2qx r 0 has a root in 0,1 if p q r 0 .
(ii) If a0 a1 ............. an 0 , a0 , a1,.........an are all real, then a0 2a1x ............ (n 1)an x n 0
has atleast one real root in 0,1 .
a0 a a
(iii) If a0 , a1 , a2 ,......an are real numbers such that 1 ........... n1 an 0 , then there
n 1 n 2
exist atleast one number c 0,1 such that a0cn a1cn1 a2cn2 ........... an 0 .
Hint : Take the polynomial in the statement as f ' x .
6. Prove the following :
(i) Let f : a, b be thrice differentiable function such that f a f b 0 and
f ' a f ' b 0 then there exist c a, b such that f '" c 0 .
(ii) Let f : a, b be thrice differentiable function such that f a f b f ' a f " a 0 ,
then there exist c a, b such that f '" c 0 .
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(iii) Let f : a, b be n-times differentiable function such that
f a f b f ' a f " a .... f n1 a 0 , then there exist c a, b such that
f n c 0 .
(iv) Let f : a, b be non-negative thrice differentiable function such that f f 0 for
some , a, b , then there exist c a, b such that f '" c 0 .
Hint : f has local minima at and , so f ' f ' 0 .
(v) Let f : a, b is continuous on a, b , differentiable on a, b and f a f b 0 , then
for any , there exists c a, b such that f c f ' c 0 .
Hint : Consider the function g x e x f x .
(vi) Let f , g : a, b are continuous on a, b , differentiable on a, b and f a f b 0 ,
then there exist c a, b such that g ' c f c f ' c 0 .
Hint : Consider the function h x e f x .
g x
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6.7 Mean value theorem and its applications
Theorem 1. Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem or First mean value theorem : If a function f is
continuous on the closed interval a, b and differentiable on the open interval a, b then there exists
f b f a
c a, b such that f c .
ba
Proof : To prove this theorem just apply the Rolle’s theorem to the function g : a, b defined by
f b f a
g x f x f a x a .
ba
Remarks :
(i) Rolle’s theorem is a special case of Lagrange’s mean value theorem.
(ii) Lagrange’s mean value theorem can also be stated as : If a function f is defined in a, a h is such
that f is continuous in a, a h and f is differentiable in a, a h then there exists some 0,1
such that f a h f a h f a h .
266
Theorem 2. Let the function f be continuous on the closed interval a, b , differentiable on the open
interval a, b and f ' x 0 for all x a, b . Then f is constant on a, b .
Proof : To prove that f is constant on a, b , it is sufficient to prove that f x f a for all
x a, b . Let x a, b such that x a . Applying the mean value theorem to f on the closed interval
a, x , we obtain a point c, between a and x such that f x f a f ' c x a . Since f 'c 0 ,
we obtain that f x f a 0 . Hence, f x f a for any x a, b .
Remark : The above theorem is not true if the domain of the function is not an interval. For example,
4 if 0 x 1
consider the function f : 0,1 1,2 defined by f x
5 if 1 x 2
We see that f ' x 0 for all x, but f is not a constant function.
Corollary : Suppose that f and g are continuous on I a, b , and they are differentiable on a, b
and that f ' x g ' x for all x a, b . Then there exists a constant C such that f g C on I.
Proof : Apply Theorem 2 on the function h x f x g x .
Theorem 3. Increasing-decreasing theorem : Let f : I be differentiable on the interval I. Then
(i) f is increasing on I if and only if f ' x 0 for all x I .
(ii) f is decreasing on I if and only if f ' x 0 for all x I .
Proof : (i) Suppose that f ' x 0 for all x I . Let x1, x2 I such that x2 x1 , then we apply the
mean value theorem to f on the closed interval x1 , x2 to obtain a point c in x1, x2 such that
f x2 f x1 f ' c x2 x1 . Since f ' c 0 and x2 x1 0 , it follows that f x2 f x1 0 .
Hence, f x2 f x1 for all x2 x1 in I, we conclude that f is increasing on I.
For the converse part, we suppose that f is increasing on I. Let x I be any point such that x c .
If x c then f x f c and if x c then f x f c , so in both cases, we obtain that
f x f c f x f c
0 . Hence we conclude that f ' c lim 0
xc xc xc
(ii) The proof of part (ii) is similar.
Theorem 4. Strictly increasing-decreasing theorem (one side) : Let f : I be differentiable on
the interval I. Then
(i) If f ' x 0 for all x I then f is strictly increasing on I .
(ii) If f ' x 0 for all x I then f is strictly decreasing on I .
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Proof : It can be proved on the same lines of Theorem 3.
Remark : The converse of above theorem is not true, since a strictly increasing differentiable function
may have a derivative that vanishes at certain points. For example, the function f : defined by
f x x3 is strictly increasing on , but f ' 0 0 . The situation for strictly decreasing functions is
similar.
Theorem 5. Strictly increasing-decreasing theorem (both sides) : Let f : I be differentiable
on the interval I. Then
(i) f is strictly increasing on I if and only if f ' x 0 for all x I and f ' x does not vanish on a
subinterval of I of positive length.
(ii) f is strictly decreasing on I if and only if f ' x 0 for all x I and f ' x does not vanish on a
subinterval of I of positive length.
Proof : (i) Suppose first that f is strictly increasing on I. Then clearly f is increasing on I so f ' x 0
for all x I . It remains to prove that f ' x does not vanish on a subinterval of I of positive length.
Let, if possible, f ' x 0 for all x a, b I . Then f x is constant on a, b , which is a
contradiction, since f is given to be strictly increasing. In the converse part, given hypothesis says that
f is increasing and it is not constant on any subinterval of I of positive length, which clearly indicates
that f is strictly increasing on I.
(ii) Similar.
Def. Increasing function at a point : A function is said to be increasing at a point if there is a
neighbourhood of the point on which the function is increasing. One might suppose that, if the
derivative is strictly positive at a point, then the function is increasing at this point. However, this
1
x 2 x sin if x 0
2
supposition is false, indeed, the differentiable function defined by g x x
if x 0
0
is such that g ' 0 1, yet it can be shown that g is not increasing in any neighbourhood of x 0 .
Theorem 6. First derivative test for extrema : Let f be continuous on the interval I a, b and let
c be an interior point of I. Assume that f is differentiable on a, c and c, b . Then
(i) If there is a neighbourhood c , c I such that f ' x 0 for c x c and f ' x 0
for c x c , then f has a local maximum at c.
268
(ii) If there is a neighbourhood c , c I such that f ' x 0 for c x c and f ' x 0
for c x c , then f has a local minimum at c.
Proof : (i) If x c , c , then by the mean value theorem there exists a point c1 x, c such that
f c f x f ' c1 c x . Since f ' c1 0 we obtain that f c f x 0 i.e.,
f c f x for x c , c …..(1)
Similarly, if x c, c then by the mean value theorem there exists a point c2 c, x such that
f x f c f ' c2 x c . Since f ' c2 0 and x c , we obtain f x f c 0 i.e.,
f c f x for all x c, c . .….(2)
By (1) and (2), it is clear that f has a local maximum at c.
(ii) The proof is similar.
Remark : The converse of the first derivative test is not true. For example, there exists a differentiable
function f : with absolute minimum at x 0 but such that f ' takes on both positive and
negative values on both sides of ( and arbitrarily close to ) x 0 . For example, consider the function
4 1
2 x x sin if x 0
4
f x x
if x 0
0
Theorem 7. Second derivative test : Suppose that f is twice differentiable on an open interval a, b and
that f ' c 0 for some point c a, b .
(i) If f " c 0 , then f has a local maximum value at c.
(ii) If f " c 0 , then f has a local minimum value at c.
f 'c h f 'c f ' c h
Proof : (i) Given that f " c 0 lim 0 lim 0
h0 h h0 h
So, there exists a real number 0 such that f ' x 0 for all x c, c .
Similarly, f ' x 0 for all x c , c . Now apply the first derivative test.
(ii) Similar.
Theorem 8. Higher order derivative test : Let f be a differentiable function on an interval on an interval
I and let c be an interior point of I such that
f ' c f " c f '" c ... f n1 c 0 and f n c exists and is non-zero.
Then
(i) if n is even and f
n
c 0 x c is a point of local maximum
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(ii) if n is even and f n c 0 x c is a point of local minimum
(iii) if n is odd x c is neither a point of local maximum nor a point of local minimum.
Theorem 9. Cauchy mean value theorem : Let f and g be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on
a, b and assume that g ' x 0 for all x in a, b . Then there exists c in a, b such that
f b f a f 'c
.
g b g a g 'c
Proof : To prove this theorem, apply Rolle’s theorem to the function h : a, b defined by
f b f a
h x
g b g a
g x g a f x f a .
Darboux theorem :
Lemma 1. Let I be an interval f : I be a function and c I be any interior point. Then
(i) If lim f x 0 then there exists a 0 such that f x 0 for all x c , c i.e., if limit
xc
of the function is positive at a point then function is also positive in some neighbourhood of that
point.
(ii) If lim f x 0 then there exists a 0 such that f x 0 for all x c , c i.e., if limit
xc
of a function is negative at a point then function is also negative in some neighbourhood of that
point.
1
Proof : (i) Let lim f x L 0, then by definition of limit, for L, there exists a 0 such that
xc 2
1
f x L L for all x c , c .
2
1 3
L f x L for all x c , c
2 2
As L 0 , result follows.
(ii) Similar.
Lemma 2. Let I be an interval, f : I be a function, c I and f is differentiable at x c .
Then
(i) If f ' c 0 , then there exists a 0 such that f x f c for all x c, c i.e., c cannot be
a point of maxima.
(ii) If f ' c 0 , then there exists a 0 such that f x f c for all x c , c i.e., c cannot
270
be a point of maxima.
(iii) If f ' c 0 then there exists a 0 such that f x f c for all x c , c i.e., c cannot
be a point of minima.
(iv) If f ' c 0 , then there exists a 0 such that f x f c for all x c, c i.e., c cannot
be a point of minima.
f x f c
Proof : (i) Given that f ' c 0 lim 0
xc xc
f x f c
By Lemma 1, there exists a 0 such that 0 for all x c , c .
xc
f x f c
Now, if x c, c then f x f c x c 0
xc
f x f c for all x c, c
(ii) Similar.
Remarks : (i) In part (i) of above lemma we are not saying that f is increasing at x c , rather we are
just saying that values of f in some right neighbourhood of c are greater than f c . Similarly for part
(ii), (iii), (iv)
Theorem 10. Darboux’s Theorem : If a function is differentiable in a closed interval a, b and k is
a number between f a and f b then there exists atleast one point c in the open interval a, b such
that f c k .
or
If a function is differentiable in a closed interval a, b and f a , f b are of opposite signs, then
there exists atleast one point c in the open interval a, b such that f c 0.
or
If a function f is differentiable in a closed interval a, b then f ' has the intermediate value property (IVP).
Proof : Suppose f ' a k f ' b . We define a function g : a, b by g x kx f x for all
x a, b . Clearly g is continuous and differentiable on a, b and also g ' a k f ' a 0 ,
g ' b k f ' b 0 . Since g is continuous on the closed interval a, b it must attain its maximum
on a, b . Our only aim is to show that the maximum does not occur at the end points. As
g ' a 0, g ' b 0 , it directly follows from part (i) and (ii) of Lemma-2 that maximum cannot occur
at x a or b. Therefore, g attains its maximum at some point c a, b and then we have g ' c 0
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i.e., k f ' c 0 . Hence f ' c k . If f ' a k f ' b , then proof can be developed by using part
(iii) and (iv) of lemma 2 and occurance of minimum of g in a, b .
Remarks :
(i) In the Darboux theorem, the function f ' need not be continuous but still it enjoys the intermediate
value property.
(ii) Give the proof of Darboux theorem by considering the function g x f x kx .
Corollary 1 : If a function f : a, b does not have the intermediate value property, then it can be
the derivative of any function on a, b .
Corollary 2 : Let f : I be differentiable function such that f ' x 0 for all x I , then either
f ' x 0 for all x I or f ' x 0 for all x I and therefore f is strictly monotonic on I.
0
Theorem 11. L’Hospital’s Rule for form : Suppose f , g : I , where I is an open interval
0
with “endpoint” a, and where
(i) a may be finite, or ;
(ii) f and g are differentiable on I ;
(iii) for all x I , g x 0 and g ' x 0 ;
(iv) lim f x lim g x 0 ;
xa xa
f x f ' x
Then lim lim , provided the limit on R.H.S. exists finitely or infinitely.
x a g x x a g ' x
f
Theorem 12. L’Hospital’s Rule for form : Suppose f , g : I , where I is an open interval
with “endpoint” a, and where
(i) a may be finite, or ;
(ii) f and g are differentiable on I ;
(iii) for all x I , g x 0 and g ' x 0 ;
(iv) lim g x or ;
xa
f x f ' x
Then lim lim , provided the limit on R.H.S. exists finitely or infinitely.
x a g x xa g ' x
272
yx yx
Example 1 : Show that tan 1 y tan 1 x , if 0 x y and deduce that
1 y 2
1 x2
3 4 1
tan 1
4 25 3 4 6
1
Solution : Let f u tan 1 u, then for x u y, f ' u
1 u2
tan 1 y tan 1 x 1
Applying the Mean value theorem to f, we get , for x y
yx 1 2
1 1 1 1
But x and y
1 2
1 x2 1 2
1 y2
1 tan 1 y tan 1 x 1 yx yx
or tan 1 y tan 1 x
1 y 2
yx 1 x2 1 y 2
1 x2
4
Put x 1 and y , we get
3
3 4 1 3 4 1
tan 1 tan 1 1 tan 1
25 3 6 4 25 3 4 6
x2 x2
Example 2 : Show that x log 1 x x for all x 0
2 2 1 x
x2
Solution : Consider f x log 1 x x
2
1 x2
f ' x 1 x 0 for all x 0
1 x 1 x
Hence, f x is an increasing function for all x 0 .
x2
Also, f 0 0 . Hence, for x 0, f x 0 . Thus, log 1 x x , for x 0
2
x2
Similarly, let F x log 1 x x
2 1 x
1 x2 2x x2
F ' x 1 0
1 x 2 1 x 2 1 x
2 2
Hence, F x is a decreasing function for all x 0 .
x2
Also, F 0 0 . Hence, for x 0, F x 0 . Thus, log 1 x x
2 1 x
x2 x2
x log 1 x x for all x 0
2 2 1 x
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Exercise 6.7
1. Show that x3 3x2 3x 2 is strictly increasing in every interval.
2. Separate the intervals in which f ( x) 2 x3 15x2 36 x 1 is increasing or decreasing.
3. Using the mean value theorem, prove the following inequalities :
(i) sin x sin y x y for all x, y
(ii) sin x x for all x
(iii) sin x x for all x 0
(iv) sin x x for all x 0
sin x
(v) 1 for all x 0
x
(vi) cos x cos y x y for all x, y
(vii) tan 1 x tan 1 y x y for all x, y
(viii) tan x tan y x y for all x, y ,
2 2
(ix) 1 x e x 1 xe x for all x 0
x
(x) log(1 x) x for all x 0
1 x
(xi) e x 1 x for all x , with equality if and only if x 0 .
yx y yx
(xii) log for all 0 x y .
y x x
sin x x
(xiii) Find lim and lim where denotes the greatest integer function.
x0
x x0 sin x
4. Does there exist a function f : 1,1 such that the derivative f ' on 1,1 is given by
1 , x0
1 , x
(i) f ' x 0 , x 0 (ii) f ' x
1 , x 0 2 , x
5. Let f : I be a differentiable function on I, where I is an interval. Show that f ' I i.e., image
of I under f ' is either a singleton or an interval.
6. Let p x be a real polynomial of degree 2 such that all the roots of p x are real. Show that
274
all the roots of p ' x are also real. [ Hint : Rolle’s theorem ]
7. Show that the function f x x3 3x 2 17 is not one-one on the interval 1,1 .
8. Prove that the equation x3 3x2 b 0 has at most one root in the interval 0,1 .
9. Let f : be differentiable with f 0 3 . Assume that f ' x 5 for x . How large can
f 2 possible be ?
10. Let n 2k 1 . Let f x x n for x . Show that f maps bijectively onto itself.
11. Let f : a, b a, b be differentiable. Assume that f ' x 1 for x a, b . Prove that f has a
unique fixed point in a, b .
12. Assume that f : a, b is differentiable on a, b except possible at c a, b . Assume that
lim f ' x exists. Prove that f ' c exists and f ' is continuous at c.
xc
13. Let f x x2k ax b, k , a, b . Show that f has at most two zeros in .
14. Let f : 2,5 be continuous and be differentiable on 2,5 . Assume that f ' x f x
2
for all x 2,5 . True or false : f 5 f 2 3 .
15. Suppose that f :0,2 is continuous on 0, 2 and differentiable on 0, 2 and that
f 0 0, f 1 1, f 2 1
(i) Show that there exists c1 0,1 such that f ' c1 1 [ Hint : Apply MVT ]
(ii) Show that there exists c2 1, 2 such that f ' c2 0 [ Hint : Apply MVT ]
1
(iii) Show that there exists c 0, 2 such that f ' c [ Hint : Apply Darboux ]
3
1
(iv) Show that there exists c 0, 2 such that f ' c [ Hint : Apply Darboux ]
7
16. Let f : 0, be a differentiable function, then prove the following :
f x h f x
(i) If lim f ' x L then for any h 0, lim L [ Hint : Apply MVT ]
x x
h
(ii) If lim f ' x 0 then lim f x 1 f x 0 [ Hint : MVT ]
x x
(iii) If lim f ' x L then for any h 0 , lim f x a f x aL [ Hint : MVT ]
x x
(iv) If lim f x L then lim f ' x 0 . Do this exercise by two methods. First by mvT and
x x
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ex f x
second by applying L’Hospital Rule on
ex
f x
(v) If lim f ' x L then lim L [ Hint : L’Hospital Rule ]
x x x
ex f x
(vi) If lim f x f ' x L then lim f x L and lim f ' x 0 [ Hint : f x ]
x x x ex
eax f x
(vii) If for a 0, lim af x f ' x L then lim f x
L
[ Hint : f x ]
x x a eax
f x
ea x
L
(viii) If for a 0, lim af x 2 x f ' x L then lim f x [ Hint : f x ]
x x a ea x
(ix) If lim f ' x L 0 then lim f x [ Hint : Apply MVT ]
x x
(x) If lim f ' x L 0 then lim f x [ Hint : Apply MVT ]
x x
(xi) If lim f ' x then lim f x
x x
17. Try to find the following limits by L’Hospital Rule. If you are not successful then find by some
other method :
x sin x tan x
(i) lim (ii) lim
x 2 x sin x x
sec x
2
18. Suppose that f and g are continuous on a, b , differentiable on a, b that c a, b and that
f x
g x 0 for x a, b , x c . Let A lim f and B lim g . If B 0 and if lim exists
xc xc xc g x
f x
in , show that we must have A 0 . [ Hint : f x g x ]
g x
19. In addition to the supposition of the preceding exercise, let g x 0 for x a, b , x c . If A 0
f x
and B 0 , prove that we must have lim .
xc g x
2 1
x sin if 0 x 1
20. Let f x x and let g x x 2 for x 0,1 . Then both f and g are
if x 0
0
f x
differentiable on 0,1 and g x 0 for x 0 . Show that lim f x 0 lim g x and that lim
x0 x0 x0 g x
276
does not exist.
x2 if x is rational f x
21. Let f x and g x sin x for x . Show that lim 0.
x0 g x
0 if x is irrational
2 1
x sin if x 0 f x
22. Let f x x and let g x sin x for x . Show that lim 0 but that
x0 g x
if x 0
0
f ' x
lim 0 does not exist.
x0 g ' x
23. Suppose f is defined in a neighbourhood of x and suppose f " x exists. Show that
f x h f x h 2 f x
lim f " x
h0 h2
Show by an example that the limit may exist even if f " x does not. [ Hint : Use L’Hospital Rule ]
1
x sin if x 0
24. Let and be real numbers, 0 and f is defined on 1,1 by f x x
if x 0
0
Prove the following statements :
(i) f is continuous if and only if 0 (ii) f ' 0 exists if and only if 1
(iii) f ' is bounded if and only if 1 (iv) f ' is continuous if and only if 1
(v) f " 0 exists if and only if 2 (vi) f " is bounded if and only if 2 2
(vii) f " is continuous if and only if 2 2
25. Let f g be differentiable on and suppose that f 0 g 0 and f ' x g ' x for all x 0 .
Show that f x g x for all x 0 .
1
26. Show that f x x is not differentiable at x 0 .
3
xn if x 0
27. Let n . Define f : by f x
0 if x 0
For which values of n,
(i) f is continuous at 0 ? (ii) f is differentiable at 0 ?
(iii) f ' is continuous at 0 ? (iv) f ' is differentiable at 0 ?
28. Let f : be differentiable at x 0 . Define g x f x 2 . Show that g is differentiable at 0.
29. Let f : be such that f x f y x y for all x, y . Show that f is a constant function.
2
f x h f x h
30. Let f : a, b be differentiable at x a, b . Prove that lim f ' x .
h0 2h
Give an example of a function where the limit exists but the function is not differentiable.
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True false exercise 13. If lim f ( x) 5 , then f (a) 5 .
xa
1. The function y x x 2 is one-one on its
x2
x3
domain. 14. The function f ( x) is both
6 x 9 x 3
2. The function y x x 2 is onto on its continuous and differentiable at x 3 .
domain.
tan 3 x h tan 3x
15. The lim is
3. The function y x x3 is both one-one h0 h
and onto on its domain. 3sec2 3x .
4. The function y
1 1
is monotonically 16. The function f ( x) sin x cos x has
x x2 countable number of discontinuities.
decreasing on its domain.
17. The function f ( x) sin x cos x is not
1
5. y x x3 is onto on its domain. differentiable at exactly one point.
18. A non-constant function satisfying the
6. If a function is continuous on its domain,
conditions of Rolle’s theorem cannot be
then it is bounded.
monotonic.
7. If function is continuous on a closed
19. The condition of Rolle’s theorem are the
interval a, b , then there exists atleast one necessary conditions for f '( x) to vanish at
point c a, b such that f (c) 0 . some point in the domain.
8. If lim f ( x) and lim g ( x) do not exist , 20. The function f : defined as
x a x a
2 1
then lim f ( x) g ( x) does not exist. x sin 2 , x 0
xa f ( x) x is
, x0
0
9. If f and g are increasing on an interval I, differentiable at x 0 .
then fg is increasing on I.
21. The function f ( x) x x is differentiable at
10. For any continuous function f : D ,
its image f ( D) is an interval. the origin.
22. If f is continuous function at x a and g
11. For any function f : 0,1 , its image is discontinuous function at x a , then
f 0,1 is an interval. f g cannot be continuous at x a .
12. If lim f ( x) 7 , then f is continuous at 23. If a function is bounded on a closed
x3 interval, then it is continuous on that
x 3. interval.
278
24. A monotonic function has no 1
discontinuities. 3. discontinuous at x and continuous
2
25. A monotonic function has finitely many x 1
discontinuities. 1
4. discontinuous at x and x 1
2
26. A monotonic function can have
uncountably many discontinuities. 3. The function f ( x) x x is
2
27. The function f ( x) 1 2 x 3 x is
3 1. not monotonic
differentiable at x 0 . 2. strictly decreasing function
3. differentiable, x R
28. The function f ( x) sin x 3
is 4. differentiable, x R except at x 0
differentiable everywhere on it domain.
4. The values of a and b for which the
29. If the function is one-one and continuous function
on a, b , then it is monotonic on a, b .
2 x 1, if x 1
30. There exists a continuous function f ( x) ax 2 b, if 1 x 3
f : such that f is onto but not one- 5 x 2a, if x 3
one.
is continuous everywhere
1. a 2, b 1 2. a 1, b 2
Assignment
3. a 3, b 2 4. a 2, b 3
---------------------- S C Q --------------------- 5. The function
n 1 f ( x) x x 1 x 2 x 1 x 2 is
x cos , x 0
1. If f ( x) x is differentiable
0 , x0 1. discontinuous, x R
2. differentiable, x R
at x 0, then
3. not differentiable at x 0, 1, 2,1,2
1. n 1
4. None of the above
2. n 1
6. The function
3. n 1
4. n may be positive or zero x, when x is rational
f ( x) is
2 x 1 x, when x isirrational
2. The function f ( x) is
3x x
1
1 1. continuous only at x
1. continuous at x and x 1 2
2
2. continuous, x R
1
2. continuous at x and discontinuous 3. differentiable, x R
2
4. None of the above
at x 1
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x2n 1 1. f is differentiable exactly at one point
7. The function f ( x) lim 2 n is
n x
1 2. f is differentiable exactly at two points
1. continuous , x R 3. f is nowhere differentiable because
2. continuous, x R 1,1 nowhere continuous
3. continuous, x Z 4. f is continuous only at one point
4. None of the above a sin 1 ( x b), x 1
12. If f ( x) is
x2n x , x 1
8. The function f ( x) lim is
n 1 x 2 n
differentiable at x 1, then
continuous 1. a 1, b 1 2. a 1, b 1
1. , x R 2. , x R {1,1} 3. a 1, b 1 4. None of these
3. , x Z 4. None of these sin x
13. Consider the function f ( x) , then
sin x sin x
, x 0
9. If f ( x) x which one of the following is correct?
0 ,
x 0 1. f ( x) is everywhere differentiable except
where x denotes the greatest integer less x 0.
1
than or equal to x , then lim f ( x) is 2. x : f ( x) is empty set.
x0 2
1. 1 2. 0 3. Set of point for which f ( x) 1 is
3. 1 4. does not exist countable.
10. Consider the function f ( x) x , where
3
4. None of the above
x is real. Then, the function f ( x) at 14. Let f ( x) ax b be monotonic function in
x 0 is R and satisfies condition f ( x) f 1 ( x),
1. continuous but not differentiable then the value of a and b are
2. once differentiable but not twice 1. a 2, b 1 2. a 1, b R
3. twice differentiable but not thrice 3. a 1, b R 4. a 1, b 1
4. thrice differentiable
15. The function f defined by
11. Let f : R R defined by
x2
x, if x a a,if 0 x a
f ( x)
f ( x) then 3
a a ,if x a
sin x, if x
x2
280
1. is not continuous on (0, ) (a h, a h), a R.
2. is not differentiable on (0, ) f ( x) 1
; if x a
3. is differentiable on (0, ) Let F ( x) f ( x) f (a) x a
;if x a
4. is differentiable on (0, ) except at
When F ( x) is continuous at x a
xa
f (a)
16. The function f ( x) x 2 is not 1. 1 2.
f (a)
differentiable at a
f (a)
3. 0 4.
point 2 f (a)
1. x 2 2. x 2 20. The value of ' c ' in Rolle’s theorem, where
3. x 1 4. x 1
c and f ( x) cos x is equal to
17. Consider the following functions 2 2
1
I. y x sin , if x 0 and y 0 if x 0
1. 2.
x 4 3
II. 3. 4. 0
1
y x 2 sin , if x 0 and y 0 if x 0 21. If f ( x) x5 20 x3 240 x, then f ( x) is
x
1. monotonically decreasing everywhere
III.
2. monotonically decreasing on (0, )
1
y x 2 cos , if x 0 and y 0 if x 0 3. monotonically increasing everywhere
x
IV. 4. monotonically increasing only in (,0)
1 22. The function f ( x) 2 x3 9 x 2 12 x 1 is an
y x cos , if x 0 and y 0 if x 0
x increasing function in the interval
The functions differentiable at x 0 are 1. 2 x 1 2. 2 x 1
1. I and II 2. II and III 3. 1 x 2 4. 1 x 2
3. III and II 4. IV and I 23. If 4a 2b c 0, the equation
1
2
3ax2 2bx c 0 has the one real root
18. If f ( x) e , x 0, then
x
0, x 0 between which of the following
1. is not differentiable at x 0 1. 0 and 1 2. 1 and 2
2. f n (0) 0, n 3. 0 and 2 4. None of these
24. The value of ' c ' of Lagrange’s mean value
3. f n (0) does not exist for some n
theorem for f ( x) x( x 1) in [1,2] is given by
4. f n (0) 0, n
5 3
19. If f ( x) be continuous and differentiable 1. 2.
4 2
over
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7 11
1
3. 4. xm
4 6 28. lim x ne l , n R and m 0. Then, the
x 0
1
x , when 0 x value of l is
2
1 1. 0 2. 1
25. Let f ( x) 1, when x
2 3. 1 4. None of these
1
1 x, when 2 x 1 29. If f ( x) is real-valued function defined on
then f is (0, ) such that f (0) 0 and f ( x) 0, x,
f ( x)
1. continuous at x
1 then the function h( x) is
2 x
1 1. increasing in (0, )
2. not defined at x
2 2. decreasing in [0,1]
1 3. increasing in (0,1) and decreasing in
3. discontinuous at x
2
[1, )
4. continuous for all x,0 x 1
4. decreasing in (0,1] , and increasing in
26. Which of the following is correct?
[1, )
x
1. tan 1 x x, x 0 30. Let f : R R be defined by
1 x 2
x 2 1
2. tan 1 x x, x 0 x sin 2 , x 0
1 x2 f ( x) x ,then
0 , x0
x
3. x tan 1 x, x 0
1 x 2
1. f is differentiable everywhere with
4. None of the above continuous derivative
2 1 2. f is differentiable everywhere other
sin x sin
27. If f ( x) , if 0 x .
sin x than the point zero
0 if x 0
,
3. f is nowhere differentiable
Then, f ( x) is
4. f is differentiable but its derivative is
1. continuous but not differentiable,
not continuous
x [0, )
31. Let f ( x) sin x , x R. Then,
2. differentiable, x [0, )
1. f is continuous nowhere
3. not differentiable, x [0, )
2. f is continuous everywhere and
4. None of the above
differentiable nowhere
282
3. f is continuous everywhere and 1. f is strictly increasing on a, b
differentiable everywhere except at 2. f is strictly decreasing on a, b
integral values of x
3. f is monotonic on a, b
4. f is differentiable everywhere
4. None of the above
1
1
(1 x) x e ex 37. The function y log x is
32. lim 2 is
x 0 x 2 1. discontinuous at x 1
2. differentiable at x 1
24 11 3. not differentiable at x 1
1. e 2. e
11 24 4. None of the above
1 1 1
3. e 4. e 38. If f ( x) lim then f ( x) is
11 24 n 1 n sin 2 x
1
1. discontinuous at all rational
(1 x) x e
33. lim is 2. discontinuous at all integers
x 0 x
3. discontinuous at all irrationals
1. e 2. e
4. discontinuous at all reals
e
3. 2e 4.
2 39. If f ( x) is differentiable function x R
34. Which of the following inequality is true s.t. f (1) 5 and f ( x) 5 x 1 . Then
for x 0? 1. f ( x) is monotonically increasing
x 2. f ( x) is monotonically decreasing
1. log(1 x) x
1 x
3. f ( x) is bounded
x
2. x log(1 x) 4. f ( x) is not montonic
1 x
x 40. In which interval the polynomial
3. x log(1 x)
1 x 2 x3 15x2 36 x 1 is decreasing
x 1. (, 2) 2. (3, )
4. log(1 x) x
1 x
3. (2, 3) 4. none of these
1
35. f ( x) sin : x 0,1 {2} , then
x 41. If f is defined by f ( x) x x 2 1 x R
1. f ( x) is continuous then
2. f ( x) has only one point of discontinuity 1. f is discontinuous on R
3. f ( x) has two points of discontinuity 1
2. f has local minima at x
2
4. f ( x) has three points of discontinuity
1
36. If f is one-to-one and continuous on a, b , 3. f has local maxima at x
2
then 4. f has no local extrema
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42. f ( x) x( x 1)( x 2) and 3. both one-one and onto
1 4. neither one-one nor onto
g ( x) x( x 2)( x 3) in 0, then the
2 (GATE 2003)
value of c defined in the cauchy’s mean value 46. Let I 1 2 . For x , let
x dist x, I inf x y : y I . Then
theorem is
(5 13) (5 13)
1. 2. 1. is discontinuous somewhere on .
6 6
1
3.
4
4. None of these 2. is continuous on but not
43. Let f :(0,2) R be defined by differentiable only at x 1 .
x2 , if x rational 3. is continuous on but not
f ( x)
2 x 1, if x is irrational
differentiable only at x 1 and 2.
Then,
1. f is differentiable exactly at one point 4. is continuous on but not
2. f is differentiable exactly at two points
3
3. f is not differentiable at any point in differentiable only at x 1, and 2.
2
0, 2
(CSIR NET June 2011)
4. f is differentiable at every point in 0, 2
47. Let I 0,1 . x , let
(GATE 2005)
44. Consider the function f : defined by x dist x, I inf x y : y I . Then
x ,
4
if x is rational 1. x is discontinuous somewhere on .
f ( x)
2 x 1, if x is irrational
2
Let S be the set of points where f is 2. x is continuous on but not
continuous. Then, continuously differentiable exactly at
1. S 1 2. S 1 x0 .
3. S 1,1 4. S 3. x is continuous on but not
(GATE 2007)
continuously differentiable exactly at
45. The continuous function f : R R defined
x 0 and at x 1 .
by f ( x) ( x 2 1)2003 is
4. x is differentiable on .
1. onto but not one-one
2. one-one but not onto (CSIR NET June 2012)
284
48. Let f be a twice differentiable function on 51. The function
. Given that f x 0 for all x , f x a0 a1 x a2 x a3 x is
2 3
differentiable at x 0
1. f x 0 has exactly two solutions on .
1. for no values of a0 , a1, a2 , a3
2. f x 0 has a positive solutions if 2. for any value of a0 , a1, a2 , a3
f 0 0 and f 0 0 . 3. only if a1 0
3. f x 0 has no positive solution if 4. only if both a1 0 and a3 0
f 0 0 and f 0 0 . (CSIR NET June 2013)
52. Let a, b, c be distinct real numbers. Then
4. f x 0 has no positive solution if
the numbers of distinct real roots of the
f 0 0 and f 0 0 .
equation x a x b x c 0 is
3 3 3
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
1. 1
49. Let f be a monotone nondecreasing real-
2. 2
valued function on . Then 3. 3
4. depends on the values of a, b, c
1. lim f x exists at each point a.
x a
(CSIR NET June 2013)
2. If a<b, then lim f x lim f x .
x a x b
sin x
if x 0
53. Let f x x
3. f is an unbounded function. 1 if x 0
4. The function g x e is a
f x
Then f is
bounded function. 1. discontinuous.
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) 2. continuous but not differentiable.
3. differentiable only once.
50. In which of the following cases, there is no 4. differentiable more than once.
continuous function f from the set S onto (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
the set T ? 54. If f :0,1 0,1 is a continuous mapping
1. S 0,1 , T then which of the following is NOT true ?
2. S 0,1 , T 1. F 0,1 is a closed set implies
3. S 0,1 , T 0,1 f F is closed in .
4. S = , T = (0, 1)
2. If f 0 f 1 then f 0,1 must be
(CSIR NET June 2013) equal to f 0 , f 1 .
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3. There must exist x 0,1 s.t. f x x . consecutive roots of p.
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
4. f 0,1 0,1 .
58. Let f : X X such that f f x x for
(CSIR NET Dec 2013)
all x X . Then
55. Let p x be a polynomial in the real
1. f is one to one and onto.
p n 2. f is one to one, but not onto.
variable x of degree 5. Then limn n
2
3. f is onto but not one to one.
is
4. f need not be either one to one or onto.
1. 5 2. 1
(CSIR NET June 2015)
3. 0 4.
59. A polynomial of odd degree with real
(CSIR NET June 2014)
coefficients must have
56. For a continuous function f : , let
1. at least one real root.
Z f x : f x 0 . Then Z f is 2. no real root.
always 3. only real roots.
1. compact 2. open 4. at least one root which is not real.
3. connected 4. closed (CSIR NET June 2015)
(CSIR NET June 2014) 60. Let f : be a twice continuously
57. Suppose p is a polynomial with real differentiable function, with
coefficients. Then which of the following f 0 f 1 f ' 0 0 . Then
statements is necessarily true ?
1. f " is the zero function.
1. There is no root of the derivative p
2. f " 0 is zero.
between two real roots of the
polynomial p. 3. f " x 0 for some x 0,1 .
2. There is exactly one root of the 4. f " never vanishes.
derivative p between any two real (CSIR NET Dec 2015)
roots of p. 61. Let f :0, 0, be a continuous
3. There is exactly one root of the function. Which of the following is correct
derivative p ' between any two ?
consecutive roots of p. 1. There is x0 0, such that
4. There is at least one root of the
f x0 x0
derivative p between any two
286
2. If f x M for all x 0, for some 2. 1
3. 0 1
M 0 , then there exists x0 0,
4. there is no such
such that f x0 x0
(CSIR NET June 2018)
66. Let f x x5 5x 2 . Then
3. If f has a fixed point, then it must be
unique.
1. f has no real root
4. f does not have a fixed point unless it is
2. f has exactly one real root
differentiable on 0,
3. f has exactly three real roots
(CSIR NET Dec 2015) 4. all roots of f are real
62. Let F : be a monotone function. (CSIR NET June 2018)
Then
1. F has no discontinuities. 67. Consider the function tan x on the set
2. F has only finitely many discontinuities.
3. F can have at most countably many S x : x 0, x k for any
discontinuities. 2
4. F can have uncountably many k 0 .
discontinuities.
(CSIR NET June 2016) We say that it has a fixed point in S if
63. f : is such that f (0) 0 and x S such that tan x x . Then
df
( x) 5 for all x. We can conclude that 1. there is a unique fixed point
dx
2. there is no fixed point
f (1) is in
1. (5,6) . 3. there are infinitely many fixed points
2. [5,5] . 4. there are more than one but finitely
3. (, 5) (5, ).
many fixed points.
4. [4, 4].
(CSIR NET Dec 2018)
(CSIR-NET Dec 2016)
68. Let f : be a continuous and one-
64. Let S x 1,4 | sin x 0 . Which of
one function. Then which of the following
the following is true ?
1. inf S 0 is true ?
2. sup S does not exist 1. f is onto
3. sup S 2. f is either strictly decreasing or strictly
4. inf S / 2 (CSIR NET Dec 2017) increasing
65. Given that there are real constants a, b, c, d 3. there exists x such that f x 1
such that the identity 4. f is unbounded
(CSIR NET June 2019)
x 2 2 xy y 2 ax by cx dy
2 2
holds for all x, y . This implies
1. 5
MUDGIL ACADEMY OF MATHEMATICS
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----------------------- M C Q ------------------------ x if x 1,1 ,
1. Given the function 3. f x 1 if x 1,
1 if x 1
1 1
x tan , x 0
f x x , then
1 if x 23, 27 ,
0 , x0
4. f x 22 x if x 23,
1. differentiable at x 0 26 x if x 27
2. not differentiable at x 0
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
3. f 0 4. Define f : by
2
x2 if x 0,
4. f 0
f x . Then which of
2 x x if x 0
2
2
2. Consider the function the following statements are correct?
f x cos x sin 2 x . At which of the 1. f x 2 for all x
following points is f not differentiable? 2. f 0 does not exist
f x exists for each x 0
1. 2n 1 : n 3.
2
4. f 0 does not exist
2. n : n
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
3. n 2 : n 5. Consider the function
n f x cos x 5 sin x 3
4. : n
2
x 10 x 4 . At which of the
3 2
(CSIR NET June 2011)
3. Which of the following real valued following points is f not differentiable ?
functions f defined on have the property 1. x 5 2. x 3
3. x 10 4. x 0
that f is continuous and f f f ?
(CSIR NET June 2012)
x if x 1,1 ,
1. f x 2 6. Let f x sin x x
x3
x if x 1,1 3!
and
x if x 0,1 , g x cos x 1
x2
for all x . Which
2. f x 1 if x 1, 2!
0 if x 0 of the following statements are correct?
1. f x 0 for all x 0
288
2. g is an increasing function on 0, . 3. If lim x f x exists then
3. g is a decreasing function on 0, . lim x f x 0
4. f is a decreasing function on 4. lim x f x exists then
0, . lim x f x L
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
7. Let p be a real polynomial of the real
10. Which of the following is/are true ?
variable x of the form x y log x log y
1. log for all x, y 0 .
p x xn an1x n1 ... a1x 1 . Suppose
2 2
x y
ex e y
2. e 2
for all x, y 0 .
that p has no roots in the open unit disc and 2
x y sin x sin y
p 1 0 . Then 3. sin for all x, y 0 .
2 2
p 1 0 2. lim p x x y
k
max x k , y k for all x, y 0
1.
x 4.
2k
3. p 2 0 4. p 3 0 and all k 1.
(CSIR NET June 2013) (CSIR NET June 2012)
8. The function f : is given by 11. Let E be a subset of . Then the
characteristic function E : is
x x2
f x e x 2 1 . Which of the continuous if and only if
1. E is closed
following is true about the function f ? 2. E is open
3. E is both open and closed
1. It is not differentiable exactly at three 4. E is neither open nor closed
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
points of . 12. Let A be a subset of . Which of the
following properties imply that A is
2. It is not differentiable at x 0 . compact ?
3. It is differentiable at x 2 . 1. Every continuous function f from A to
is bounded.
4. It is not differentiable at x 1, 1 . 2. Every sequence xn in A has a
(CSIR NET Dec 2013) convergent subsequence converging to
a point in A.
9. Let f be a continuously differentiable 3. There exists a continuous function from
function on . Suppose that A onto 0,1 .
4. There is no one one and continous
L lim f x f x exists. function from A onto 0,1 .
x
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
If 0 L , then which of the following 13. Let f be a bounded function on and a .
statements is/are correct ? For 0 , let a, sup f x f a ,
1. If lim x f x exists, then it is 0 x a , a .
Then
2. If lim x f x exists then it is L
1. a, 1 a, 2 if 1 2 .
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NET REAL ANALYSIS Page 289
2. lim0 a, 0 for all a . derivative of f. Let a, b 0,1 be two
3. lim0 a, need not exist. consecutive zeros of f. Which of the
4. lim0 a, 0 if and only if f is following statements are necessarily true ?
continuous at a.
(CSIR NET June 2015) 1. If g a 0 , then g crosses the real line
14. Which of the following statements is/are from upper half plane to lower half
true ?
plane at a.
1. There exists a continuous map
f : such that f . 2. If g a 0 , then g crosses the real line
2. There exists a continuous map
from lower half plane to upper half
f : such that f .
3. There exists a continuous map plane at a.
f : 2 such that 3. If g a g b 0, then g a , g b
f x, y : x y 1 .
2 2 2
have the same sign.
4. There exists a continuous map
f :0,1 2,3 0,1 . 4. If g a g b 0, then g a , g b
(CSIR NET Dec 2015) have opposite signs.
(CSIR-NET Dec 2018)
15. The equation 11x 13x 17 x 19 x 0 has
1. no real root 18. Consider a function f : . Then
2. only one real root
which of the following are true ?
3. exactly two real roots
4. more than two real roots 1. f is not one-one if the graph of f
(CSIR NET June 2017) intersects some line parallel to X-axis in
16. Let f : be a function satisfying at least two points
f x y f x f y , x, y and 2. f is not one-one if the graph of f
lim f x 1 . Which of the following are intersects any line parallel to X-axis in
x 0
necessarily true ? at most one points
1. f is strictly increasing
2. f is either constant or bounded 3. f is surjective if the graph of f
3. f rx f x for every rational r
r
intersects every line parallel to X-axis
4. f x 0, x 4. f is not surjective if the graph of f does
(CSIR NET Dec 2017) not intersect at least one line parallel to
17. Let f be a real valued continuously X-axis
differentiable function of 0,1 . Set
(CSIR NET June 2019)
19. Let a c b, f : a, b be continuous.
g f ' if , where i 2 1 and f ' is the
Assume that f is differentiable at every
290
point of a, b \ c and f ' has a limit at c. True false key
Then which of the following are true ? 1. F 2. F 3. T 4. F
1. f is differentiable at c 5. F 6. F 7. F 8. F
2. f need not be differentiable at c 9. F 10. F 11. F 12. F
3. f is differentiable at c and 13. F 14. T 15. T 16. T
lim f ' x f ' c 17. T 18. T 19. F 20. T
xc
21. T 22. T 23. F 24. F
4. f is differentiable at c but f ' c is not
25. F 26. F 27. T 28. T
necessarily lim f ' x 29. T 30. F
xc
(CSIR NET June 2019) Assignment key
20. Let F : be a non-decreasing SCQ
function. Which of the following can be the 1. 2 2. 2 3. 3 4. 1
set of discontinuous of F 5. 3 6. 1 7. 2 8. 2
1. 2. 9. 4 10. 3 11. 1 12. 3
13. 4 14. 2 15. 3 16. 2
3. 4. \
17. 2 18. 2 19. 4 20. 4
(CSIR NET June 2019)
21. 3 22. 1 23. 3 24. 2
25. 3 26. 2 27. 2 28. 1
29. 1 30. 4 31. 3 32. 2
33. 4 34. 4 35. 2 36. 3
37. 3 38. 2 39. 4 40. 3
41. 3 42. 2 43. 1 44. 3
45. 4 46. 4 47. 3 48. 3
49. 2 50.1 51. 3 52. 1
53. 4 54. 2 55. 3 56. 4
57. 4 58. 1 59. 1 60. 3
61. 2 62. 3 63. 2 64. 3
65. 2 66. 3
MCQ
1. 2,3 2. 1,3 3. 2,3
4. 2,3,4 5. 2,4 6. 1,2
7. 1,2,3 8. 1,2,3,4 9. 1,2
10. 1,4 11. 3 12. 1,2
13. 1,4 14. 3,4 15. 2
16. 3,4
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Chapter - 7
Uniform continuity and convex functions
7.1 Uniform Continuity
Def. Uniform Continuity : A function f x is said to be uniformly continuous in a interval I if for each
ε 0 there exists a real number 0 s.t. f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) ε whenever x1 x2 for all x1, x2 I .
Remark : In the above definition the domain of the function may or may not be interval.
Difference between continuity and uniform continuity :
(i) Continuity is defined at some point while uniform continuity is defined on a set.
(ii) In continuity, depends on and the point a , while in uniform continuity, depends only on .
Results :
1. A function which is uniformly continuous on an interval is continuous on . However converse is
not true in general.
Example : f x x 2 is continuous on but not uniform continuous on .
2. Continuity on a closed interval implies uniform continuity.
3. A continuous function on an open interval may or may not be uniformly continuous.
1
Example : f x on 0,1 is not uniformly continuous.
x
4. If a function is continuous on an interval and its derivative is bounded on 0 then function is
uniformly continuous on where 0 is obtained from I by deleting the end points, if any. But
converse is not true.
Example : f x x on (0, 1) is uniform continuous but f ' x is not bounded.
Remark : If [a, b] or (a, b] or (a, b) then 0 (a, b).
5. If a function f is continuous and periodic on , then f is bounded and uniformly continuous on .
6. If a function f is continuous on bounded interval (a, b) then f is uniformly continuous on (a, b) iff
lim f (x) and lim f (x) exist finitely.
x a x b
7. If a function f is continuous on [a,) and lim f (x) exists finitely then function is uniformly
x
continuous on [a,). But converse is not true.
Example : f x x on [1, ) is uniform continuous but lim f x does not exist.
x
292
8. If a function f is continuous on (– ,b] and lim f (x) exists finitely then f is uniformly continuous
x
on (– ,b]. But converse is not true.
Example : f x x on (,0] is uniform continuous but lim f x does not exist.
x
9. If a function f x is continuous on and lim f x and lim f x both exist finitely then f is
x x
uniformly continuous on . But converse is not true.
Example : f x x on (, ) is uniform continuous but neither lim f x nor lim f x exist.
x x
10. If a function f is continuous on , then f is uniformly continuous on every bounded interval of .
However f may or may not be uniformly continuous on .
11. Sequential criterion of uniform continuity : Let f : A be a function, then f is uniformly
continuous on A if and only if for every two sequences xn and yn in A such that xn yn 0 ,
we have f xn f yn 0 as n .
Contrapositive : Let f : A be a function. If there exists two sequences xn , yn in A such
that xn yn 0 but f xn f yn
/ 0 as n , then f is not uniformly continuous on A.
12. If f is uniformly continuous on a, b and [b, c) then f is uniformly continuous on (a, c).
13. Let f be a uniform continuous function defined on a bounded set S of , then f is bounded on S.
Remark : Here, S may be a closed bounded interval, open bounded interval or any other bounded set.
14. If f and g are uniformly continuous functions, then f g is also uniformly continuous.
15. If f and g are uniformly continuous functions, then f g is also uniformly continuous.
16. If f and g are uniformly continuous functions, then f g need not be uniformly continuous.
Example : f x x g x on .
17. If f and g are uniformly continuous and bounded functions then f g is also uniformly
continuous.
18. A uniformly continuous function maps a bounded sequence to bounded sequence.
19. A uniformly continuous function maps a Cauchy sequence to Cauchy sequence.
20. A uniformly continuous function maps a convergent sequence to convergent sequence.
Example 1 : Examine the uniform continuity of the function f x e1 x x on [0, ) .
2
Solution : Since f x e1 x x is continuous on [0, ) and lim e1 x x 0 exists finitely, therefore f is
2 2
x
uniformly continuous on [0, ) .
Example 2 : Examine the uniform continuity of the function f x sin x sin x on [0, ) .
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1
Solution : Let xn and yn be two sequences on [0, ) , where xn 2n and yn 2n , then
2n
1
xn yn 0 as n .
2n
1 1
But lim f xn f yn lim sin 2n sin 2n sin 2n sin 2n
n n
2n 2n
1 1
lim sin 2n sin sin1
/ 0
n
2n 2n
f is not uniformly continuous on [0, ) .
Exercise 7.1
1. Show that f x x is uniformly continuous on every subset of .
2. Show that the functions f x x 2 , x3 ,.... are uniformly continuous on every bounded subset of
and they are not uniformly continuous on any interval of the form a, , , a or on .
1 1 1
3. Show that the functions f x , 2 , 3 ,.... are not uniformly continuous on any interval which
x x x
contains 0 or whose one end point is 0.
4. Examine the uniform continuity of the following functions on the indicated domain :
1
(i) f ( x) e x on (0,1) (ii) f ( x) sin on (0,1)
x
1
1
(iii) f ( x) [Link] on (0,1) (iv) f ( x) e on (0,1)
x
x
1
1
(v) f ( x) e x
on (0,1) (vi) f ( x) e x cos on (0,1)
x
(vii) f ( x) cos [Link] on (0,1) (viii) f ( x) cos [Link] on (0,1)
x x
(ix) f ( x) sin [Link] on (0,1) (x) f ( x) cot x on (0,1)
x
(xi) f ( x) e x on (0,1) (xii) f x tan x on ,
2 2
294
5. Examine the uniform continuity of the following functions on the indicated domain :
sin x
(i) f ( x) x on [0,) ( Break ) (ii) f ( x) on (0, ) ( LEF )
x
x
(iii) f ( x) on ( LEF ) (iv) f ( x) tan 1 x on ( LEF )
1 x2
1
(v) f ( x) x sin on (0, ) ( LEF ) (vi) f x e1 x x on
2
( LEF )
x
x2
(vii) f x on [0, ) ( LEF ) (viii) f ( x) sin x 2 on [0, ) (CSC )
1 x2
(ix) f x esin x on 0, (x) f x e x on [0, )
2
( CSC ) ( CSC )
(xi) f ( x) sin x on [0, ) ( DB ) (xii) f ( x) sin 2 x on (0, ) ( DB )
(xiii) f x sin sin x on [0, ) ( CP )
(xiv) f x sin cos sin sin x on ( CP)
Answers
4. (i) Yes (ii) No (iii) Yes (iv) No (v) Yes (vi) No
(vii) No (viii) No (ix) Yes (x) No (xi) Yes (xii) No
5. (i) Yes (ii) Yes (iii) Yes (iv) Yes (v) Yes (vi) Yes
(vii) Yes (viii) No (ix) No (x) No (xi) Yes (xii) Yes
(xiii) Yes (xiv) Yes
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.2 Functions of bounded variation and convex functions
Def. Variation of function : Let f be a function defined on a, b and P a x0 , x1, x2 ,...xn b is the
partition of a, b . Then variation of f w.r.t. P is denoted by V f , P and defined as :
n
V f , P f xi f xi1
i 1
f x1 f x0 f x2 f x1 .... f xn f xn1
e.g. find V f , P , where f x x 2 and P 1, 2, 3, 4
V f , P f x1 f x0 f x2 f x1 f x3 f x2 = 4 1 9 4 16 9 = 3+5+7=15
Def. Total variation of a function : Vab f SupV f , P
P
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Def. Function of bounded variation : A function f is said to be of bounded variation if V f , P K for
all partitions P.
Example 1 : Show that a function of bounded variation is necessarily bounded but not conversely .
Solution : Let f be a function of bounded variation on an interval [a, b] . Then Vab f
Now we have V ( f , P) Vab f for all partitions P …..(1)
Let x a, b be arbitrary and let P a, x, b be any partition of [a, b] , then by (1), we have
f ( x) f (a) f (b) f ( x) Vab f f ( x) f (a) Vab f
Now, f ( x) f (a) f ( x) f (a) Vab f
f x f a Vab f
f is bounded on [a, b] .
0 if x 0
For converse , consider the function f : 0,1 R given by f x
x sin x if x 0
Then clearly f is bounded .
2 2 2 2
To show that f is not of bounded variation , consider a partition 1, , , ,....., ,0
3 5 7 2n 1
For this partition, we have
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
f (1) f + f f + ……+ f f 0 = .........
3 3 5 2n 1 3 3 5 2n 1
1 1 1 1
4 ......
3 5 7 2n 1
1 1 1 1 1
Since 2n 1 is divergent , so its partial sum 3 5 7 ...... 2n 1 is not bounded above .
n1
Hence V01 f . Hence f is not of bounded variation on [0, 1] .
Example 2 : A continuous function need not be of bounded variation .
0 if x 0
Solution : Consider the function f : 0,1 R given by f x
x sin x if x 0
Then this function is continuous on [0, 1] . But this function is not of bounded variation as shown in
previous example .
296
Def. Lipschitz’s condition : A function f defined on closed interval [a, b] is said to satisfy
Lipschitz’s condition if there exist a constant k s.t. f x f y k x y x, y a, b.
Def. Lipschitz’s condition of order : A function f defined on closed interval [a, b] is said to
satisfy Lipschitz’s condition of order 0 if there exist a constant k s.t.
f x f y k x y x, y a, b.
Results :
1. Constant function is of bounded variation on every closed interval. Further, variation of a constant
function is always zero for each partition.
2. If f is of bounded variation then kf is also of bounded variation. Further, V kf , P kV f , P
3. If f ( x) is a monotonic function on the closed interval a, b , then V f , P f b f a for all
partitions P. Further, Vab f , P f b f a .
4. Monotonic function on closed interval Bounded variation but converse is not true.
5. Continuous on I + derivative is bounded on I 0 Bounded variation (B.V.)
6. Bounded variation Bounded converse is not true.
7. Continuous
/ B.V. , uniform continuity
/ B.V. , Lipschitz’s condition
/ differentiability,
uniform continuity
/ differentiability
8. α β result : For α 0, β 0 the functions
1 1
x sin x 0 x cos x 0
f x x and g x x
x0 x0
0 0
are of bounded variation on closed interval [0, 1] iff .
9. Jordan Decomposition Theorem : B.V. difference of two monotonically increasing function.
10. If a function satisfy Lipschitz’s condition on [a, b] then it is of bounded variation on [a, b]
11. If a function satisfy Lipschitz’s condition on [a, b] then it is uniformly continuous on [a, b]
12. If a function f x satisfy Lipschitz’s condition of order 0 on [a, b] then
(i) If 0 1 then f x uniformly continuous on [a, b].
(ii) If 1 then f x is a constant function.
13. The discontinuities of a function of bounded variation always countable.
14. Composition of two functions of bounded variations need not be a function of bounded variation.
1
Example : f x x on 0,1 , g x x 2 cos 2 on 0,1 are functions of bounded variation but
x
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1
f g x is not a function of bounded variation.
x cos
x
15. f g is function of bounded variation if f satisfies Lipschitz condition and g is of bounded variation.
f 1
16. If f and g are two functions of bounded variation on a, b , then f g , fg , g 0, is bounded
g g
are functions of bounded variation.
17. If f is of bounded variation on a, b , then f is of bounded variation on a, b . But converse is
not true.
1, if x 0,1
Example : f x is not of bounded variation but f x 1 is of bounded variation.
1, if x 0,1
c
f g f g
18. If f and g are functions of bounded variation, then max f , g and
2
f g f g
min f , g are of bounded variation.
2
Def. Convex function : A function defined in an open interval (a , b) is said to be convex if for
each x , y (a , b) and , such that 0 , 1 and + = 1 , we have
( x + y) (x) + (y)
Def. Strictly convex function : If for all positive numbers 0 , 1 satisfying + = 1 , we
have ( x + y) < (x) + (y) then is said to be strictly convex.
Remarks : (i) The end points a , b can take the values , respectively.
(ii) If we take = 1 , 0 1 , then + = 1 and so will be convex if
( x +(1 )y) (x) + (1 ) (y)
(iii) A function is sometimes said to be convex on (a , b) if for all x , y (a , b)
x y 1 1
f f ( x) f ( y )
2 2 2
1
Clearly this definition is consequence of major definition taking = = .
2
Example 3 : The function ( x) x2 is a convex function on ( , ).
Solution : By definition , (x) will be convex if for 0 1 , we have
x (1 ) y ( x) (1 ) ( y)
i.e. if [ x (1 ) y]2 x2 (1 )y 2
i.e., if 2 x2 (1 )2 y 2 2 (1 ) xy x2 y 2 y 2
298
i.e., if 2 x2 y 2 2 y 2 2 y 2 2 (1 ) xy x2 y 2 y 2
i.e. , if ( 1)( x2 y 2 2 xy) 0
i.e., if ( 1)( x y)2 0 , which is true since 0 1.
Hence , (x)= x2 is a convex function on ( , )
Example 4 : The function (x) = ex is a convex function on ( , ).
Solution : By definition (x) will be convex if for 0 < < 1 , we have
( x +(1 )y) (x) + (1 ) (y)
i.e., if e x (1 ) y ex + (1 )ey
i.e., if e x .e(1 ) y ex + (1– )ey
which can be seen to hold by expanding both sides. Hence ex is a convex function on ( , ).
Results :
1. If a differentiable function is convex on (a , b) then is monotone increasing.
2. If exists on (a, b) then is convex if 0 on (a , b) and is strictly convex if > 0 on (a, b).
3. If is a convex function on (a , b) and a < x < y < b then the line segment joining the point (x, (x))
and (y , (y)) is never below the graph of .
4. Every convex function on an open interval is continuous.
5. Let : a, b be convex function, then lim x and lim x exist finitely or infinitely.
xa xb
6. Set of discontinuities of convex function is atmost countable.
7. Let : a, b be convex and bounded function, then is uniformly continuous function.
Exercise 7.2
Which of the following functions are of bounded variation :
1
1. f x sin x on 0,1 2. f x x 3 on 0,1
P 1
x sin x 0
3. f x x on [0, 1] 4. f x cos x on 0,
2
0 x0
x sin x 0
5. f x x on 1,1
2
6. f x x on [0, 1]
x0
0
1 1
x sin x 0 sin x0
7. f x x on [0, 1] 8. f x x on [0, 1]
0 x0 0 x0
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x cos x 0
9. f x 2x on [0, 1]
x0
0
Answers
1. Yes 2. Yes 3. Bounded variation if p 1 4. Yes 5. Yes
6. No 7. No 8. No 9. No
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True false exercise 14. f : a, b be any function such that
f (a) 0 f (b), then there exist a number
1 c (a, b) such that f (c) 0 .
1. log x is uniformly continuous on ,
2
15. f : a, b is continuous function and if
2. A bounded continuous function on is
uniformly continuous. c (a, b) such that f (c) 0 , then
f (a) f (b) 0 .
1
3. The function f ( x) is uniformly
x 16. If f : a, b is continuous , then
continuous on 1, . f a, b f (a), f (b) .
4. A uniformly continuous function on an 17. Let f be a function defined on which
unbounded interval is continuous on that satisfy the condition
interval. f ( x y) f ( x) f ( y) x, y and if f
is continuous at a point a, then it is
5. A continuous function on an unbounded
continuous at all points of .
interval cannot be uniformly continuous.
18. If f is continuous on such that
6. A continuous function on bounded interval
f ( x) f (2 x 1) x ; then f must be
is uniformly continuous on that interval.
constant.
7. If f : 0,2 is uniform continuous,
19. The function f ( x) sin x 2 is uniformly
then it is bounded on 0, 2 .
continuous on [0, ) .
8. The discontinuities of a function of
1
bounded variation are always finite. 20. The function f ( x) sin is uniformly
x
9. The discontinuities of a function of continuous on 0, .
bounded variation are always denumerable.
21. If f and g both are bounded uniformly
10. The function is always continuous at continuous functions on the interval I, then
isolated points. f g is also uniform continuous.
11. If limit point of S is not a member of 22. If f is continuous on , then it is
S, then function is discontinuous at that uniformly continuous on every interval of
point. finite length.
12. The function f ( x) x x , for all x 23. If f is periodic and continuous on , then
is discontinuous at countable number of it is uniformly continuous on .
points. 24. A continuous bounded function is always
uniform continuous.
13. Let f : a, b be continuous, then it
25. Any continuous function on 0,1 is of
has an absolute maximum on a, b .
bounded variation.
302
26. Any monotonic function on 0,1 is of 5. Let f :[0,1] (0, ) be a continuous
bounded variation. function. Suppose, f (0) 1 and f (1) 7.
Then,
Assignment 1. f is uniformly continuous and is not
---------------------- S C Q --------------------- onto
1. If f ( x) x 2 for all x , f is 2. f is increasing and f ([0,1]) [1,7]
1. not continuous on 3. f is not uniformly continuous
2. uniformly continuous on 4. f is not bounded
3. not uniformly continuous on 6. Let f :[a, b] [c, d ] be a monotonic and
4. None of the above bijective function, then
2. If f ( x) is differentiable on interval I and 1. f is continuous, but f 1 need not be
0, such that f ( x) on I, then 2. f and f 1 are both continuous
f ( x) is 3. If (b a) (d c), then f is decreasing
1. continuous but not uniformly function
continuous on I 4. f is not uniformly continuous
2. uniformly continuous but not 1
7. The function f ( x) , x 0 is
continuous on I x
3. uniformly continuous but not 1. continuous but not uniformly
differentiable on I continuous
4. continuous, uniformly continuous and 2. discontinuous everywhere
differentiable on I 3. neither continuous not uniformly
3. If f ( x y) f ( x) f ( y), x, y and f continuous
is continuous at one point of , then f ( x) 4. uniformly continuous but not
is continuous
1. not continuous, x 8. f :[0,1] is a function, which of the
2. not uniformly continuous, x following is possible?
3. differentiable, x 1. f is differentiable but not continuous
4. None of the above 2. f is unbounded and continuous
1 3. f is differentiable but its derivative is
4. The function f ( x) , x 1 is
x
not continuous
1. uniformly continuous
4. f is uniformly continuous but not
2. not continuous at x 1
continuous
3. not uniformly continuous
4. not differentiable
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9. Suppose, f : and g : are 2. If f and g are uniformly continuous on
uniformly continuous functions with f
I, then is uniformly continuous
g ( x) 0, x. Then which of the following g
is true? provided g ( x) 0, x I
1. f g is uniformly continuous, f and g . 3. If f is differentiable in (a, b)and f ( x) is
2. f g is uniformly continuous, f and g bounded on (a, b) , then f ( x) is
f uniformly continuous
3. is uniformly continuous, f and g
g 4. None of the above
4. f g is never continuous 13. Let f , g :(0,1) (0,1) be two
10. Which of the following statements is true? continuous functions defined by
1. All continuous functions from 1
f ( x, y) and
are uniformly continuous 1 x(1 y )
2. All continuous functions from 1
g ( x, y ) . Then, on (0,1) (0,1)
[0,1] are uniformly continuous 1 x( y 1)
3. All continuous functions from 1. f and g are both uniformly continuous
2. f is uniformly continuous but g is not
[0,1] are uniformly continuous
3. g is uniformly continuous but f is not
4. All continuous functions from [0, ) to
4. neither f nor g is uniformly continuous
are uniformly continuous
(GATE 2004)
11. Which of the following is/are correct for
14. Which of the following real valued
2 1
x sin , x 0 functions on (0, 1) is uniformly continuous
the function f ( x) x ,
0 ,x 0 1 sin x
1. f x 2. f x
x x
x 1,1
1 cos x
3. f x sin 4. f x
1. Continuous x x
2. Uniformly continuous (CSIR NET Dec 2012)
3. Bounded 15. Let f :0,1 0,1 be any twice
4. Absolutely continuous
differentiable function satisfying
f ax 1 a y af x 1 a f y
12. Select the correct statement
1. If f and g are uniformly continuous on
for all x, y0,1 and any a 0,1 . Then
I, then their product is uniformly
continuous for all x 0,1
304
1. f x 0 . 2. f x 0 . ----------------------- M C Q ------------------------
1. Which of the following(s) is/are correct?
3. f x 0. 4. f x 0.
1. f x sin x 2 is not uniformly
(CSIR NET Dec 2013)
continuous in [0, )
16. Let A and f : A be given by
f x x 2 . Then f is uniformly continuous 2. f x sin x is uniformly continuous in
if
[0, )
1. A is a bounded subset of .
3. f x x 2 is uniformly continuous in
2. A is a dense subset of .
3. A is an unbounded and connected 1,1
subset of . 4. None of the above
4. A is an unbounded and open subset of . 2. Let
(CSIR NET June 2014)
17. Let S f : | 0 such that for
F f : : f x f y K x y
for all x, y and for some 0 and
all 0, x y f x f y .
Then some K 0 . Which of the following is/are
1. S f : | f is continuous true ?
2. S f : | f is uniformly continuous 1. every f F is continuous
3. S f : | f is bounded
2. every f F is uniformly continuous
4. S f : | f is constant
3. every differentiable function f is in F
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
18. Let f : 0, be uniformly 4. every f F is differentiable
continuous. Then (CSIR NET June 2011)
1. lim f x and lim f x exist
x 0 x 3. Which of the conditions below imply that a
2. lim f x exists but lim f x need not
x0 x function f : 0,1 is necessarily of
exist
3. lim f x need not exist but lim f x bounded variation ?
x0 x
4. neither lim f x nor lim f x need 1. f is a monotone function on 0,1 .
x 0 x
exist (CSIR NET Dec 2017) 2. f is a continuous and monotone function
1
19. Define f x for x 0 . Then f is on 0,1 .
x
uniformly continuous 3. f has a derivative at each x 0,1 .
1. on 0, 4. f has a bounded derivative on the
interval (0, 1).
2. on [r , ) for any r 0
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
3. on (0, r ] for any r 0
4. only on intervals of the form a, b for
0 a b (CSIR NET Dec 2018)
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4. Suppose f : is a function that 3. f is uniformly continuous on (0, 1).
satisfies f x f y x y , 0.
4. lim x 0 f x exists.
Which of the following is correct ? (CSIR NET June 2014)
1. if 1 then f is differentiable 8. Let f : 0,1 be continuous. Suppose
2. if 0 then f is uniformly continuous that f x f y cos x cos y for all
3. if 1 then f is a constant function
x, y 0,1 . Then,
4. f must be a polynomial
1.f is discontinuous at least at one point in (0,1)
(CSIR NET June 2013)
2. f is continuous everywhere on 0,1 but
5. Which of the following functions f is
not uniformly continuous on (0, 1)
uniformly continuous on the interval (0,1) ?
3. f is uniformly continuous on (0, 1)
1 1
1. f x 2. f x x sin 4. lim f x exists.
x x x0
1 sin x
3. f x sin 4. f x (CSIR NET Dec 2015)
x x
9. Let f : be a differentiable function
(CSIR NET June 2013)
such that sup x f ' x . Then,
6. Let A be the set of rational numbers in the
open interval (0, 7) and f : A be a 1. f maps a bounded sequence to a
uniformly continuous function. Which of
the following are true ? bounded sequence.
1. f is bounded 2. f maps a Cauchy sequence to a Cauchy
2. f is necessarily a constant function sequence.
3. f is differentiable on (0, 7) 3. f maps a convergent sequence to a
4. f is differentiable at all the rational convergent sequence.
points in (0,7) 4. f is uniformly continuous.
(CSIR NET June 2013) (CSIR NET Dec 2015)
7. Let f : 0,1 be continuous. Suppose that 10. Let f : be a continuous function
and f x 1 f x for all x . Then
f x f y sin x sin y x, y (0, 1).
1. f is bounded above, but not bounded
Then below.
2. f is bounded above and below, but may
1. f is discontinuous at least at one point in not attain its bounds.
(0, 1). 3. f is bounded above and below and f
attains its bounds.
2. f is continuous everywhere on (0, 1), 4. f is uniformly continuous.
but not uniformly continuous on (0, 1). (CSIR NET June 2016)
306
11. Which of the following functions is/are True false key
uniformly continuous on the interval
(0, 1) ? 1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T
1 1 5. F 6. F 7. T 8. F
1. 2. sin
x x
9. F 10. F 11. T 12. T
1 sin x
3. x sin 4. 13. F 14. F 15. F 16. F
x x
(CSIR NET June 2016) 17. T 18. T 19. F 20. F
12. Decide which of the following functions 21. T 22. T 23. T 24. F
are uniformly continuous on (0,1).
25. F 26. T
1. f ( x) e x
2. f ( x) x
x Assignment key
3. f ( x) tan
2 SCQ
4. f ( x) sin( x) 1. 3 2. 4 3. 3 4. 1
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
13. Let f : 1,1 be a function given by 5. 1 6. 1 7. 1 8. 3
2 9. 2 10. 3 11. 2 12. 3
1
x cos if x 0
f x x 13. 1 14. 2 15. 2 16. 1
if x 0
0 17. 3 18. 2
Then
1. f is of bounded variation on 1,1
MCQ
2. f ' is of bounded variation on 1,1
1. 1,2,3 2. 1,2 3. 1,2,4
3. f ' x 1 x 1,1
4. 2,3 5. 2,4 6. 1
4. f ' x 3 x 1,1
7. 3,4 8. 3,4 9. 1,2,3,4
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
10. 3,4 11. 3,4 12. 1,2,4
1
x sin , for x (0,1] 13. 1,4
14. Let f x x
for x 0
0,
and g x x f x for 0 x 1 . Then
which of the following are true ?
1. f is of bounded variation
2. f is not of bounded variation
3. g is of bounded variation
4. g is not of bounded variation
(CSIR NET June 2019)
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Chapter - 8
Sequence and series of functions
8.1 Sequence of functions
Def. Pointwise Convergence : A sequence of functions f n is said to be pointwise convergent on
a set S if the sequence of numbers f n ( x) converges for each x S .
We can define it classically as follows :
A sequence of functions f n , defined on an interval I is said to be pointwise convergent to a
function f if for given > 0 and for each x I , there exist a positive integer N such that
f n ( x) f ( x) for all n N
and the function f is called pointwise limit or limit of the sequence f n and we write lim f n f .
n
Def. Uniform Convergence : A sequence of functions f n defined on an interval I is said to be
uniformly convergent to a function „ f ‟ if for each ε > 0 , there exists an positive integer „N‟
(depending upon ε but independent of x ) such that
f n ( x ) f ( x) for all n N and for all x I
Difference between pointwise and uniform convergence: In case of pointwise convergence, for
each ε > 0 and for each x [a, b], there exists an integer N (depending on ε and x both) such that
f n ( x) f ( x) < ε for all n N.
whereas in uniform convergence for each ε > 0, it is possible to find one integer N (depending upon ε
alone) which will work for all x a, b .
Remark : It is clear from the definition that uniform convergence implies pointwise convergence
and in this case uniform limit is equal to the pointwise limit. Also, non-pointwise convergence
implies non-uniform convergence.
Theorem 1 : Mn -Test : Let f n be a sequence of functions such that lim f n x f x , x a, b
n
and let M n Sup f n x f x . Then, f n converges to f uniformly on a, b iff lim M n 0 .
x a , b n
Theorem 2 : Continuity Theorem : If f n is a sequence of continuous functions on an interval a, b
and f n f uniformly on a, b , then f is continuous on a, b .
308
Contrapositive : Let f n be a sequence of continuous function on a, b and
lim f n x f x , x a, b . If f is discontinuous on any point of a, b then the convergence is not
n
uniform i.e. pointwise convergence, whereas if f is continuous, we cannot say anything about its
convergence.
Remark : If all functions f n are continuous and convergence is pointwise then we cannot say
anything about f (i.e. f can be continuous or f can be discontinuous),
Theorem 3 : Integration Theorem : If a sequence f n converges uniformly to f on a, b and
(i) f is integrable on a, b and
b b
each f n is integrable then (ii) lim fn (t ) dt a f (t ) dt .
n a
Contrapositive : Let f n be a sequence of integrable functions on a, b and lim f n x f x ,
n
x a, b . If f is not integrable on a, b or lim f n t dt f t dt , then convergence cannot be
b b
n a
a
uniform i.e. convergence is pointwise.
Remark : Theorem 3 is not true, in general, when the interval is unbounded.
nx
Example 1 : Show that the sequence f n where f n x is not uniformly convergent on
1 n2 x 2
any interval containing zero.
nx x/n
Solution : We have : f x lim f n ( x) lim lim 0 for all real x .
n n 1 n x
2 2 n 1/ n 2 x 2
Thus the sequence f n converges pointwise to the function f identically zero.
nx
Now, M n = sup f n ( x) f ( x) sup
x a ,b x a ,b 1 n2 x 2
nx
Let us find the maximum value of by second derivative test.
1 n 2 x 2
nx n(1 n 2 x 2 ) 1
Let ( x) '( x) , which on equating to zero, gives x
1 n 2 x 2 (1 n x )
2 2 2
n
2n3 x(1 n2 x 2 )2 4n3 x 2 (1 n 4 x 4 )
Now, ''( x)
(1 n 2 x 2 )4
1 1
We observe that on x , ''( x) 0 and on x , ''( x) 0 .
n n
1 1
Thus ( x) has a maximum value at x and the maximum value is .
n 2
1 1 1
So we get M n at x . Now, lim M n 0 . Hence by Mn-Test, the sequence f n is
2 n n 2
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1 1
not uniformly convergent in any interval containing for all n . But 0 as n , so the
n n
sequence f n is not uniformly convergent in any interval containing 0.
x
Example 2 : Show that the sequence f n where f n x converges uniformly on R.
1 nx 2
x
Solution : We have, Pointwise limit f x lim f n ( x) lim 0 for all real x .
n n 1 nx 2
Thus the sequence f n converges pointwise to the function f identically zero.
x
Now, M n sup f n ( x) f ( x) sup
x R x R 1 nx 2
x
Let us find the maximum value of by second derivative test.
1 nx 2
x 1 nx 2 1
Let ( x) '( x) , which on equating to zero, gives x
1 nx 2 (1 nx )
2 2
n
2nx(nx 2 3)
Now, ''( x)
(1 nx 2 )3
1 1 1 1
We observe that on x , ''( x) 0 and on x , ''( x) 0.
n 2 n n 2 n
1 1
Thus ( x) has a maximum value at x and the maximum value is .
n 2 n
1
Thus M n 0 as n . Hence, by Mn -Test , the sequence f n converges uniformly on R.
2 n
Example 3 : Show that the sequence f n f n ( x) nxenx , x 0 is not uniformly
2
where
convergent on any interval [0, k] , k > 0.
Solution : We have , Pointwise limit f ( x) lim f n ( x) 0 for all x 0
n
M n sup f n ( x) f ( x) sup nxe nx
2
Now,
x[0,k ] x [0,k ]
Let us find the maximum value of nxenx by second derivative test.
2
1
Let ( x) nxenx '( x) e nx (2n2 x 2 n) , which on equating to zero, gives x
2 2
2n
''( x) 2n2 xe nx (2nx 2 3)
2
Now,
310
1 1
We observe that on x , ''( x) < 0 and on x , ''( x) 0 .
2n 2n
1 n
Thus ( x) has a maximum value at x and the maximum value is .
2n 2e
n
Thus M n as n . Hence, by Mn-Test, the sequence f n is not uniformly
2e
convergent on [0, k].
Exercise 8.1
Test the pointwise convergence / uniform convergence of the following sequences :
1. f n ( x) x n on [0, k] , k < 1 2. f n ( x) x n on [0,1]
3. f n ( x) nx(1 x 2 )n on [0,1] 4. f n ( x) n2 x(1 x 2 )n on [0,1]
1 x
5. f n ( x) on [0,b] , b > 0 6. f n ( x) on [0,k] , k > 0
xn n x
1 x
7. f n ( x) on [0,) 8. f n ( x) on
n x 1 nx 2
x2 x2
9. f n ( x) on 10. f n ( x) on [0,)
(1 x 2 )n (1 x 2 )n
n2 x nx
11. f n ( x) on [0,1] 12. f n ( x) on
1 n3 x 2 1 n2 x 2
nx nx
13. f n ( x) on [0,1] 14. f n ( x) on [0,1]
1 n2 x 2 1 n3 x 2
x 2 nx 2
15. f n ( x) on [0,1] 16. f n ( x) on [0,1]
1 n2 x 2 nx
1
xn
17. f n ( x) x on [0,1] 18. f n ( x) x on [0, 1]
n
n
1
n x
2
if 0 x
n
1 2
19. f n ( x) 2 x on [1, 2] 20. f n ( x) n 2 x 2n if x
n
n n
2
0 if x 1
n
1
1 1 nx for x 0,
n(1 nx) if 0 x n
21. f n ( x) n 22. f n ( x)
0 1
0 if otherwise for x ,1
n
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23. f n x e nx on 0,b 24. f n x e nx on a, b
sin nx
25. f n x nxe nx on 0, k , k 0 26. f n x on 0, 2
2
n
1
sin nx
27. f n x on 28. f n x sin x n on 0,
n
1
sin x n
29. f n x on 0, 30. f n x tan 1 nx on 0,
x
Answers
1. pointwise and uniform convergent 2. pointwise but not uniform convergent
3. pointwise but not uniform convergent 4. pointwise but not uniform convergent
5. pointwise and uniform convergent 6. pointwise and uniform convergent
7. pointwise and uniform convergent 8. pointwise and uniform convergent
9. pointwise but not uniform convergent 10. pointwise but not uniform convergent
11. pointwise but not uniform convergent 12. pointwise but not uniform convergent
13. pointwise but not uniform convergent 14. pointwise and uniform convergent
15. pointwise and uniform convergent 16. pointwise but not uniform convergent
17. pointwise but not uniform convergent 18. pointwise but not uniform convergent
19. pointwise but not uniform convergent 20. pointwise but not uniform convergent
21. pointwise but not uniform convergent 22. pointwise but not uniform convergent
23. pointwise but not uniform convergent 24. pointwise and uniform convergent
25. pointwise but not uniform convergent 26. pointwise and uniform convergent
27. pointwise and uniform convergent 28. pointwise but not uniform convergent
29. pointwise but not uniform convergent 30. pointwise but not uniform convergent
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8.2 Series of functions
Definition : A series of functions f n is said to converge uniformly (pointwise) on [a, b] if the
n
sequence Sn of its partial sums, defined by Sn x fi ( x) , converges uniformly (pointwise) on
i 1
[a, b].
312
Def. Pointwise convergent series : A series of functions f n defined on [a , b] is said to be
pointwise convergent to f , if for each ε > 0 and for each x a, b , there exists a positive integer
„N‟ such that f1 ( x) f 2 ( x) ...... f n ( x) f ( x) < ε for all n N.
Def. Uniformly convergent series : A series of functions f n defined on [a , b] is said to be
uniformly convergent to f , if for each 0 , there exists a positive integer „N‟ such that
f1 ( x) f 2 ( x) ..... f n ( x) f ( x) for all n N and for all x a, b
Theorem 1 : Cauchy’s criterion for uniform convergence on series : A series of functions
f n defined on [a, b] converges uniformly on [a, b] iff for every ε > 0 and for all x a, b , there
exists a positive integer „N‟ such that
f n1 ( x) f n2 ( x) ....... f n p ( x) < ε for all n N , p 1.
n
Proof : Let S n ( x) = f ( x)
i 1
i = f1 ( x) f 2 ( x) ...... f n ( x) ,
so that Sn is the sequence of partial sums of the series f n . Now the series f n is uniformly
convergent iff the sequence Sn is uniformly convergent
i.e. iff given any ε > 0, there exists a positive integer N such that
Sn p ( x) Sn ( x) < ε (By Cauchy‟s criterion of uniform convergence of sequence,)
n p n
i.e. iff fi ( x) fi ( x) for all n N , p 1
i 1 i 1
i.e. iff f n1 ( x) f n2 ( x) ...... f n p ( x) for all n N , p 1.
Example 1. Discuss the series
nx n 1 x
1 n x 2 2
for uniform convergence.
1 (n 1) x 2 2
n1
Solution : Here, we have
x
f1 ( x) = 0
1 x2
2x x
f 2 ( x) =
1 2 x 1 x2
2 2
……………………………..
nx (n 1) x
f n ( x) =
1 n x 1 (n 1)2 x 2
2 2
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nx
Adding these we obtain Sn x
1 n2 x 2
nx x/n
We have : f x lim Sn ( x) = lim lim 0 for all real x .
n n 1 n x
2 2 n 1/ n 2 x 2
Thus the sequence Sn converges pointwise to the function f identically zero.
nx
Now, M n = sup Sn ( x) f ( x) sup
x a ,b x a ,b 1 n2 x 2
nx
Let us find the maximum value of by second derivative test.
1 n 2 x 2
nx n(1 n 2 x 2 ) 1
Let ( x) = '( x) = , which on equating to zero, gives x
1 n 2 x 2 (1 n x )
2 2 2
n
2n3 x(1 n 2 x 2 )2 4n3 x 2 (1 n 4 x 4 )
Now, ''( x) =
(1 n 2 x 2 )4
1 1
We observe that on x , ''( x) < 0 and on x , ''( x) > 0 .
n n
1 1
Thus ( x) has a maximum value at x and the maximum value is .
n 2
1 1 1
So we get M n at x . Now, lim M n 0 . Hence by Mn -Test, the sequence Sn is
2 n n 2
1 1
not uniformly convergent in any interval containing for all n. But 0 as n , so the
n n
sequence Sn is not uniformly convergent in any interval containing 0.
Theorem 2 : Weierstrass’s M – test : A series of functions f n will converge uniformly (and
absolutely) on [a, b] if there exists a convergent series M n of positive numbers such that for all
x a, b , f n ( x) M n for all n .
Proof : Let ε > 0 be given. If M n is convergent, then there exists a positive integer „ m ‟ such that
M n1 M n2 ...... M n p for all n m and p 1
Therefore, for all x a, b
f n1 ( x) f n2 ( x) ..... f n p ( x) f n1 ( x) f n2 ( x) ...... f n p ( x)
M n1 M n2 ....... M n p
314
< ε for all n m , p 1 and x a, b
By Cauchy‟s criterion of uniform convergence f n is uniformly convergent on [a, b].
Also since f n1 ( x) f n2 ( x) ....... f n p ( x) < ε for all n m , p 1 and x a, b
so the series is also absolutely convergent on [a, b].
Remark : The converse of the above theorem is not true i.e. non-convergence of M n does not
imply anything as far as f n is concerned.
x
Example 2. Show that the series n p
x 2n q
converges uniformly over any finite interval [a, b]
for p > 1 , q 0 .
and let be a number such that max a , b , then
x
Solution : Let f n x
n x 2n q
p
x
f n ( x) = [Since n p x2nq n p ]
n x 2nq
p
np
Now the series n p
converges for p > 1. Hence by M-test , the given series converges uniformly
over the interval [a, b].
Theorem 3. Abel’s Test : If bn ( x) is a positive monotonic decreasing function of n for each fixed
value of x in the interval [a, b] and bn ( x) is bounded for all values of n and x concerned and if the
series un ( x) is uniformly convergent on [a, b], then the series bn ( x) un ( x) is also uniformly
convergent.
Corollory : If an x n is a series which converges for all values of x , where x < R, then
n 1
a x
n 1
n
n
is uniformly convergent in [0, R] if and only if a R
n 1
n
n
is convergent.
Proof : Let a R
n 1
n
n
be convergent, so that being a series of real numbers, it is uniformly convergent
n
x
in [0, R]. Now, since
n 1
an R n is uniformly convergent and is a positive monotonic decreasing
R
n
x
bounded function for each value of x in 0, R . Hence by Abel‟s test, the series an R n
R
a x n
n
is uniformly convergent on 0, R .
n 1
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Conversely, if the series a x n
n
is uniformly convergent in 0, R , it is obviously convergent at x R .
n 1
Theorem 4. Dirichlet’s Test : If bn ( x) is a monotonic function of n for each fixed value of x in
the interval [a, b] and bn ( x) tends uniformly to zero on [a, b] and if there is a number K 0 such that
n
u ( x)r K for all n and for all x a, b , then the series bn ( x) un ( x) is also uniformly
r 1
convergent on [a, b].
or
If bn ( x) is a monotonic function of n for each fixed value of x in the interval [a, b] and bn ( x) tends
uniformly to zero on [a, b] and if the series u ( x) either converges uniformly or oscillates finitely
n
then the series bn ( x) un ( x) is also uniformly convergent on [a, b] .
x2 n
Example 3 : Prove that the series (1)n n2
converges uniformly in every bounded interval.
Solution : Let the bounded interval be [a, b], so that there exists a number K such that for all
x a, b , we have, x < K
x2 n K2 n
Let us take un (1)n , which oscillates finitely and bn = n2
<
n2
Clearly bn is a positive monotonic decreasing function of n for all x a, b and tends to zero
x2 n
uniformly for a x b . Hence by Dirichlet‟s test, the series (1) n
converges uniformly
n2
on [a, b].
Theorem 6 : Uniform convergence and continuity : If a series of continuous functions f
n 1
n is
uniformly convergent to a function „ f ‟ , then the sum function f is also continuous on [a, b].
Theorem 7 : Dini’s theorem on uniform convergence of series :
If the sum function of a series f n with non negative continuous terms defined on [a, b] is
continuous on [a, b], then the series is uniformly convergent on [a, b].
x4 x4 x4
Example 4 : Show that the series x 4 ....... is not uniformly
1 x 4 (1 x 4 )2 (1 x 4 )3
convergent on [0,1].
316
Solution : The terms of the given series are quotients of two polynomials and hence continuous.
(since the polynomials are always continuous and quotient of two continuous functions is continuous).
Now let us find the sum function of the given series.
Clearly, f ( x) = 0 for x = 0, where f ( x) denotes the sum function of the given series.
1 1
If x 0, then the given series is a geometric series with common ratio 4
and < 1 for all
1 x 1 x 4
x4
x (0,1]. Hence the sum function is given by f ( x) = = 1 x 4
1
1
1 x4
1 x 4 x0
Thus we have f ( x) = which is discontinuous on „0‟ and hence on [0,1]. So the
0 x0
series can not converge uniformly on [0,1].
x
Example 5 : Show that the series (nx 1) (n 1) x 1 is uniformly convergent on any interval
[a, b] , 0 < a < b, but only pointwise on [0, b].
x
Solution : Let f n ( x) =
(nx 1) (n 1) x 1
1 1
= (Making partial fractions)
(n 1) x 1 nx 1
n
Thus, nth partial sum, Sn ( x) = f ( x)
r 1
r
= f1 ( x) f 2 ( x) ....... f n ( x)
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1 ....... 1
x 1 x 1 2x 1 (n 1) x 1 nx 1 nx 1
1 1 x 0
Thus the sum function, f x lim Sn ( x) lim 1
n n nx 1
0 x 0
Clearly, f is discontinuous on x 0 and hence discontinuous on 0,b . This implies that the
convergence is not uniform on [0,b] i.e. it is only pointwise.
Now take the interval [a, b] such that 0 < a < b, then to see wheather the sequence is
uniformly convergent , let ε > 0 be given such that
1 11
S n ( x) f ( x) = <ε i.e. if n > 1
nx 1 x
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11 11
Now 1 decreases with x having its maximum value 1 = m0 , say. If we take m > m0 ,
x a
then for all x a, b , Sn ( x) f ( x) < ε for all n m .
Hence the series converges uniformly on [a, b] , 0 < a < b.
Theorem 8 : Uniform Convergence and Integration : If a series f
n 1
n converges uniformly
x
to f on [a,b] and each term f n is integrable , then f is integrable on [a,b] and the series f t dt
n 1 a
n
x x x
converges uniformly to f t dt
a
on [a,b] i.e. f t dt = ( f t dt )
a n 1 a
n
for all x [a,b] i.e. the series is term by term integrable.
Remark : Uniform convergence of the sequence (or series) is sufficient but not a necessary
condition for the limit function (or sum function ) to be integrable i.e. a sequence (or series) of
integrable functions may converge to an integrable limit without being uniformly convergent.
However, we can say that if a sequence f n defined on [a , b] of integrable functions converges
x x
to f and (i) either f is non-integrable, or (ii) f
a
dt lim f n dt , then convergence can not be
n
a
uniform.
nx (n 1) x
Example 6 : Show that the series 1 n x 2 2
1 (n 1)2 x 2
can be integrated term by term
n=1
on [0 , 1], although it is not uniformly convergent on [0 ,1].
or
Give an example to show that uniform convergence of a series of functions is not a necessary
condition for applicability of term by term integration.
Solution : It can be proved that this series is only pointwise convergent on the [0 , 1] to the function
nx
f x 0 , but not uniformly convergent. Also, partial sum is given by Sn ( x)
1 n2 x 2
f ( x) lim Sn ( x) = 0 for all x 0,1
n
x 0 is a point of non-uniform convergence of the series.
1 1
Now,
0
f ( x) dx 0 dx 0
0
318
1 1 1
2n 2 x
log 1 n2 x 2 = log(1 n2 )
nx 1 1 1
Sn x dx
1
and
0
0 1 n2 x2 dx
2n 0 1 n x
2 2
dx
2n 0 2n
2n
log(1 n2 )
lim 1 n = lim
1 2 n
lim Sn ( x)dx lim 0
n 0 n 2n n 2 n 1 n 2
f ( x) dx= lim Sn ( x) dx, the series is integrable term by term on [0 , 1].
1 1
Since, 0 0 n
xn
1
0
1
Example 7 : Prove that 2
dx
n1 n (n 1)
2
n1 n
xn xn 1
Solution : Let f n ( x) f n ( x) 2
2 M n , say, for 0 x 1
n2 n n
1 xn
Since,
n 1
M n= 2 is convergent, therefore, by Weierstrass‟s M-test, the series
n 1n
fn ( x)=n 1 n2
n 1
is uniformly convergent for 0 x 1. Therefore the series can be integrated term by term.
1
xn 1
xn
x n1
1
0
1
2
n1 n
dx
n1 0 n
2
dx=
n1 n (n 1) 0
2
=
n1 n (n 1)
2
Exercise 8.2
1. Prove that the following series are uniformly convergent in 1,1 .
xn xn x2n
(i) n2 (ii) n n 1 (iii) n2 x2n
2. Let , 0 1 then prove that the following series is uniformly convergent in , .
xn
(i) xn (ii) n 1 xn (iii) n 1 (iv) n x 3 n
1
3. Show that n x
converges uniformly for all real x 1 .
x
4. Show that the series n 1 nx converges uniformly for all real x .
n 1
2
5. Show that the following series is uniformly convergent in k , k for all x
1 1
(i) n 4
n2 x 2
(ii) n 2
n4 x 2
sin nx cos nx
6. (i) Prove that each of the series n
,
n
converges uniformly with respect to x in
, 2 , where is any fixed positive number less than .
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sin nx cos nx
(ii) Prove that the series 2
, 2 is uniformly convergent in 0, 2 .
n n
x2
7. Show that the series does not converge uniformly for x 0 .
n 1 1 x 2 n
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8.3 Power series
Def. Power series : An infinite series of the form ,
a0 a1x a2 x 2 a3 x3 ...... an x n ...... an x n
n 0
is called power series in x and numbers an ‟s are called coefficients .
Convergence of a power series : It is clear that for x 0 , every power series is convergent ,
independent of the values of the coefficients . Now we give three possible cases about the convergence
of a power series.
(i) The series converges for no values of x other than x 0 (which is trivial point of convergence ) ,
then it is called “nowhere convergent”. For example , the series n x
n 1
n n
converges for no values of
x other than x 0 and hence is a nowwhere convergent series.
(ii) The series converges for all values of x , then it is called “everywhere convergent” . For example ,
xn xn
1
n
the series and are everywhere convergent.
n 1 n ! n1 n!
(iii) The series converges for some values of x and diverges for others .For example the series
xn
n converges for x 1 and diverges for x > 1. The collection of points x for which the
n 1 n 1
series is convergent is called its “region of convergence” .
Def. Radius of convergence : For every power series a x
n 0
n
n
, (except those which are everywhere
convergent or nowhere convergent) , there exists a finite positive number R , such that the series
converges for every x R and diverges for every x R . This number R is called radius of
convergence of given power series.
320
Def. Interval of convergence : Let R be the radius of convergence of a power series a x
n 0
n
n
. Then
the open interval (– R, R) is called the interval of convergence of the given power series .
1
1
Results : 1. Let a x
n 0
n
n
be a power series such that lim an n
n R
, then the power series is convergent
with radius of convergence R .
2. Consider the power series a x
n 0
n
n
, then the radius of convergence of this series is given by
1 1
1
if lim an n 0
n
nlim an n
1
R if lim an n 0
n
1
0 if lim an n
n
3. If a power series a x
n 1
n
n
converges for x x0 , then it is absolutely convergent for every x x1 ,
when x1 x0
4. If a power series a x
n 1
n
n
diverges for x x0 , then it diverges for every x x1 , where x1 x0
an
5. For the power series a x
n 1
n
n
,the radius of convergence is also defined by, R lim
n an1
,
provided the limit exists.
Def. Sum function : Let f x be a function which can be expressed in terms of the power series, as
f x an x n , then f x is called sum function of the power series .
n 0
6. Let a x
n 0
n
n
be a power series which converges for x < R and let f x be the sum function i.e.
f x an x n then
n 0
(i) a x
n 0
n
n
converges uniformly on [–R+ ,R– ] for arbitrary >0.
(ii) The function f is continuous and differentiable on (–R, R) and
(iii) f '( x) nan x n1 , x < R
n 0
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7. Let a x
n 0
n
n
be a power series which converges for x < R and let f x be the sum function i.e.
f x an x n , then f has derivatives of all orders in (–R, R) which are given by
n 0
f m ( x) = n n 1................... n m 1 a x
nm
n
nm
and
f m (0) = m!am ,(m=0 ,1 ,2 ,3 ……) where f m denotes the mth derivative of f .
8. Abel’s Theorem : If a power series a x
n 0
n
n
converges at the end point R of the interval of
convergence (–R, R) , then it is uniformly convergent in the interval [0, R] .
Exercise 8.3
1. Determine the radius of convergence and the exact interval of convergence of each of the
following power series :
n 1 x n nx n 2n x n
(i) n 2 n 3 (ii) n 1 2
(iii) n!
n! x 2 n 1 x 2 n
2 n
(iv) 2n ! (v) n!2 22n (vi) 3 n
x3n
x 1 1 n! x 2
n n1 n
x 1 (ix)
n
(vii) (viii)
2n n nn
x 2
n
1 2 3....n x 2 n1
1 3 5.... 2n 1 x2n 1
n
(x) (xi) (xii)
n2 log n 2n 1!
a b a a 1 b b 1 2
2. Prove that the power series 1 x x ...., has unit radius of convergence.
1 c 1 2c c 1
3. If the power series a x n
n
has radius of convergence R, then prove that for any positive integer k,
1
a x n
kn
has radius of convergence R . k
Answer
1. (i) R 1, [1,1 ) (ii) R 1, [1,1 ) (iii) R ,
322
1
(iv) R 2, ( 2,2 ) (v) R , (vi) R 33 , ( R, R )
(vii) R 2, (1,3) (viii) R 1, (0,2) (ix) R e, (2 e, 2 e )
(x) R 1, [3, 1) (xi) R 2, ( R, R ) (xii) R 1, 1,1
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True false exercise sin nx
3. f n ( x) , n 1, 2,3,... and x 1,1
n
1. If f n uniformly converges to f and g n
then as n
uniformly converges to g, then f n g n
uniformly converges to f g . 1. f n ( x)n 1 does not converge
2. If a sequence f n converges uniformly to uniformly in 1,1
f on [0, ) and each f n is integrable, then 1
2. lim f n ( x)dx 0
lim
n
f n (t ) dt f (t ) dt . n
1
0 0
3. f n ( x)n 1 converge uniformly in
Assignment 1,1
---------------------- S C Q --------------------- 4. f n ( x), n 1,2 is not uniformly
1. The sequence of real-valued function continuous in 1,1
f n ( x) x n , x [0,1] {2} is 4. If f n ( x) tan 1 nx then
1. point-wise convergent
1. f n ( x) is uniformly convergent in
2. uniformly convergent
3. does not uniformly convergent 0, b, b
2
0, x 0
4. point-wise limit is f ( x) 2. f n ( x) is point wise convergent in
1, x 0
2. Which of the following need not to be hold 0, b, b
2
always :
3. f n ( x) is uniformly convergent
1. f is uniformly continuous on a bounded
4. None of these
interval I then f is bounded on I
k
x sin x
2. f is continuous and bounded on , 5. The series on the interval
k 1 1 x
then f is uniformly continuous on
3. If f n ( x) and gn ( x) converge [0, 1]
1. converges point-wise but not uniformly
uniformly on I. Then f n ( x) gn ( x)
2. doesn’t converge point wise
is uniformly convergent.
3. converges uniformly
4. None of these
4. converge point-wise to discontinuous
function
324
6. Let f n , gn :[0,1] be defined convergent
(GATE 2004)
f n ( x) x 2 (1 x 2 )n1 and gn ( x) 1 for
8. Which one of the following statements
0 x 1 . Then, on [0, 1]
holds?
1. fn ( x) converges uniformly but not 1. The series
xn converges for each
n 1
n0
g n ( x) x 1,1
n 1
2. The series xn converges uniformly
2. gn ( x) converges uniformly but not n0
n 1
in 1,1
f n ( x)
xn
n 1 3. The series n converges for each
n0
3. both f n ( x) and gn ( x) converge x 1,1
n 1 n 1
xn
4. The series
uniformly
converges uniformly
n0 n
4. neither f n ( x) nor g n ( x)
n 1 n 1 in 1,1
converges uniformly (GATE 2008)
7. Consider two sequences { f n } and {g n } of 1
9. Let f n ( x) and
functions where f n :0,1 and
(n 1) x 1nx 1
n
gn : are defined by f n ( x) x n and sn ( x) fi ( x) for x 0,1 .
i 1
cos x n , if x n 1, n 1 The sequence sn
g n ( x) 2 .
0, otherwise 1. converges uniformly on [0, 1]
Then, 2. converges pointwise on [0, 1] but not
1. neither { f n } nor {g n } is uniformly uniformly
convergent 3. converges pointwise for x 0 but not
2. { f n } is not uniformly convergent but for x (0,1]
{g n } is 4. does not converge for x (0,1]
(GATE 2011)
3. {g n } is not uniformly convergent but
xn xn
{ f n } is 10. Let f n ( x) and g n ( x) for
1 x 1 nx
4. Both { f n } and {g n } are uniformly
x 0,1 and n . Then, on the interval
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0,1 13. Let f n :1,2 0,1 be given by
f n x 2 x for all non negative
n
1. both { f n } and {g n } converge
integers n. Let f x lim f n x , 1 x 2 .
uniformly
n
2. neither { f n } nor g n converges
Then which of the following is true ?
uniformly
1. f is a continuous function on [1, 2].
3. { f n } converges uniformly but {g n }
2. f n converges uniformly to f on [1, 2] as
does not converge uniformly
n .
4. {g n } converges uniformly but { f n }
2 2
does not converge uniformly 3. limn f n x dx f x dx .
1 1
(GATE 2010)
4. for any a 1, 2 we have
1
11. Let f n x x for x 0,1 . Then
n
lim f n(a) f (a) .
n
1. lim f n x exists for all x 0,1
n (CSIR NET Dec 2013)
2. lim f n x defines a continuous 14. Let bn and cn be sequences of real
n
function on [0,1] numbers. Then a necessary and sufficient
3. f n converges uniformly on [0, 1] condition for the sequence of polynomials
f n x bn x cn x 2 to converge uniformly to
4. lim f n x = 0 for all x 0,1
n
0 on the real line is
(CSIR NET June 2011)
1. limn bn 0 and limn cn 0
1 nx for x 0,1/ n
12. Let f n x
for x 1/ n,1
. Then 2. b and cn
0 n 1 n n 1
1. lim f n x defines a continuous
3. There exists a positive integer N s.t.
n
bn 0 and cn 0 for all n N
function on [0, 1].
4. limn cn 0
2. f n converges uniformly on [0, 1].
(CSIR-NET Dec 2014)
3. lim f n x = 0 for all x 0,1 .
n 15. Which one of the following statements is
true for the sequence of functions
4. lim f n x exists for all x 0,1 . 1
n
f n ( x) 2 , n 1, 2,...., x [1/ 2,1]?
n x2
(CSIR NET June 2012) 1. The sequence is monotonic and has 0 as
the limit for all x [1/ 2,1] as n .
326
2. The sequence is not monotonic but has 1. Point-wise limit of f n ( x) is f ( x) 0
1
f ( x) 2 as the limit as n . 2. Point-wise limit of f n ( x) is
x
3. The sequence is monotonic and has
1, x 1,0
1 f ( x)
f ( x) 2 as the limit as n . x, 0 x 1
x
4. The sequence is not monotonic but has 3. f n ( x) is point-wise convergent
0 as the limit.
(CSIR NET June 2016) 4. f n ( x) is not uniformly convergent
16. For n 1, let f n x xenx , x . Then
2
x2n
2. Let f n ( x) , x [1,1] be a
the sequence f n is n2 x 2n
1. uniformly convergent on sequence of real-valued function, then
2. uniformly convergent only on compact
subsets of 1. Point-wise limit of f n ( x) is f ( x) 0
3. bounded and not uniformly convergent 2. Uniform limit of f n ( x) is f ( x) 0
on
4. a sequence of unbounded functions 3. f n ( x) does not converge point-wise
(CSIR NET June 2017)
17. Consider the power series 4. f n ( x) converge point-wise and point-
f ( x) log n xn . The radius of 1, x 1, 1
wise limit is f ( x)
n 2
0, 1 x 1
convergence of the series f x is
x
1. 0 2. 1 3. Let f n ( x) , x [0,1] be a
3. 3 4. 1 n2 x 2
(CSIR NET June 2017) sequence of real-valued function. Then,
nx 1. f n ( x) is uniformly convergent
18. Let g n x , x [0, ) . Which of
1 n2 x 2 2. f n' ( x) is uniformly convergent
the following is true as n ?
3. uniform limit of f n' ( x) is f ( x) 0
1. g n 0 pointwise but not uniformly
4. uniform limit of f n ( x) is f ( x) 0, x
2. g n 0 uniformly
4. Let f n ( x) nxe nx , x [0,1] be a sequence
2
3. gn x x x [0, )
of real-valued function. Then,
x
4. g n x x [0, ) 1. f n ( x) is not uniformly convergent
1 x2
(CSIR NET June 2019) 2. f n' ( x) is not uniformly convergent
x
----------------------- M C Q ------------------------
3. f ( x) dx is not uniformly convergent
0
n
2 nx 2
4. f ( x) dx is point-wise convergent
n
1. f n ( x) , x [0,1] be a sequence of 0
2 nx
real-valued function, then
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5. Let f n ( x) e nx be a sequence of real- b
f x dx 0
n
valued function. Then, a
1. f n ( x) is point-wise convergent in (CSIR NET June 2011)
[0, k ], k 0 9. Let f n be a sequence of continuous real
2. f n ( x) is uniformly convergent in valued functions defined on 0, .
[0, k ], k 0 Suppose f n x f x for all x 0,
3. f n ( x) is uniformly convergent in and that f is integrable. Then
[a, b], a 0, b 0 .
1. f x dx f x dx as n .
n
4. f n ( x) is not uniformly convergent in 0 0
[a, b], a 0, b 0 2. if f n f uniformly on 0, , then
1 1
(1) n x 2 n
6. The series p is f n x dx f x dx
n (1 x 2 n ) 0 0
1. converges uniformly, x , p 1 3. If f n f uniformly on 0, ,
2. converges uniformly, x , p 1
then f n x dx f x dx
3. converges absolutely, x , p 1 0 0
4. converge absolutely, x , p 1 1
4. if f x f x dx 0, then fn f
f n be a sequence of integrable
n
8. Let 0
functions defined on an interval a, b . uniformly on [0 ,1]
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
Then
b
10. Let f n be a sequence of continuous
1. If f n x 0 a.e., then f x dx 0
n
a functions on .
b
2. If f x dx 0 , then f x 0 a.e.,
a
n n 1. If f n converges to f pointwise on ,
3. If f n x 0 a.e. and each f n is a
then limn f x dx f x dx .
n
bounded function, then
b
2. If f n converges to f uniformly on
f n x dx 0
a
4. If f n x 0 a.e. and the f n ' s are then limn f x dx f x dx .
n
uniformly bounded, then
328
f n converges to f uniformly on ,
3. If
0, , then lim f n x dx f x dx
n
0 0
then f is continuous on .
3. If f n converges to f uniformly on
4. There exists a sequence of continuous 0, , then f is continuous on 0,
functions f n on , s.t. f n 4. There exists a sequence of continuous
functions f n on 0, such that
converges to f uniformly on , but
f n converges to f uniformly on
limn f n x dx f x dx
0, but lim f n x dx f x dx
n
(CSIR NET June 2014) 0 0
11. For n 1, let (CSIR NET Dec 2015)
1
g n x sin 2 x , x 0, and 13. Find out which of the following series
n converge uniformly for x ( , ).
n x
e
x
f n x g n t dt . Then 1.
n 1 n3
0
sin( xn)
1. f n converges pointwise to a function f 2. n5
n 1
on 0, , but does not converge n
x
3. n
uniformly on 0, . n 1
1
2. f n does not converge pointwise to 4.
n 1 ( x )n 2
any function on 0, (CSIR NET Dec 2016)
14. Let f n ( x) ( x) , x [0,1] . Then decide
n
3. f n converges uniformly on 0,1
which of the following are true.
4. f n converges uniformly on 0, 1. there exists a pointwise convergent
subsequence of f n .
(CSIR NET June 2015) 2. f n has no pointwise convergent
12. Consider all sequences f n of real valued subsequence.
3. f n converges pointwise everywhere.
continuous functions on 0, . Identify 4. f n has exactly one pointwise
which of the following statements are convergent subsequence.
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
correct.
15. Let f ( x) tan 1 x, x . Then
1. If f n converges to f pointwise on
1. there exists a polynomial p x
0, , then lim f n x dx f x dx satisfying p x f ' x 1, for all x
n
2. f 0 0 for all positive even
0 0 n
2. If f n converges to f uniformly on integers n
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n
3. the sequence f 0 is unbounded x
3. sin for x ,
2
4. f 0 0 for all n
n
(CSIR NET June 2017) 4. 1 x 2 for x 1,1
1
16. Let f n x for n , x . (CSIR NET June 2018)
1 n2 x 2
Which of the following are true ? 19. For n 1, consider the sequence of
1. f n converges pointwise on 0,1 to a 1 x
functions f n x , gn x
continuous function 2nx 1 2nx 1
2. f n converges uniformly on 0,1
on the open interval 0,1 . Consider the
1
3. f n converges uniformly on ,1
2 statements :
1
(I) The sequence f n converges
4. lim n n 1
n
(CSIR NET June 2017) uniformly on 0,1
17. Let f : be given by (II) The sequence g n converges
uniformly on 0,1
a
f x , a, b , b 0 .
1 bx 2
Then,
Which of the following are true ?
1. (I) is true
1. f is uniformly continuous on compact
2. (I) is false
intervals of for all values of a and b
3. (I) is false and (II) is true
2. f is uniformly continuous on and is
4. Both (I) and (II) are true
bounded for all values of a and b
(CSIR NET Dec 2018)
3. f is uniformly continuous on only if
b0 20. Suppose that f n is a sequence of
4. f is uniformly continuous on and continuous real valued functions on 0,1
unbounded if a 0, b 0 satisfying the following :
(CSIR NET June 2018) (A) x , f n x is a decreasing
18. Which of the following functions are of
sequence
bounded variation ?
(B) the sequence f n converges uniformly
1. x 2 x 1 for x 1,1
to 0.
x
2. tan for x 1,1
n
Let g n x 1 f k x x .
k
2
k 1
Then
330
1. gn is Cauchy with respect to the sup
norm.
2. gn is uniformly convergent
3. gn need not converge pointwise
4. M 0 such that
gn x M , n , x
(CSIR NET Dec 2018)
True false key
1. F 2. F
Assignment key
SCQ
1. 3 2. 2 3. 3 4. 2
5. 1 6. 3 7. 1 8. 1
9. 2 10. 4 11. 1 12. 4
13. 3 14. 3 15. 1 16. 1
17. 2
MCQ
1. 2,3,4 2. 1,2 3. 1,4
4. 1,2,3,4 5. 1,3 6. 1,3
7. 1,2,3 8. 4 9. 2,4
10. 3,4 11. 3,4 12. 3,4
13. 1,2,3 14. 1 15. 1,2,3
16. 3,4 17. 1,2 18. 1,3,4
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Chapter - 9
Riemann integration
9.1 Partitions and Riemann sums
Def. Partition : Let [a, b] be a closed interval. Let x0 , x1, x2 ,......, xn be real numbers such that
a x0 x1 x2 ........ xi 1 xi ........ xn b
Then the set P a x0 , x1, x2 ,......., xi 1 , xi ,........., xn b is called a partition of [a, b]
The partition P consists of (n + 1) points.
x0 , x1 , x1, x2 ,....... xi 1, xi ,........, xn 1, xn
are the subintervals of partition and union of all these sub-intervals is [a, b].
Def. Norm of a partition : Let a, b be a closed interval. Let
P a x0 , x1, x2 ,......., xi 1, xi ,........, xn b be a partition of a, b . Let i xi xi 1 = length of ith
subinterval. The maximum of the lengths of the subintervals 1, 2 ,....., n is known as norm of
partition P. It is denoted by P i.e., P max. i :1 i n
Def. Refinement of a partition : Let P and P* be partitions of a closed interval [a, b] such that
P P * , then P* is called a refinement of P. For example, for the interval [1, 2].
(i) 1, 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 2 is a refinement of 1, 1.5, 2 .
(ii) 1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2 is not a refinement of 1, 1.5, 2 .
(iii) 1, 1.5, 2 is a refinement of 1, 1.5, 2 .
Note that superset is a refinement of subset.
Remark :
(i) It is clear that P1 P2 is a refinement of P1 and P2 both. It is known as the common refinement.
(ii) If P* is a refinement of P, then P* P .
(iii) If P** is a refinement of P* and P* is a refinement of P, then P** is a refinement of P.
Def. Upper and lower Riemann sums : Let f be a bounded real valued function defined on a closed
interval [a, b]. Let P a x0 , x1, x2 ,......, xi 1, xi , ......, xn b be any partition of [a, b].
332
We define mi g.l.b. f x : x xi 1 , xi and M i l.u.b. f x : x xi 1 , xi for i = 1, 2,…, n.
n
Then the sum L f , P mi i m11 m2 2 ....... mn n is called Lower Riemann sum or
i 1
Lower sum of f on [a, b] with respect to the partition P.
n
Similarly the sum U f , P M i i M11 M 2 2 ...... M n n is called upper Riemann sum or
i 1
simply upper sum of f on [a, b] with respect to the partition P.
n
Def. The quantity U f , P L f , P M i mi i is called oscillatory sum of f on [a, b] with
i 1
respect to the partition P. It is denoted by w f , P i.e., w f , P U f , P L f , P
Results :
1. If P is a partition of interval [a, b] and f is a bounded function defined on [a, b] , then
L f , P U f , P .
2. If P is a partition of interval [a, b] and f is a bounded function defined on [a, b], then
mb a L f , P U f , P M b a where m, M are the g.l.b. and l.u.b. of f on [a, b].
3. Let f be a bounded function on interval [a, b] and P, P* be partitions of [a, b] such that P P *
i.e., P* is a refinement of P , then
(i) L f , P L f , P * (ii) U f , P U f , P *
4. Let P* be a refinement of P containing p points more than P and | f x | k for all x a, b , then
(i) L f , P * L f , P 2 pk
(ii) U f , P * U f , P 2 pk where P = .
5. Combining above two results we can state that :
If P* is a refinement of P containing p points more than P and | f x | k for all x a, b , then
(i) L f , P L f , P * L f , P 2 pk
(ii) U f , P U f , P * U f , P 2 pk where P
6. No lower sum can exceed any upper sum i.e., if P1, P2 be any two partitions of [a, b], then
L f , P1 U f , P2 .
7. Let f , g be bounded functions defined on [a, b] and let P be any partition of [a, b], then
(i) L f g , P L f , P L g , P (ii) U f g , P U f , P U g , P
8. If f ( x) g ( x) on a, b and P be any partition of a, b , then
(i) L f , P L g , P (ii) U f , P U g , P
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k , if x
9. If f : a, b is defined as f ( x) 1 , then for all partitions P of a, b
k2 , if x
L f , P min k1, k2 b a and U f , P max k1, k2 b a
Exercise 9.1
1. Compute L f , P and U f , P for the following functions.
1 2
(i) f x x on 0, 1 where P 0, , , 1
3 3
1
(ii) f x on 1, 2 where P 1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2
x
2 5
(iii) f x sin x on 0, where P 0, , , , , ,
6 3 2 3 6
(iv) f x cos x on 0, where P 0, , ,
2 6 3 2
2. In every part of question (1), take any refinement P* of P and verify that L f , P * L f , P and
U f , P * U f , P .
3. Compute L f , P and U f , P for the function
(i) f x x 2 on 0, a , a 0 by dividing the interval into n equal parts.
1 if x is rational
(ii) f x on 1, 1 by dividing the interval into n equal parts.
1 if x is irrational
4. Let f be a non-negative monotonically increasing function on [a, b]. Let P a x0 , x1,..., xn b
be a partition of [a, b] which divides it into n equal parts. Prove that
ba
U f , P L f , P f b f a .
n
5. If P* is a refinement of P having p points more than P and | f x | k for all x a, b , then
prove that
(i) L f , P * L f , P M m p (ii) U f , P U f , P * M m p
where P and M, m are supremum and infimum of f on [a,b]
334
Answers
1 2
1. (i) L f , P U f , P
3 3
1627 1879
(ii) L f , P U f , P
2520 2520
(iii) L f , P 3 1 U f , P 3 3
6 6
(iv) L f , P 3 1 U f , P 3 3
12 12
n 1 2n 1 3 n 1 2n 1 3
3. (i) L f , P a U f , P a
6n 2 6n 2
(ii) L f , P 2 U f , P 2
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.2 Riemann integral
Def. Upper and lower riemann integrals : Let f be a bounded function on [a, b] and let m, M be
infimum and supremum of f on [a, b], then
mb a L f , P U f , P M b a
From here, it follows that L f , P is bounded for every partition P of [a, b] i.e., the set
L f , P : P is a partition of [a, b] of lower sums is bounded above and hence has the supremum.
Similarly, it also follows that the set U f , P : P is a partition of a, b of upper sums is bounded
below and hence has the infimum.
Def. Lower integral :The supremum of the set of the lower sums L f , P is called the lower integral
b
of f over [a, b] and is denoted by a
f x dx
Def. Upper integral : The infimum of the set of the upper sums U f , P is called the upper integral
b
of f over a, b and is denoted by f x dx .
a
b
Thus, f x dx sup L f , P : P is a partition of a, b
a
f x dx Inf U f , P : P is a partition of a, b
a
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Def. Riemann integrability : A bounded function f is said to be Riemann integrable or simply
integrable over a, b if its upper and lower Riemann integrals are equal i.e., if
b b
a
f x dx
a
f x dx . The common value is called the Riemann integral or simply integral of f
b
over a, b and is denoted by f x dx .
a
Def. The notation R a, b : The family of all bounded functions which are Riemann integrable over
a, b is denoted by R a, b . Thus f is Riemann integrable on a, b is equivalent to saying that
f R a, b . Equivalently, f is not Riemann integrable on a, b is similar to saying that f R a, b .
Boundedness and Riemann integrability : The definition of Riemann integrabiltiy is totally based
on the notion of bounds. We can not talk about Riemann integrability of unbounded function. In other
words, we can say that if a function is Riemann integrable, then it is abviously bounded i.e., Riemann
integrability implies boundedness. However, the converse of this is not true, in general i.e., a bounded
function need not be Riemann integrable.
b
Working rule : Let f be a bounded function on [a,b].To evaluate f x dx , we apply the following
a
steps
(i) Take a partition P of a, b dividing into n equal subintervals.
(ii) Consider the ith sub-interval xi 1, xi and find
M i sup of f on xi 1, xi and mi inf of f on xi1, xi
n n
(iii) Now, calculate U f , P M i i and L f , P mi i where i xi xi1 .
i 1 i 1
(iv) Find upper and lower Riemann Integrals using
b b
a
f x dx lim U f , P
n
and
a
f x dx lim L f , P
n
b b b b b
(v) If f x dx f x dx , then f is integrable on a, b and
a a
then
a
f x dx
a
f x dx
a
f x dx
b b
and if f x dx f x dx then we say that f is not Riemann integrable on a, b .
a a
Results :
336
b b
1. Let f be a bounded function on [a, b], then f x dx
a a
f x dx i.e., lower integral can never
exceed upper integral.
2. Let f be a bounded function on [a, b]. If m and M are infimum and supremum of f on [a, b], then
b b
mb a
a
f x dx
a
f x dx M b a .
b b b
Remark : If f x is integrable on [a, b], then
a
f x dx a
f x dx a
f x dx . So, by above
b
property, we get mb a
a
f x dx M b a .
3. Let f be a bounded function on [a, b].
b b b b
(i) If k is a positive constant, then kf
a
dx k f dx
a
and kf
a
dx k
a
f dx .
b b b b
(ii) If k is a negative constant, then
a
kf dx k f dx and
a
a
kf dx k
a
f dx .
4. Darboux’s theorem : Let f be a bounded function on [a, b], then for each > 0, there exists a > 0
b b
such that (i) U f , P
a
f x dx (ii) L f , P a
f x dx
for each partition P of [a, b] with P < .
Exercise 9.2
1 when x is rational
1. Show that the function f x given by f x is not Riemann
1 when x is irrational
integrable on [0, 1].
1
2 when x is rational
2. Show that the function f x given by f x is not Riemann
1 when x is irrational
3
integrable on [0, 1].
1
5 if x Q
3. Show that the function f x given by f x is not Riemann integrable on [0, 2].
1 if x R Q
7
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cos x when x is rational
4. If f is a function defined on 0, by f x then show that
4 sin x when x is irrational
f x is not Riemann Integrable on 0, .
4
x , if x
2
5. If f is a function defined on 0,1 by f ( x) , then show that f ( x) is not Riemann
x 3
, if x
integrable on 0,1 .
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.3 Evaluation of limits
i
1 n
1
Result : Let f be integrable on [0, 1], then f x dx lim
n n
i 1
f .
n
0
n
i1
Remark : This result is used in solving the limits which are in the form lim
n
i 1
f
n n
1 n
i 1
To solve this, replace
n
by x and
n
by dx write in place of lim
n
i 1
. Solve the integration and
0
get the solution.
1 1 1
Example 1 : Show that lim ..... log 2 .
n
n 1 n 2 2n
1 1 1 n
1 n
1 1
Solution : We have, lim ..... lim
n n n
n i lim
n
n 1 n 2 i 1
n
i 1 n 1 i
n
i 1
Put x, dx and changing limit into integration, we have
n n
1 1
n 1
1
1 x dx log1 x log 2
1
lim =
n
i 1 n 1 i 0
0
n
Remark : If the upper limit of summation is 2n, 3n, 4n,..... then the upper limit of integration is
accordingly taken as 2, 3, 4,......
338
1
1 2 4n n
4
5
Example 2 : Prove that lim 1 1 .....1 5 .
n
n n n e
1
1 2 4n n
Solution : Let L lim 1 1 ......1
n
n n n
1 1 2 4n
log L lim log 1 1 ......1
n n n n n
1 1 2 4n
= lim log 1 log 1 ......log 1
n n
n n n
1 4n
i
lim
n n
log 1 n
i 1
i 1
Put x and dx and changing limit into integration, we have :
n n
4 4
1
log L log1 x dx log1 x . x 0 1 x . x dx
4
0 0
[Integrating by parts taking 1 as second function]
1
4
4log5 1 dx 4log5 x log1 x 0
4
0
1 x
55
4log5 4 log5 5log5 4 log55 log e4 log
e4
4
55 55 5
log L log L 5
e4 e
4
e
Exercise 9.3
2 1
1. (i) Evaluate
1
f x dx where f x | x | (ii) Evaluate
2
f x dx where f x | x | .
2. Evaluate the following limits :
n n 1 1 n2 n2 1
(i) lim 2 2 2 ...... (ii) lim ......
n n 1
n 2 2
2n n n
n 13
n 23
8n
1 2 n 1 n3 6 9 3n
(iii) lim sin sin ...... sin (iv) lim e e n
e n
...... e n
n n n n n n n
Answers
5 5 3 2 1 3
1. (i) (ii) 2. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) e 1
2 2 4 8 3
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9.4 Conditions of integrability
Results :
1. A necessary and sufficient condition for bounded function f to be integrable is that for every > 0,
there exists a partition P such that U f , P L f , P .
2. A bounded function f is integrable on [a, b] if and only if there exists a number I such that for each
> 0, there exists a partition P of [a, b] such that
U f , P I and I L f , P
3. A necessary and sufficient condition for integrability of a bounded function f is that for every > 0,
there corresponds a > 0 such that for every partition P with P , U f , P L f , P .
4. A bounded function f is integrable on [a, b] if and only if there exists a number I such that for every
> 0, there exists a >0 such that for each partition P of [a, b] with P .
U f , P I and I L f , P .
5. A continuous function on a closed interval is integrable on that interval
or
Let f : a, b R is continuous on a , b , then f is integrable on a , b .
Remark : The converse of above theorem need not be true i.e., a function may be integrable on a, b
without being continuous on a, b . The next theorem illustrates this fact.
6. Let f be a bounded function on a, b such that the set of points of discontinuity of f on a, b is
finite, then f is integrable on a, b .
7. Let f be a bounded function on a, b such that the set of points of discontinuity of f has a finite
number of limit points, then f is integrable on a, b .
8. Every monotonic function on a closed interval is integrable on that interval.
Remark : The converse of above theorem is not true, in general. There are Riemenn integrable
functions which are not monotonic.
For example, consider the function
340
1
1 if 0 x
2
1
f x 0 if x
2
1
2 if x1
2
This function is not monotonic on [0, 1] but it is integrable on [0, 1] since it has only one point of
1
discontinuity x .
2
Example 1 : Show that the function f defined by
1 1 1
when x n 0, 1, 2,....
f x 2n 2 n 1
2n
0 when x0
is integrable on [0, 1] although it has an infinite number of points of discontinuity. Also evaluate
1
0
f x dx .
Solution : We have
1
1 when x 1
2
1
when
1
x
1
2 22 2
1 1 1
when x 2
22 23 2
f x
1 1 1
when x n
2n 2 n 1 2
0 when x0
1 1 1
Clearly f is bounded on [0, 1]. Also f is continuous on [0, 1] except at the points 0, , , ,.... .
2 22 23
1 1 1
The set of points of discontinuity of f on [0, 1] is 0, , 2 , 3 ,..... which has only one limit point
2 2 2
‘0’. Since the set of points of discontinuity of f on [0, 1] has a finite number of limit points, therefore
f is integrable on [0 , 1].
1 1 1
1 1 2 22 2 1
n
Now, f x dx f x dx f x dx f x dx ...... f x dx
1 1 1 1 1
2n 2 22 23 2n
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1 1 1
1 2 22 2 1
n
1 1 1
1dx dx 2
dx ....... n 1
1 1 2 1 2 1 2
2 22 23 2n
1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
11 2 2 2 3 ...... n 1 n 1 n
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 3 ...... n 1 n
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
n 1
1
2
1 1 1
1 2 2 ...... 2
2 2 2 2
1 n
1
1 22 2 1
1 n
2 1 1 3 4
22
Taking limit as n , we get
1 1
2 1 2
lim
n
f x dx lim
n 3
1 n
4
f x dx
3
1 0
2n
Exercise 9.4
4
1. Show that the greatest integer function f x x is integrable on [0, 4] and x dx 6 .
0
0 if x is an integer
2. Show that the function f defined by f x is integrable on [0, m], m
1 otherwise
being a positive integer.
3. Show that the function f defined on [0, 1] by
1 1 1
, x n 1, 2, 3,.....
f x n n 1 n is integrable on [0, 1]. Also show that
0 , when x 0
1
2
0
f x dx
6
1 .
342
1
n if x n 1, 2, 3,.....
4. Show that the function f defined by f x n is not integrable on 0, 1 .
0 otherwise
1 1 1
when x n 1, 2, 3,....
5. Show that the function f defined by f x a n 1 a n
a n 1
0 x0 where a 2
when
1
a
is integrable on 0, 1 and f x dx .
0
1 a
1 1
6. Show that the function f defined on 0, 1 as f x 2nx if x , n 1, 2, 3,..... is
n 1 n
1
2
integrable on 0, 1 and f x dx .
0
6
7. Give an example of a function which is Riemann integrable but not monotonic.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.5 Properties of Riemann integrable functions
Results :
1. Let f be an integrable function on a, b and k be a real constant, then k f is also integrable and
b b
k f dx k f dx
a a
2. Let f and g be two integrable functions on a, b then f g is integrable on a, b and
b b b
f g dx f dx g dx .
a a a
Remark : (i) The converse of above theorem need not be true. For example, consider the functions :
0 if x is rational 1 if x is rational
f x and g x
1 if x is irrational 0 if x is irrational
Then f g x 1 for all x a, b , so that f +g is integrable on a, b . However f and g are not
integrable on a, b .
b b b
(ii) From this result, it readily follows that f g dx f dx g dx
a a a
(iii) If f and g are integrable on a, b and , are two real numbers, then f g is integrable
b b b
on a, b and f g dx f dx g dx .
a a a
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3. If f and g are integrable functions on a, b , then fg is also integrable on a, b .
Remark : The converse of above theorem need not be true. For example consider the functions.
1 if x is rational 1 if x is rational
f x and g x
1 if x is irrational 1 if x is irrational
then fg x 1 for all x 0, 1 , so f g is integrable on 0, 1 , being a constant function. However f
and g are not integrable on 0, 1 .
1
4. If f is integrable on a, b and there exists k 0 such that | f x | k for all x a, b , then
f
is integrable on a, b .
5. If f and g are integrable on a, b and there exists k 0 such that | g x | k for all a, b then
f
is also integrable on a, b .
g
b
6. If f is integrable on a, b and f x 0 for all x a, b , then f dx 0 .
a
7. Let f and g be bounded and integrable functions on a, b with f x g x for all x a, b ,then
b b
a
f dx g dx .
a
b b
8. If f is integrable on [a , b] , then f is a integrable on [a , b] and f dx f dx .
a a
Remark : The converse of above theorem is not true, in general i.e., if | f | is integrable, then f need not
1 if x is rational
to be integrable, for example, consider the function f x
1 if x is irrational
defined on 0, 1 , then | f | x 1 for all x 0, 1 which is integrable on 0, 1 , being a constant
function. However f x is not integrable on a, b .
9. If a function f is integrable on a, b , then f is also integrable on a, c and c, b where c is a
point of a, b . Conversely, if f is integrable on a, c and c, b , then it is integrable on a, b .
b c b
Also,
a
f dx f dx
a
c
f dx .
344
Def. Primitive of a function : Let f and F be two functions defined on a, b such that F x f x
for all x a, b , then F is called the primitive (or indefinite integral) of f on a, b . For example,
sinx is primitive of cosx on any interval a, b .
10. Fundamental theorem of integral calculus : If f is integrable on a, b and F is the primitive of
b
f on a, b , then f dx F b F a
a
Remark : The above theorem does not state that if f is integrable, then it has a primitive on a, b . It
only sates that if f is integrable and it has a primitive on a, b , then this primitive can be used to
b
evaluate
a
f dx . In fact, neither the existence of primitive of f implies integrability of f nor the
integrability of f implies the existence of its primitive.
Exercise 9.5
1. If f and g are integrable on a, b , then prove that f g is integrable on a, b .
b b b
2. Let f , g be two integrable functions on a, b , then prove that f 2 dx g 2 dx 2 | fg | dx .
a a a
1
3. Evaluate the integral x x dx .
1
1
x2
4. Prove that 1 e dx e .
0
1 1
x dx
3
5. Without evaluating, show that x dx .
0 0
19
sin x
6. Estimate the absolute value of the integral 1 x8 dx .
10
1
1
dx
7. Prove that,
2
0 4 x 2 x3
6
.
12
sin x
8. Estimate the absolute value of the integral 1 x
5
6
dx .
b b
9. If f and g are continuous on a, b , then fg dx f b g b f a g a f g dx .
a a
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3
3
10. Using fundamental theorem, prove that cos x dx 2
.
0
Answers
7
3. 1 6. 10 7 8.
15625
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9.6 Mean value theorems of integral calculus
Theorem 1 : If f is integrable on a, b and m and M are g.l.b. and l.u.b. of f on a, b respectively,
b
then
a
f dx b a where m M .
Theorem 2 : First mean value theorem : Let f be a continuous function on a, b , then there exists
b
c a, b , such that f dx b a f c .
a
Theorem 3 : Generalised mean value theorem : Let f and g be integrable on a, b , and g keeps the
same sign on a, b , then there exists a number between the bounds of f on a, b such that
b b
a
fg dx g dx .
a
Remark : In the above theorem, if f is continuous, then we can say that there exists a ‘c’ a, b ,
b b
such that
a
fg dx f c g dx .
a
x
Theorem 4 (A) : If a function f is integrable on a, b and F x f t dt , a x b , then F is
a
continuous on a, b .
OR
Integral of an integrable function is continuous.
346
x
Theorem 4 (B) : If a function f is continuous on a, b and F x f t dt , then prove that F is
a
differentiable on a, b and F is primitive of f (i.e., F f ).
Theorem 5 : Second mean value theorem : Let f and g be two functions on [a, b such that
(i) f has a derivative which is continuous and never changes sign on a, b .
(ii) g is continuous on a, b then for some c a, b
b c b
a
fg dx f a g dx f b g dx
a c
Exercise 9.6
n 1
1 1 1 1
1. By using the integral of x
dx , prove that
n 1
log 1 .
n n
n
x
2. Prove that x log1 x , x 0.
1 x
sin x
1
1 2
3. Prove that
1 x
0
2
dx
.
1
sin x
4. Estimate the integral, 1 x
0
2
dx .
1
4
1 dx 1
5. Prove that
4
0 1 x2
15
.
3
3 sin x 2
6. Prove that
8
x
dx
6
.
4
2 2
x 2 2
7. Prove that
9
sin x
dx
9
.
6
x
dx sin 1 x 0 x 1
8. Prove that sin 1 x
0 1 x 2 1 x 2 1 x2 0 1
3
9. If f x x 2 x 1 , find such that f x dx 2 f .
2
10. Verify generalised mean value theorem for f x sin x, g x e x , x 0, .
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b
11. Let f is non-negative and continuous on a, b . Prove that f 2 dx f c f d b a for some
a
c, d [a, b] .
Answers
1
sin x 2
4. 0 1 x
0
2
dx
4
sin 1 8. 1
3
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True false exercise 10. If f is continuous and well-defined on
a, such that lim f ( x) 0 , then
x
1. If a function satisfy Lipchitz’s condition of
order 2 on a, b , then it is always
integrable.
f ( x) dx diverges.
a
2. Every bounded function is Riemann 11. If f is continuous and well-defined on
integrable.
a, such that lim f ( x) 0 , then
x
3. The function f is integrable iff f is
integrable. f ( x) dx converges.
a
4. An integrable function on a, b is a
12. If f is continuous and well-defined on
continuous function also.
a, such that f ( x) dx diverges, then
5. If f is a continuous function on a, b such a
b lim f ( x) 0 .
x
that f ( x) dx 0 , then f ( x) 0 x .
a
6. If f is a non-negative continuous function Assignment
b
on a, b such that f ( x) dx 0, then ---------------------- S C Q ---------------------
a 1. Let the function f is defined as follows
f ( x) 0 x a, b . 1 1 1
n , n1 x n , n 0,1, 2,...
f ( x) 2 2 2
7. If f is integrable on a, b and for each
0, else
x 1
x a, b , f (t ) dt is uniformly Then, f ( x) dx is
a 0
continuous on a, b . 1. 1 2. 0
2 3
3. 4.
8. Let f be a continuous function on 0,1 . 3 2
2. Which one of the following is true ?
Then for every partition P of 0,1 , 1. A constant function is Riemann
L f , P U f , P . integrable
2. Constant function is not Riemann
integrable
9. Let f : [0, ) be a continuous function
3. A constant function may or may not be
such that lim f ( x) 0 . Then f has a Riemann integrable
x
maximum value on [0, ) . 4. None of these
350
3. If a function f is continuous on [0, 1], then f ( x) R[0,1]
1
n f ( x) 4. f ( x) R[0,1] as f ( x) is of bounded
lim
n 1 n 2 x 2
dx is variation
0
x , x [0,1)
8. If f ( x)
1.
2
2.
2
f (0) 1 x , x [1, 2]
2 Then
3. f (0) 4. f (0) 1. f ( x) R[0,2] but f ( x) is of bounded
4. Let c is a fixed point in [0, 1]. A function variation
f :[0,1] R is defined by 2. f ( x) is not of bounded variation as it is
discontinuous at x 1
c, if 0 x c
f ( x) . It is given that 3. f ( x) is of bounded variation
2c, if c x 1 4. f ( x) is not of bounded variation as it is
1
7 not monotonic
the Riemann integral f ( x) dx is
16
. 9. Let f : [0,1] R and g : [0,1] R be two
0
functions defined by
Then, the value of c is
1 1
1 1 if x , n N
1. 2. f ( x) n n and
2 3
0 otherwise
1 1
3. 4.
4 5 1
n if x , n N
5. Consider the four statements g ( x) n
(A) Every continuous function over a 0 otherwise
closed interval is integrable
Then
(B) Every continuous function is
1. both f and g are Riemann integrable
differentiable
2. f is Riemann integrable but g is not
(C) Every Riemann integrable function is
3. g is Riemann integrable but f is not
continuous
4. neither f nor g is Riemann integrable
(D) Every differentiable function is
(GATE 2004)
continuous
1. Both (A) and (B) are correct 10. If f :1,2 is a non-negative Riemann-
2. Both (A) and (D) are correct integrable function such that
3. Both (A) and (C) are correct 2
f ( x)
2
4. Both (B) and (D) are correct x dx k f ( x) dx 0 , then k belongs
4 1 1
6. The value of integral log x dx where [ ] to the interval
1 1 1 2
denotes greatest integer 1. 0, 2. ,
3 3 3
1
1. log 4 2. 2 4
2 3. ,1 4. 1,
3. 4 e 4. 4 e 3 3
7. Select the correct statement about (GATE 2010)
1 2k 1
x sin , x 0 11. Define f : 0,1 0,1 by f x k
f ( x) x 2
0 , x0
2k 1 1 2k 1
for x 2k 1 , 2k , k 1.
1. f ( x) R[0,1] but not continuous
2. f ( x) is of bounded variation but
f ( x) R[0,1] Then f is a Riemann integrable function s.t.
3. f ( x) is not of bounded variation but
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1. If U h, P U f , P 1 then
1 1
2 1 2
1. f x dx 2. f x dx
3 2 0 3
U g, P L g, P 1
0
1 1
2
3. f x dx 1
0
4. f x dx 1
3 0
2. If L h, P L f , P 1 then
(CSIR NET Dec 2011) U g, P L g, P 1
12. Let f be continuously differentiable real- 3. If U h, P L f , P 1 then
valued function on a, b s.t. f x K
U g, P L g, P 1
for all x a, b. For a partition 4. If L h, P U f , P 1 then
P a a0 a1 ... an b , let U f , P U g, P L g, P 1
and L f , P denote the upper and lower (CSIR NET June 2013)
Riemann sums of f w.r.t. P. Then
1. L f , P K b a U f , P . ----------------------- M C Q ------------------------
2. U f , P L f , P K b a .
1. If f ( x) be defined on (0, 2) as follows
3. U f , P L f , P K P , where
x x , when x is rational
2
f ( x)
x x , when x is irrational
3
P max ai1 ai is the norm of the
0 i n1
1. the value of upper Riemann integrals in
partition. 8
(0, 2) is
3
4. U f , P L f , P K P b a . 2. the value of upper Riemann integrals in
83
(CSIR NET Dec 2012) (0, 2) is
12
13. Let f, g and h be bounded functions on the 3. the value of lower Riemann integral in
closed interval a, b s.t. (0, 2) is
5
3
f x g x h x for all x a, b . Let 4. the value of lower Riemann integral in
53
P {a a0 a1 a2 ... an b} be a (0, 2) is
12
2. If f ( x) be defined on [ 0, 1] as follows
partition of a, b . We denote by
1, when x is rational
f ( x)
U f , P and L f , P , the upper and lower 1, when x is irrational
Then,
Riemann sums of f w.r.t. the partition P and 1. f is Riemann integrable over [0, 1]
similarly for g and h. Which of the 2. f is not Riemann integrable over [0, 1]
following statements is necessarily true?
352
1 the lower Riemann sum of f with respect to
3. f ( x) dx 1
P. Then
0
1 b
M f , P f x dx b a
4. f ( x) dx 1 1.
a
0
3. If f is a function defined on [0, 1] by
1
sup f x : x a, b
1,if x 2 b
f ( x) 2. m f , P f x dx b a
0,if x 1
a
2
Then
1. the function f is Riemann integrable
inf f x : x a, b
over [0, 1] b
M f , P f x dx b a
2
2. the function f is not Riemann integrable 3.
over [0, 1] a
3. f ( x) is bounded in [0, 1]
sup f x : x a, b
4. f ( x) is not bounded in [0, 1]
0, x irrational b
4. Let f ( x) , then 4. m f , P f x dx b a
2
1, x rational a
b
1. R f ( x) dx b a
inf f x : x a, b
a
b (CSIR NET Dec 2011)
2. R f ( x) dx 0 1
dx
a 7. Let L . Then
b 0
1 x8
3. R f ( x) dx 0
1. L 1 2. L 1
a
b
4. R f ( x) dx a b 3. L . 4. L
4 4
a
(CSIR NET Dec 2013)
5. The function f ( x) x 2 is
1. integrable on [ 0, 1] 8. Let f be a monotonically increasing
2. integrable on [0, 2] function from [0, 1] into [0, 1]. Which of
3. integrable on [0, 5]
4. integrable on [0, 10] the following statements is/are true ?
1. f must be continuous at all but finitely
6. Let f : be a differentiable function
many points in [0, 1]
s.t. f is bounded. Given a closed and
2. f must be continuous at all but
bounded interval a, b , and a partition countably many points in [0, 1]
P a0 a a1 ... an b of a, b , let 3. f must be Riemann integrable
4. f must be Lebesgue integrable
M f , P and m f , P denote,
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
respectively, the upper Riemann sum and
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9. Define f on [0, 1] by 1
12. Given f : , 2 , a strictly increasing
x 2 if x is rational 2
f x 3 . Then
x if x is irrational 1
1. f is not Riemann integrable on [0, 1]. function, we put g x f x f ,
2. f is Riemann integrable and x
x 1, 2 . Consider a partition P of 1, 2
1
1
0 f x dx 4
3. f is Riemann integrable and and let U P, g and L P, g denote the
1
1
0 f x dx 3 upper Riemann sum and lower Riemann
sum of g. Then
1 1
1 1
4. f x dx f x dx , where 1. for suitable f we can have
4 0 3
U P, g L P, g
0
1 1
f x dx and f x dx are the lower
0 0
2. for a suitable f we can have
and upper Riemann integrals of f. U P, g L P, g
(CSIR-NET June 2016)
3. U P, g L P, g for all choices of f
10. Let A ( x) denote the function which is 1 if
x A and 0 otherwise. Consider 4. U P, g L P, g for all choices of f
200
1
f ( x) 6 n ( x), x [0,1] (CSIR-NET Dec 2018)
n 1 n 0, 200
Then f ( x) is
1. Riemann integrable on [0, 1].
2. Lebesgue integrable on [0, 1].
3. is a continuous function on [0, 1].
4. is a monotone function on [0, 1].
(CSIR-NET Dec 2016)
11. Which of the following are true for the
1
function f ( x) sin( x)sin , x (0,1) ?
x
1. lim f ( x) lim f ( x)
x0 x0
2. lim f ( x) lim f ( x)
x0 x0
3. lim f ( x) 1
x0
4. lim f ( x) 0
x0
(CSIR-NET Dec 2016)
354
True false key
1. T 2. F 3. F 4. F
5. F 6. T 7. T 8. F
9. F 10. T 11. F 12. F
Assignment key
SCQ
1. 3 2. 1 3. 2 4. 3
5. 2 6. 3 7. 3 8. 3
9. 2 10. 3 11. 1 12. 4
13. 3
MCQ
1. 2,4 2. 2,3,4 3. 1,3
4.1,2 5. 1,2,3,4 6. 1,3
7. 1,4 8. 2,3,4 9. 1,4
10. 1,2,4 11. 1,4
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Chapter - 10
Functions of several variables
10.1 Limit of real-valued functions of several variables
Def. Euclidean Space : The set of all ordered n-tuples x = x1, x2 ,........, xn of real numbers is
defined as Euclidean space and is denoted by n i.e. n = { x : x = x1, x2 ,........, xn , xi }
The n–tuples x = x1, x2 ,......, xn are called vectors.
Def. Norm in n : Let x = x1, x2 ,.........., xn be a vector in n . Then norm of x is defined as :
1
n 2 2
x1 x2 .......... xn = xi
2 2 2
x =
i 1
Def. Euclidean distance : Let x = x1, x2 ,.........., xn and y = y1, y2 ,........., yn be two vectors in
n . The Euclidean distance between x and y is defined as :
1
n 2 2
d ( x, y) = x y = xi yi
i1
Def. Open sphere : Let x0 n and r 0 be any real number. The open sphere with centre at x0 and
radius r, is denoted by Sr x0 and is defined as
Sr x0 xn : x x0 r
Def. Closed sphere : Let x0 n and r 0 be any real number. The closed sphere with centre at x0
and radius r, is denoted by Sr [ x0 ] and is defined as
Sr x0 xn : x x0 r
Remarks : 1. Open spheres and closed spheres are also known as open balls and closed balls
respectively.
2. Other common notations used for the open sphere Sr x0 are S x0 , r , Br x0 and B x0 , r .
Similarly the closed sphere Sr x0 is also denoted by S x0 , r , Br x0 and B x0 , r .
3. A sphere (open or closed) is always non-empty since it contains its centre at least.
356
Def. Neighbourhood of a point : A set A n is said to be neighbourhood of a point x0 n if
there exists an open sphere Sr ( x0 ) such that x0 Sr ( x0 ) A .
(i) Rectangular Neighbourhood of a point in 2 : A rectangular neighbourhood of a point
(a , b) 2 is defined as a set
S ( x , y) 2 : | x a | 1 ,| y b | 2 Y
where (a , b) is centre of the rectangle whose sides are
(a, b) 22
parallel to the co-ordinate axes and 1 0, 2 0 are real
21
numbers.
O X
Note : For Square neighbourhood we take 1 2 .
(ii) Circular Neighbourhood of a point in 2 :
A circular neighbourhood of a point (a , b) 2 is defined as a set Y
S ( x , y) 2 : | ( x , y) (a , b) | (a, b)
where (a, b) is the centre of the circle and > 0 is radius of the X
O
circle in x y plane.
Def. Open set : A set A n is said to be an open set if it is neighbourhood of each of its points.
Def. Limit of a function of n variables : Let f : S n be a function where S is an open
subset of n . Let c c1, c2 ,....., cn S be any point and L be any real number then we say that the
function f has the limit L at the point c c1, c2 ,....., cn , if for given 0 , there exists a 0 such
that f ( x) L whenever x c
or f ( x1, x2 ,..., xn ) L whenever ( x1 c1)2 ( x2 c2 )2 .... ( xn cn )2 .
We write this fact as lim f ( x) L .
xc
Def. Limit of a function of two variables : A function f ( x , y) is said to approach a limit L as the
point ( x , y) approaches to point (a, b) if for a given positive real number (however small), there
exists a real number > 0, such that for all points (x, y) other than (a, b)
| f ( x , y) L | whenever | x a | and | y b |
(Based on square neighborhood of a point)
or | f ( x , y) L | whenever | ( x , y) (a , b) |
(Based on circular neighborhood of a point)
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Remark : On the real line, there are only two ways to approach towards a point but in n there are
infinitely many ways to approach towards a point. If limit of a function exists at a point then value of
the limit remains same along every path to that point. If we can find two different paths along which
the limit is not same then the limit does not exist.
Result : If limit of a function of n variables exists at a point then it is unique.
2.2. Algebra of Limits :
Theorem : Let f , g : S n be any two functions where S is an open subset of n . Let
c c1, c2 ,....., cn S be any point and L1, L2 be any real numbers such that lim f ( x) L1 and
xc
lim g ( x) L2 then
xc
(i) lim
xc
f ( x) g ( x) L1 L2 (ii) lim
xc
f ( x) g ( x) L1 L2
f ( x) L
(iii) lim
xc
f ( x) g ( x) L1 L2 (iv) lim
xc
1 , provided g x 0, L2 0
g ( x) L2
x3 y 3
( x, y ) (0,0)
Example 1 : Let f : 2 be defined by f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2 .
0 ( x, y ) (0,0)
Show that lim f ( x , y) 0 .
( x , y ) (0,0)
Solution : Let > 0 be any given real number (however small)
Taken x r cos , y r sin x2 y 2 r 2
x3 y 3
Here f ( x, y ) 0 0
x2 y 2
Put x = r cos , y = r sin
r 3 cos3 sin 3
= r cos3 sin 3 r (1 1) 2r
r cos sin
2 2 2
| cos | 1 and | sin | 1
i.e., | f ( x , y ) 0 | 2 x2 y 2 if x2 y 2
2
2
if x2 y 2
4
358
2 2
if | x2 | , | y2 |
8 8
if | x| , | y|
8 8
if
8
Thus, for a given > 0 , there exists a real number 0 , so that
8
| f ( x, y ) 0 | whenever | ( x, y) (0,0)|
Hence lim f ( x , y) 0
( x , y ) (0,0)
x y2
, ( x, y ) (0,0)
Example 2 : Let f : 2 be defined by f ( x, y ) x 2 y 4 .
( x, y ) (0,0)
0 ,
Show that lim f ( x , y) does not exist.
( x , y ) (0,0)
Solution : Let ( x , y) (0,0) along the curve y 2 mx
xy 2 x mx
Now lim f ( x , y) lim lim 2 , putting y2 = mx
( x , y ) (0,0) ( x , y ) (0,0) x y
2 4 x 0 x m x
2 2
mx 2 m
lim 2 =
x 0 x
1 m2 1 m2
which will be different for different values of m. So lim f ( x, y ) does not exist.
( x , y ) (0,0)
1
y sin , x 0
Example 3 : Let f : be defined by f ( x, y )
2
x .
x0
0 ,
Show that lim f ( x , y) 0 .
( x , y ) (0,0)
Solution : Let > 0 be given real number (however small).
To find > 0 such that whenever |x 0| < and |y 0| < , we have | f ( x, y) 0 |
1
or y sin
x
1
or y sin
x
1
or y sin x 1
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So if we take = then f x, y 0 whenever | x 0 | and | y 0 | .
So lim f ( x, y) 0
( x , y ) (0,0)
x2 y 2
, ( x, y ) (0,0)
Example 4 : Let f : 2 be defined by f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2 .
0 , ( x, y ) (0,0)
Prove that lim f ( x, y ) does not exist.
( x , y ) (0,0)
Solution : Let ( x, y) (0,0) along the line y = mx
x2 y 2 x 2 m2 x 2
Now lim f ( x, y) lim = lim , putting y = mx
( x , y ) (0,0) ( x , y ) (0,0) x2 y 2 x 0 x 2 m2 x 2
x 2 1 m2 1 m2
= lim , which depends on m.
x 0 x 2 1 m2 1 m2
So, lim f ( x, y) does not exist.
( x , y ) (0,0)
Exercise 10.1
1
1. Let f : 2 be defined by f ( x , y) x y . Prove that lim f ( x, y )
1 2
( x , y ) 0,
2
1 1
x sin y sin , ( x, y ) (0,0)
2. Let f : , defined by f ( x , y )
2
y x .
(x, y ) (0,0)
0
Prove that lim f ( x, y) 0 .
( x , y ) (0,0)
xy
, ( x, y ) (0,0)
3. Let f : be defined by f ( x , y ) x 2 y 2
2
.
0 , ( x, y ) (0,0)
Prove that lim f ( x, y) does not exist.
( x , y ) (0,0)
4. Let f : 2 be defined by f ( x, y) x 2 y 2 . Prove that lim f ( x, y) 0 .
( x , y ) (0,0)
x y
, ( x, y ) (0,0)
5. Let f : be defined by f ( x, y ) x y
2
.
0 , ( x, y ) (0,0)
360
Show that lim f ( x, y) 0 does not exist.
( x , y ) (0,0)
x2 y
6. Prove that lim does not exist.
( x , y ) (0,0) x4 y 2
x2 y
7. Prove that lim = 0.
( x , y ) (0,0) x2 y 2
xy 3
8. Prove that lim does not exist.
( x , y ) (0,0) x2 y6
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10.2 Continuity of real-valued functions of several variables
Def. Continuous function : Let f : S n be a function where S is an open subset of n .
Let c c1, c2 ,....., cn S be any point then f is said to be continuous at the point c if limit of f at c
is equal to f (c) i.e., lim f ( x) f (c) .
xc
or
Let f : S n be a function where S is an open subset of n . Let c c1, c2 ,....., cn S be
any point then f is said to be continuous at the point c, if for given 0 , there exists a 0 such
that f ( x) f (c) whenever x c
or f ( x1, x2 ,..., xn ) f (c) whenever ( x1 c1)2 ( x2 c2 )2 .... ( xn cn )2 .
Def. A function f(x, y) is said to be continuous at the point (a, b) R 2 if lim f ( x, y) exists
( x, y ) ( a, b)
and equals to value of the function at the point (a, b). i.e., lim f ( x, y) f (a, b)
( x, y ) ( a, b)
or
A function f(x, y) is said to be continuous at a point (a, b) if for given any real number
> 0 (however small), there exists a real number > 0 such that
| f ( x , y ) f (a , b ) | for ( x, y) whenever | ( x, y) (a, b) |
Theorem : Algebra of Continuous Functions : If f ( x, y) and g ( x, y) are continuous function on a
domain D, then
(i) f ( x, y) g ( x, y) is continuous on D
(ii) f ( x, y) g ( x, y) is continuous on D
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(iii) f ( x, y) . g ( x, y) is continuous on D
f ( x, y )
(iv) is continuous on D except for the point in D where g(x, y) = 0
g ( x, y )
xy
; x, y 0,0
Example 1 : Show that the function f : 2 defined by f x, y x 2 y 2
0
; x, y 0,0
is continuous at (0, 0).
Solution : Let > 0 be a given real number (however small)
To find a real number > 0 , so that
f x, y f 0,0 whenever ( x, y) (0,0) <
xy
or 0 whenever x2 y 2
x y
2 2
Putting x = r cos , y = r sin ; we have.
r cos r sin
whenever r 2 cos 2 sin 2 <
r cos sin
2 2 2
or r cos sin whenever |r| <
sin 2
or r whenever |r| <
2
r
or
2
whenever r sin 2 1
We take = 2
Therefore for a given > 0, there exists 2 0 s.t.
f x, y f 0, 0 whenever x, y 0, 0 <
f x, y is continuous at point (0, 0).
1
y sin ; x0
Example 2 : Prove that the function f : defined by f x, y
2
x
0 ; x0
is continuous at origin.
Solution : Let > 0 (however small) be any given real number.
362
To find a real number > 0 so that
f x, y f 0, 0 whenever x, y 0, 0 <
1
or y sin 0 whenever x0 and | y 0 |
x
1
or y sin whenever x and y
x
1
or y whenever x and y sin x 1
We take =
Therefore for a given > 0, there exists = > 0 s.t.
f x, y f 0,0 whenever x, y 0,0 <
f x, y is continuous at (0, 0).
x2 y 2
, x, y 0,0
Example 3 : Show that the function f : 2 defined by f x, y x 4 y 4
0 , x, y 0,0
is discontinuous at (0, 0)
Solution : To show that f x, y is discontinuous at (0, 0), we show that lim f ( x, y)
( x , y ) (0,0)
does not exist.
x2 y 2
Now lim f ( x, y) lim
( x , y ) (0,0) ( x , y ) (0,0) x 4 y 4
Let x, y 0,0 along path y = mx
Putting y = mx , we have
x 2 m2 x 2 m2 x 4 m2
lim lim which depends on m.
x0 x 4 m4 x 4
x0 x 4 1 m 4
1 m4
Hence lim f x, y does not exist.
x , y 0,0
Therefore given f(x, y) is discontinuous at (0, 0),
2 if x0
Example 4 : Prove that the function f : 2 defined by f x, y
0 if x0
is not continuous at (a, b) if a = 0.
Solution : lim f x, y lim 2 2
x , y 0,b x0
y b
But f 0, b 0 [By given definition of f ]
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Thus lim f x, y f 0, b
x , y 0,b
f x, y is discontinuous at (0, b) for all b.
Example 5 : Prove that the function f : 2 defined by f x, y | x y | is continuous at
origin.
Solution : Let > 0 (however small) be given real number.
To find 0 , so that
f x, y f 0,0 whenever | x 0 | and | y 0 | <
or | x y | 0 whenever | x | and | y |
or x y 2 whenever | x | and | y |
or x y 2
we take =
For a given > 0 , there exists = > 0 such that
f x, y f 0,0 whenever | x | and | y |
Hence by definition of continuity , f x, y is continuous at origin.
Exercise 10.2
xy x 2 y 2
1. Show that the function f : 2 defined by f x, y x 2 y 2
; x, y 0,0
0 ; x, y 0,0
is continuous at the origin.
1
x sin if y0
2. Prove that the function f : defined by f x, y
2
y
0 y0
if
is continuous at (0, 0).
1 if x is irrational
3. Prove that the function f : 2 defined by f x, y
0 if x is rational
is continuous nowhere.
4. Prove that the function f : 2 defined by f x, y x y is continuous at each point of 2 .
364
2 xy 3 ,
x, y 1, 2
5. Show that the function f : 2 defined by f x, y
6 , x, y 1, 2
is discontinuous at point (1,2). Can we redefine the function to make it continuous at point (1, 2).
6. Let f : 2 be a continuous function. If we define a function g : 2 as
f x, y
; x, y 0,0
g x, y . Show that g is not continuous at (0,0).
f x, y 2 ;
x, y 0,0
x3 y 3
; x, y 0,0
7. Show that the function f : 2 defined by f x, y x 2 y 2
0 ; x, y 0,0
is continuous at (0, 0).
2x y
, x, y 0,0
8. Show that the function f : defined by f x, y x 2 y 2
2
0 , x, y 0,0
is continuous at (0, 0).
x3 y 3
; x y
9. Show that the function f : 2 defined by f x, y x y
0 x y
;
is discontinuous at (0, 0).
x2 y
; x, y 0,0
10. Show that the function f : 2 defined by f x, y x 4 y 2
0 ; x, y 0,0
is discontinuous at (0, 0).
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10.3 Directional and partial derivatives of real-valued functions of several
variables
Def. Directional derivative : Let f : S n be a function where S is an open subset of n .
Let c c1, c2 ,....., cn S be any point and u (u1, u2 ,...., un ) S be any vector then the directional
f (c hu ) f (c)
derivative of f at the point c in the direction u is defined as Du f (c) lim provided
h0 h
the limit on the R.H.S. exists.
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In the notation of n-tuple we can write the directional derivative as
f (c1 hu1, c2 hu2 ,...., cn hun ) f (c1, c2 ,..., cn )
D(u1 , u2 ,....,un ) f (c1, c2 ,..., cn ) lim
h0 h
Def. Partial derivative : Partial derivative is just the special case of directional derivative. If
directional derivative are taken along k th unit coordinate vector then it is known as k th partial
derivative. If u uk , the k th unit coordinate vector then Duk f (c) is called a partial derivative and is
f (c1 h, c2 ,...., cn ) f (c1, c2 ,..., cn )
denoted by Dk f (c) e.g., D1 f (c) D(1,0,....,0) f (c1, c2 ,..., cn ) lim
h0 h
f (c1, c2 h,...., cn ) f (c1, c2 ,..., cn )
D2 f (c) D(0,1,....,0) f (c1, c2 ,..., cn ) lim
h0 h
In case of function of two variables f ( x, y) the partial derivatives D1 f (c1, c2 ) and D2 f (c1, c2 ) are
also denoted by f x (c1, c2 ) and f y (c1, c2 ) respectively.
Remark : Existence of directional derivatives in all directions clearly implies the existence of partial
derivatives. However, the converse is not true i.e., existence of partial derivatives does not imply the
existence of directional derivatives in all directions.
x y if x 0 or y 0
Example 1 : Show that for the function f : 2 defined by f ( x, y )
1 otherwise.
both first order partial derivatives exist at (0,0) but directional derivatives does not exist in all
directions at (0,0) .
f (h,0) f (0,0) h0
Solution : D1 f (0,0) f x (0,0) lim lim 1
h0 h h0 h
f (0, h) f (0,0) h0
and D2 f (0,0) f y (0,0) lim lim 1
h0 h h0 h
But if we consider any other direction u (u1, u2 ), where u1 0 and u2 0 , then
f (hu1, hu2 ) f (0,0) 1
Du f (0,0) lim lim , which does not exist.
h0 h h 0 h
xy 2
if x 0
Example 2 : Show that for the function f : 2 defined by f ( x, y ) x 2 y 4
0 if x 0
366
the directional derivatives exist for all directions at the point (0,0) but the function is not continuous
at (0,0) .
Solution : Let u (u1, u2 ) be any vector in 2 . Then we have
f (0 hu1,0 hu2 ) f (0,0) f (hu1, hu2 )
Du (0,0) D u ,u (0,0) lim lim
1 2 h0 h h0 h
u22
hu1h 2u22 u1u22 if u1 0
lim lim 2 u1
h0 h
h2u12 h4u24 h0 u h u
1
2 4
2 0
if u1 0
Thus, directional derivatives exists for all directions at the point (0,0) . On the other hand, the function
f is not continuous at (0,0) because lim f ( x, y) does not exist.
( x, y )(0,0)
m2
In fact, along the path y mx , this limit comes out to be
2
which depends upon m.
1 m4
xy
Example 3 : If f (0,0) = 0 and f ( x, y ) = otherwise, show that partial derivatives f x and f y
x y2
2
exist at the origin but the function is not continuous there at.
or
Show by an example that existence of partial derivatives is such a weak property that it does not even
imply continuity.
xy
Solution : We have, f ( x, y ) = for ( x, y ) (0,0)
x y2
2
f (h,0) f (0,0)
f x (0,0) = lim = 0
h0 h
f (0, k ) f (0,0)
and, f y (0,0) = lim = 0
k0 k
Thus both the partial derivatives f x and f y exist at the origin.
Now we show that f ( x, y ) is not continuous at the origin. Let ( x, y ) (0,0) along the path y mx ,
then
xy mx 2 m
lim f ( x, y ) = lim = lim 2 =
( x , y )(0,0) ( x , y )(0,0) x y
2 2 x 0 x m x2 2
1 m2
and so limit depends on m and hence is not unique. Hence the function is not continuous at origin.
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Def. Second order partial derivatives : Let f f x, y be a function of two variables. Then second
order patial derivatives of f are defined as :
f f x ( x h, y ) f x ( x, y ) f f y ( x h, y ) f y ( x, y)
fx x = = lim , f xy = = lim
x x h 0 h x y h 0 h
f f x ( x, y k ) f x ( x, y ) f f y ( x, y k ) f y ( x, y)
fyx = = lim , f yy = = lim
y x k 0 k y y k 0 k
provided that each of these limits exists.
Example 4 : Show by means of an example that a function may have second order partial derivatives
at a point without being continuous at that point.
x3 y 3
x y
Solution : Consider the function f ( x, y) = x y
0 x y
First we show that this function is discontinuous at the origin. Let us approach to (0,0) through three
different paths, namely, (i) y x x 2 (ii) y x x3 (iii) y x x 4
x 3 ( x x 2 )3 2 x3 O( x 4 )
(i) If y x x 2 , then lim f ( x, y) = lim = lim = 0
( x , y )(0,0) x0 x ( x x2 ) x0 x2
x 3 ( x x 3 )3 2 x3 O( x 4 )
(ii) If y x x , then
3
lim f ( x, y) = lim = lim = 2
( x , y )(0,0) x0 x ( x x3 ) x0 x3
x 3 ( x x 4 )3 2 x3 O( x 4 )
(iii) If y x x 4 , then lim f ( x, y) = lim = lim =
( x , y )(0,0) x0 x ( x x4 ) x0 x4
Thus the value of the limit is not unique and hence f is not continuous at the origin.
f (h,0) f (0,0) h3 / h 0
Now, f x (0,0) = lim = lim = 0
h0 h h0 h
x3
Also, f ( x,0) = = x2 f x ( x,0) = 2x f x (h,0) = 2h
x
(Note that we have first put y = 0 in f (x,y ) and then differentiated w.r.t. x. This is possible as y is
constant here)
f x (h,0) f x (0,0) 2h 0
Now, f x x (0,0) = lim = lim = 2
h0 h h0 h
368
Similarly, we can get other second derivatives also.
Remark : Thus we see that even the existence of all directional derivatives at a point fails to imply
continuity at that point. For this reason, directional derivatives, like partial derivatives, are a somewhat
unsatisfactory extension of the one-dimensional concept of derivative. We turn now to a more suitable
generalization which implies continuity and, at the same time, extends the principal theorems of one-
dimensional derivative theory to functions of several variables. This is called the total derivative.
Exercise 10.3
1. Let f : 2 be a function defined by f ( x, y) 3x 4 y x 2 . Then find directional derivatives
of f
(i) at (0, 0) in the direction (1, 2) (ii) at (1, 2) in the direction (1, –3)
(iii) at (1, –1) in the direction (1, –1) (iv) at (1, –1) in the direction (1, 0)
(v) at (1, –1) in the direction (0, 1) (vi) at (c1, c2 ) in the direction (u1, u2 )
2. For the above function find partial derivatives (i) at (1, 1) (ii) at (1, –2) (iii) at (c1, c2 )
2
3. Find the directional derivative of the function f : 2 defined by f ( x) x i.e.,
f ( x1, x2 ) x12 x22 in a general direction and at a general point.
4. Let f : n be a linear function defined by f ( x) x where n i.e.,
f ( x1, x2 ,...., xn ) 1x1 2 x2 .... n xn . Show that Du f ( x) f (u) i.e.,
D(u1,u2 ,....,un ) f ( x1, x2 ,...., xn ) 1u1 2u2 .... nun
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10.4 Differentiability of real-valued functions of several variables
Def 1 . Differentiable function of two variables : Let f : S ( 2 ) be a real valued function of
two variables where S is an open set. The function f is said to be differentiable at a point (a, b) S if
there exists constants and such that
f (a h, b k ) f (a, b) h k h 2 k 2 (h, k ) where (h, k ) 0 as (h, k ) (0,0)
Here h k is defined to be the derivative of f at (a, b) and is denoted by Df (a, b) .
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Def 2 . Differentiable function of two variables : Let f : S ( 2 ) be a real valued function of
two variables where S is an open set. The function f is said to be differentiable at a point (a, b) S if
there exists constants and such that
f (a h, b k ) f (a, b) h k h 1(h, k ) k 2 h, k
where 1(h, k ) 0 and 2 (h, k ) 0 as (h, k ) (0,0)
Def 3 . Differentiable function of two variables : Let f : S ( 2 ) be a real valued function of
two variables where S is an open set. The function f is said to be differentiable at a point (a, b) S if
there exists a linear transformation T : 2 such that
f (a h, b k ) f (a, b) T (h, k )
(h, k ) where (h, k ) 0 as (h, k ) (0,0)
h2 k 2
The derivative of f at (a, b) is given by Df (a, b) T .
Def 1. Differentiable function of n-variables : Let f : S ( n ) be a real valued function of
two variables where S is an open set. The function f is said to be differentiable at a point
( x1, x2 ,..., xn ) S if there exist constants A1, A2, …….., An such that
f x1 h1, x2 h2 ,..., xn hn f x1, x2 ,..., xn = A1h1 A2h2 Anhn h12 h22 ... hn2 (h1, h2 ,..., hn )
where (h1, h2 ,..., hn ) 0 as (h1, h2 ,..., hn ) (0,0,...,0)
Here A1h1 A2h2 Anhn is defined to be the derivative of f at ( x1, x2 ,..., xn ) and is denoted by
Df ( x1, x2 ,...., xn ) .
Def 2. Differentiable function of n-variables : Let f : S ( n ) be a real valued function of
two variables where S is an open set. The function f is said to be differentiable at a point
( x1, x2 ,..., xn ) S if there exists a linear transformation T : n such that
f x1 h1 , x2 h2 ,..., xn hn f x1 , x2 ,..., xn T (h1 , h2 ,..., hn )
= (h1, h2 ,..., hn )
h12 h22 ... hn2
where (h1, h2 ,..., hn ) 0 as (h1, h2 ,..., hn ) (0,0,...,0)
Here T is defined to be the derivative of f at ( x1, x2 ,..., xn ) and is denoted by Df ( x1, x2 ,...., xn ) .
370
Theorem 1 : Let f : n be a function. If f is differentiable at a point x = x1, x2 ,........, xn n ,
then f x1 h1, x2 h2 ,....., xn hn f x1 , x2 ,...., xn =
f f f
h1 h2 hn h12 h22 ... hn2 (h1, h2 ,..., hn )
x1 x2 xn
where (h1, h2 ,..., hn ) 0 as (h1, h2 ,..., hn ) (0,0,...,0) , where all partial derivatives are calculated at
the point x1, x2 ,........, xn
or
If a function is differentiable at a point, then the constants in the definition of differentiability are
nothing but the partial derivatives at that point.
Proof : Since f is differentiable at the point x = x1, x2 ,........., xn , by definition of differentiability,
there exist constants A1, A2 ,..., An such that
f x1 h1, x2 h2 ,..., xn hn f x1, x2 ,..., xn = A1h1 A2h2 Anhn h12 h22 ... hn2 (h1, h2 ,..., hn )
where (h1, h2 ,..., hn ) 0 as (h1, h2 ,..., hn ) (0,0,...,0) ….(1)
Taking h j 0 for all j i for some fixed i {1, 2, …….., n }, we get :
f x1, x2 ,....., xi hi ,....., xn f x1, x2 ,...., xn = Ai hi hi2 (hi )
Thus we have,
f x1 , x2 ,...., xi hi ,...., xn f x1 , x2 ,...., xn
= Ai (hi )
hi
Taking limit hi 0 , we get:
f x1 , x2 ,...., xi hi ,...., xn f x1 , x2 ,...., xn
lim Ai , since (hi ) 0 as hi 0
hi 0 hi
f
Ai [By def. of partial derivatives]
xi
f f f
This is true for every i = 1, 2, …….., n = A1 , = A2 ,……….., = An
x1 x2 xn
Putting these values in (1) we get the required result.
Remark : If the function f x1, x2 ,....., xn is differentiable at the point x1, x2 ,....., xn , then the partial
derivatives of f w.r.t. x1, x2 ,.........., xn certainly exist and are finite at this point, because by the above
theorem, they are nothing but the constants in the definition of differentiability.
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However, the converse of this is not true i.e. partial derivatives may exist at a point but
the function need not be differentiable at that point.
Working rule to check the differentiability of a function of two variables :
f f
Step (i) : Calculate a, b and a, b . If they don’t exist then f is not differentiable at (a, b) .
x y
Step (ii) : If both partial derivatives exist then express the quantity
f f
f (a h, b k ) f (a, b) h k in the form h2 k 2 (h, k ) or in the form
x y
h 1(h, k ) k 2 (h, k )
lim 1(h, k ) 0
( h,k )(0,0)
Step (iii) : f is differentiable at (a, b) iff lim (h, k ) 0 or
( h,k )(0,0) lim 2 (h, k ) 0
( h,k )(0,0)
Example 1 : Give an example to show that a function may have partial derivatives at a point without
being differentiable at that point.
Solution : Consider the function, f : 2 defined by,
x3 y 3
( x, y ) (0,0)
f ( x, y) = x 2 y 2
0 ( x, y ) (0,0)
f (h,0) f (0,0) h3 / h 2 0
Now, f x (0,0) = lim = lim = 1
h0 h h0 h
f (0, k ) f (0,0) k 3 / k 2 0
and, f y (0,0) = lim = lim = –1
k0 k k0 k
Thus the partial derivatives exist at origin. Now, let if possible, this function is differentiable at the
origin. Then
h3 k 3
f (0 h,0 k ) f (0,0) f x (0,0)h f y (0,0)k 0hk
h2 k 2
hk (h k ) hk (h k )
h2 k 2
h k
h2 k 2
2 2 3/2
372
hk (h k ) hk (h k ) m(1 m)
Here (h, k ) and lim (h, k ) lim along k mh
h 2
k
2 3/2 ( h,k )(0,0) ( h,k )(0,0)
h 2
k
2 3/2 (1 m)3/2
This limit does not exist because it depends upon m. Therefore the given function is not differentiable
at (0,0) .
Example 2 : Give an example to show that a function may have partial derivatives at a point without
being differentiable at that point.
xy
x2 y 2 0
Solution : Consider the function f ( x, y) = x 2 y 2
x y0
0
f (h,0) f (0,0) 00
Now, f x (0,0) = lim = lim = 0
h0 h h 0 h
f (0, k ) f (0,0) 00
and, f y (0,0) = lim = lim = 0
k0 k k0 k
Thus the partial derivatives exist at origin. Now, let if possible, this function is differentiable at the
hk
origin. Then f (0 h,0 k ) f (0,0) f x (0,0)h f y (0,0)k
h2 k 2
hk
h2 k 2 h2 k 2 (h, k )
h k
2 2
hk
Here lim (h, k ) lim does not exist and therefore the given function is not
( h,k )(0,0) ( h,k )(0,0) h 2 k2
differentiable at (0,0) .
Example 3 : Give an example to show that it is not necessary that f x y = f y x at any point.
xy ( x 2 y 2 )
( x, y ) (0,0)
Solution : Consider the function f ( x, y) = x 2 y 2
( x, y ) (0,0)
0
f y (h,0) f y (0,0) h0
f x y (0,0) = lim = lim = 1 …...(1)
h0 h h0 h
f x (0, k ) f x (0,0) k 0
f y x (0,0) = lim = lim = –1 …...(2)
h0 k h 0 k
We now calculate requisite terms of (1) and (2),
f (h,0) f (0,0) 00
f x (0,0) = lim = lim = 0
h0 h h 0 h
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f (0, k ) f (0,0) 00
f y (0,0) = lim = lim = 0
k0 k k 0 k
f (h, k ) f (0, k ) hk (h 2 k 2 )
f x (0, k) = lim = lim = –k
h0 h h0 h( h 2 k 2 )
f (h, k ) f (h,0) hk (h 2 k 2 )
f y ( h,0 ) = lim = lim =h
k0 k k0 k (h 2 k 2 )
Using all these values in (1) and (2), we obtain
h0 k 0
f x y (0,0) = lim = 1 and f y x (0,0) = lim = –1
h0 h k0 k
which shows that f x y (0,0) f y x (0,0).
Note : We now give two theorems, which give the sufficient conditions for f xy (a, b) f yx (a, b) .
Theorem 2 : Young’s theorem : Let f : S ( 2 ) be a real valued function of two variables
where S is an open set. Let (a, b) S be any point such that
(i) f x and f y exists in a neighbourhood of the point (a, b) and
(ii) f x and f y are differentiable at (a, b), then
f x y a, b = f y x a, b
Theorem 3 : Schwartz’s theorem : Let f : S ( 2 ) be a real valued function of two variables
where S is an open set. Let (a, b) S be any point such that
(i) f x , f y , f y x all exist in a neighbourhood of the point (a, b) and
(ii) f y x is continuous at (a, b),
then f x y also exists at (a, b) and f x y a, b = f y x a, b
Example 4 : By giving an example, show that the conditions of Young’s theorem and Schwarz’s
theorem are sufficient but not necessary
or
x2 y 2
( x, y ) (0,0)
Show that for the function f ( x, y) = x 2 y 2 , f x y (0,0) = f y x (0,0) , even
0 ( x, y ) (0,0)
374
though the conditions of Schwartz’s theorem and Young’s theorem are not satisfied.
Solution : (i) First we prove that f xy 0,0 f yx 0,0 .
f (h,0) f (0,0) 00
We have f x (0,0) = lim = lim = 0
h0 h h0 h
f (0, k ) f (0,0) 00
and f y (0,0) = lim = lim = 0
k0 k k 0 k
Also for ( x, y ) (0,0)
( x 2 y 2 ) 2 xy 2 x 2 y 2 2 x 2 xy 4 2 x4 y
f x ( x, y) = = 2 and f y ( x, y) =
( x 2 y 2 )2 ( x y 2 )2 ( x 2 y 2 )2
f x (0, k ) f x (0,0) 00
Now f y x (0,0) = lim = lim = 0
k0 k k 0 k
f y (h,0) f y (0,0) 00
and f x y (0,0) = lim = lim = 0
h0 h h0 h
f x y (0,0) = f y x (0,0) .
(v) Now we show that condition of Schwartz’s theorem are not satisfied.
For ( x, y ) (0,0), we have,
( x 2 y 2 )2 (8 xy3 ) 2 xy 4 2( x2 y 2 ) 2 y
f y x ( x, y) =
( x 2 y 2 )4
8 x5 y 3 8 xy 7 16 x3 y 5 8 x3 y 5 8 xy 7 8 x5 y 3 8 x3 y 5 8 x3 y 3
= = =
( x 2 y 2 )4 ( x 2 y 2 )4 ( x 2 y 2 )3
8 m3
Put y = mx to get, f y x ( x, y) = 0, always
(1 m 2 )3
i.e. lim f y x ( x, y) f y x (0,0)
( x , y )(0,0)
So, f y x is not continuous at (0,0) and hence the conditions of Schwartz’s theorem are not satisfied.
(iii) Let us now show that the conditions of Young’s theorem are not satisfied.
f x (h,0) f x (0,0) 00
Now, f x x (0,0) = lim = lim = 0
h0 h h0 h
Let, if possible, If f x is differentiable at (0,0).
2 hk 4
Then f x (h, k ) f x (0,0) h f x x (0,0) k f y x (0,0) =
(h 2 k 2 )2
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2 hk 4
h2 k 2 h2 k 2 (h, k )
(h k )
2 2 5/2
Now lim (h, k ) does not exist so f x is not differentiable at (0,0) and hence the conditions of
( h,k )(0,0)
Young’s theorem are also not satisfied.
Exercise 10.4
Which of the following functions are differentiable at (0,0) .
x2 y xy
if ( x, y ) (0,0) 2 if ( x, y ) (0,0)
1. f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2 2. f ( x, y ) x y 2
0 if ( x, y ) (0,0) 0 if ( x, y ) (0,0)
x3 y x3
if ( x, y ) (0,0) if ( x, y ) (0,0)
3. f ( x, y ) x6 y 2 4. f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2
0 if ( x, y) (0,0) 0 if ( x, y ) (0,0)
x2 y 2 x3 y 3
if ( x, y ) (0,0) if ( x, y ) (0,0)
5. f ( x, y ) x 4 y 2 6. f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2
0 if ( x, y ) (0,0) 0 if ( x, y ) (0,0)
x3 xy 2
if ( x, y ) (0,0)
7. f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2 8. f ( x, y) 3 x3 y3
0 if ( x, y) (0,0)
9. f ( x, y) xy 10. f ( x, y) 3 xy
1
xy sin 2 if (x, y ) (0,0)
sin x 2 y 2
11. f ( x, y ) 2 12. f ( x, y ) x 2 y 2
if (x, y ) (0,0)
x y
0 if ( x, y ) (0,0) 0 if ( x, y) (0,0)
2 1
13. f ( x, y )
2
x y sin 2 2
x y
if ( x, y ) (0,0)
0 if ( x, y ) (0,0)
376
2 1 2 1
x sin x y sin x if x 0, y 0
1
x 2 sin if x 0, y 0
14. f ( x, y ) x 15. f ( x, y) xy
1
y 2 sin if x 0, y 0
y
0 if x 0, y 0
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10.5 Limit, continuity and differentiability of vector-valued functions of several
variables
Let S be an open subset of n and f : S ( n ) m , n, m 2 be a vector valued function defined
by f ( x) ( f1( x), f 2 ( x),..., f m ( x)), x n , where each fi ( x),1 i m, known as coordinated function,
is a real-valued function of n variables. For this function f we have the following results :
xc
(i) lim f ( x) lim f1( x), lim f 2 ( x),...., lim f m ( x)
xc xc xc
(ii) f is continuous at x c iff each coordinate function fi is continuous at x c
(iii) Directional derivative of f at x c in the direction u is given by
Du f (c) Du f1(c), Du f 2 (c),...., Du f m (c)
(iv) The k th partial derivative of f at x c is given by Dk f (c) Dk f1(c), Dk f 2 (c),...., Dk f m (c)
(v) f is differentiable at x c iff each coordinate function fi is differentiable at x c
Def. Let S be an open subset of n and f : S ( n ) m , n, m 2 be a vector valued function
defined by f ( x) ( f1( x), f 2 ( x),..., f m ( x)), x n , where each fi ( x),1 i m, is a real-valued function of
n variables. The function f is said to be differentiable at a point x c n if there exists a linear
f ( c h ) f (c ) T ( h )
transformation T : n m such that (h) where (h) 0 as h 0 .
h
The linear transformation T is said to be the derivative of the function f at the point c and is
written as Df (c) T .
Def. Jacobian matrix : Let S be an open subset of n and f : S ( n ) m , n, m 2 be a vector
valued function defined by f ( x) ( f1( x), f 2 ( x),..., f m ( x)), x n , where each fi ( x), 1 i m, known
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as coordinated function, is a real-valued function of n variables. The Jacobian matrix of the function f
D1 f1(c) D2 f1(c) Dn f1(c)
D f ( c ) D f ( c ) D f (c )
at x c is denoted by J (c) and is given by J (c) 1 2 2 2 n 2
D1 f m (c) D2 f m (c) Dn f m (c)
Result : The derivative of f is invertible at x c if the determinant of Jacobian matrix at x c is
non-zero.
Result : Let f : n m be a linear function then Df (c) f for all c n .
Result : Let f : n m be a differentiable function at x c . If J (c) denotes the Jacobian matrix
of the function f at the point x c then the derivative of f at x c is a linear transformation from
n to m given by Df (c) ( x) J (c) ( x)
Result : Let f : n m be a function. If all partial derivatives of f exist at a point x c such that
n 1 partial derivatives are continuous at x c then f is differentiable at x c .
Exercise 10.5
Which of the following vector-valued functions f of several variables are differentiable at (0,0) and
for which of them Df (0,0) is invertible.
1. f : 2 2 defined by f ( x, y) x y, xy
2.
f : 2 2 defined by f ( x, y) x 2 y y 2 xy , 2 x y x 2 xy
3.
f : 2 2 defined by f ( x, y) x 2 , y 2 sin x
4. f : 2 2 defined by f ( x, y) x y, x y
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Assignment 4. A function f : 2 is defined by
----------------------- SCQ ---------------------- f ( x, y) xy. Let v (1,2) and a (a1, a2 )
1. For x, y 2 with x, y 0,0 , let be two elements of 2 . The directional
x, y be the unique real number such
derivative of f in the direction of v at a is :
1. a1 2a2 2. a2 2a1
that and x, y r cos , r sin ,
a2 a1
where r x 2 y 2 . Then the resulting 3. a1 4. a2
2 2
function : 2 \ 0,0 is (CSIR NET Dec 2016)
1. differentiable.
sin x y .
5. Let f x, y log cos 2 e x
2
2. continuous, but not differentiable.
Then f x, y is
3. bounded, but not continuous. y x
4. neither bounded, nor continuous.
cos x y
cos e x 1
2
1 sin e
(CSIR NET Dec 2015) 1.
2 x2
2. Consider the function
2. 0
x2
f ( x, y ) ,( x, y ) [1/ 2,3 / 2] [1/ 2,3 / 2]
y2 3. sin x y
The derivative of the function at (1, 1) 4. cos x y
along the direction (1, 1) is :
(CSIR NET June 2018)
1. 0 2. 1 3. 2 4. 2
(CSIR NET June 2016)
------------------------ MCQ -------------------
3. Let f : be given by
2 2
1. Consider the map f : 2 2 defined by
f ( x, y) ( x 2 , y 2 sin x). Then the
f x, y 3x 2 y x 2 , 4 x 5 y y 2 .
derivative of f at ( x, y) is the linear
Then
transformation given by
1. f is discontinuous at (0, 0).
2x 0 2x 0
1. 2. 2. f is discontinuous at (0, 0) and all
cos x 2 y 2 y cos x
2 y cos x 2x 2 y directional derivatives exist at (0, 0).
3. 4.
2x 0 0 cos x 3. f is differentiable at (0, 0) but the
(CSIR NET Dec 2016)
380
derivative Df 0,0 is not invertible. 3. f is one one
4. f has an inverse
4. f is differentiable at (0, 0) and the
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
derivative Df 0,0 is invertible.
5. Consider the map f : 2 2 defined by
(CSIR NET June 2011)
f x, y 7 x x 4 ,3x 4 y y 4 . Then
2. Let f r , r cos , r sin for
r , 2 with r 0. Which of the 1. f is discontinuous at (0, 0).
2. f is continuous at (0, 0) and all
following statements are correct ?
directional derivatives exist at (0, 0).
(Here Df denotes the derivative of f ).
3. f is differentiable at (0, 0) but the
1. the linear transformation Df r , is
derivative Df 0,0 is not invertible.
not zero for any r , 2 with r 0
4. f is differentiable at (0, 0) and the
2. f is one one on r, 2
: r 0
derivative Df 0,0 is invertible.
3. for any r , 2 with r 0 , f is one
(CSIR NET June 2012)
one on a neighbourhood of r , 6. Let L : n be the function
4. Df r , r 2 I for any r , 2 with L x x, y where , is some inner
r 0 (CSIR NET Dec 2011) product on n and y is fixed vector in n .
Further denote by DL, the derivative of L.
3. The map L : given by
2 2
Which of the following are necessarily
L x, y x, y is correct?
1. differentiable everywhere on 2 1. DL u DL v for all u, v n .
2. differentiable only at (0, 0)
2. DL 0,0,...,0 L.
3. DL 0,0 L
3. DL x x for all x n .
2
4. DL x, y L for all x, y 2
4. DL 1,1,...,1 0.
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
4. Let f : n n be the function defined
7. Let f : n be the map
by f x x x
2 n
for x . Which of the
f x1,..., xn a1x1 ... an xn , where
following statements are correct ?
a a1,..., an is a fixed non zero vector.
1. Df 0 0
2. Df x 0 for all x n
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Let Df 0 denote the derivative of f at 0. x m only if f is a constant.
Which of the following are correct ? 4. If f is not a constant function, then
1. Df 0 is a linear map from n to Df x is a one to one function for
2. Df 0 a a
2
some x m .
(CSIR NET Dec 2013)
3. Df 0 a 0
10. Define f : 2 2 by
4. Df 0 b a1b1 ... anbn for
f x, y x 2 y y 2 xy ,2 x y x 2 xy
b b1,..., bn for x, y 2 . Then
(CSIR NET June 2013) 1. f is discontinuous at (0, 0).
8. Let f : 2 2 be given by 2. f is continuous at (0, 0) but not
f x, y x y, xy . Then differentiable at (0, 0).
3. f is differentiable at (0, 0).
1. f is not differentiable at the point (0, 0).
4. f is differentiable at (0, 0) and the
2. The derivative of f is invertible except
derivative Df 0,0 is invertible.
on the set x, y 2
| x y .
(CSIR NET June 2014)
3. The inverse image of each point in
11. Let A { x, y 2 : x y 1} . Define
2 under f has at most two elements.
x y
4. f is surjective. f : A 2 by f x, y , .
1 x y 1 x y
(CSIR NET Dec 2013)
Then,
9. Let f : be a differential function.
m m
1. The Jacobian matrix of f does not vanish
Let Df x be the derivative of f at on A.
x m . Which of the following is/are 2. f is infinitely differentiable on A.
correct ? 3. f is injective on A.
1. Df 0 u 0 for all u in m . 4. f A 2 . (CSIR NET June 2014)
2. Df x u 0 for all u in m and 12. Let f : 2 2 be given by the formula
some x m only if f is a constant. f x, y 3x 2 y y 2 xy , 2 x 3 y x 2 xy
3. Df x u 0 for all u m and all
Then,
382
1. f is discontinuous at (0, 0) 1 cos x y
g x, y if x y 0
2. f is continuous at (0, 0) but not x y 2
1
differentiable at (0, 0) g x, y if x y 0
2
3. f is differentiable at (0, 0) Then
4. f is differentiable at (0, 0) and the 1. f is continuous at (0, 0)
2. f is continuous everywhere except at
derivative Df 0, 0 is invertible (0,0)
3. g is continuous at (0, 0)
(CSIR NET Dec 2015)
4. g is continuous everywhere
13. Let A x, y 2 : x y 1 . (CSIR NET Dec 2017)
16. For any y , let y denote the greatest
Define f : A 2 by
integer less than or equal to y. Define
y x
f x, y , . Then, f : 2 by f x, y x . Then
y
1 x y 1 x y
1. the determinant of the Jacobian of f does 1. f is continuous on 2
not vanish on A. 2. for every y , x f x, y is
2. f is infinitely differentiable on A. continuous on \ 0
3. f is one to one. 3. for every x , y f x, y is
4. f A 2 (CSIR NET Dec 2015) continuous on
14. A function f ( x, y) on 2 has the 4. f is continuous at no point of 2
following partial derivatives (CSIR NET June 2018)
f f 17. Let A be an invertible real n n matrix.
( x, y) x 2 , ( x, y) y 2 .
x y Define a function F : n n by
Then
F x, y Ax, y where x, y denotes the
1. f has directional derivatives in all
inner product of x and y. Let DF x, y
directions everywhere.
2. f has a derivative at all points. denote the derivative of F at x, y which
3. f has directional derivative only along is a linear transformation from
the direction (1, 1) everywhere.
n n . Then
4. f does not have directional derivatives
1. If x 0 , then DF x,0 0
in any direction everywhere.
(CSIR NET Dec 2016) 2. If y 0, then DF 0, y 0
1 cos x y 3. If x, y 0,0 then DF x, y 0
15. Let f x, y if x y 0
x y
2 2
4. If x 0 or y 0 , then DF x, y 0
1
f 0,0 and
2 (CSIR NET Dec 2018)
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18. Let f : 2 2 be a function given by
f x, y x3 3xy 2 15x 12 y, x y . Let
S x, y 2 : f is locally invertible at
x, y . Then
1. S 2 \ 0,0
2. S is open in 2
3. S is dense in 2
4. 2 \ S is countable
(CSIR NET Dec 2018)
Assignment Key
SCQ
1. 3 2. 1 3. 1 4. 2
5. 4
MCQ
1. 2,4 2. 1,2 3. 1,3
4. 1,3,4 5. 2,4 6. 1,2
7. 1,2,4 8. 2,3 9. 3
10. 3,4 11. 1,2,3 12. 3,4
13. 1,2,3 14. 1,2 15. 2,3,4
16. 2
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Chapter - 11
Metric spaces
11.1 Definition and Examples
Def : Metric Space : Let X be a non-empty set. A function d : X X , where is the set of
real numbers, is said to be a metric (or distance function) on X if it satisfies the following conditions :
(i) d x, y 0 x, y X (Non-negativity)
(ii) d x, y 0 x y where x , y X
(iii) d x , y d y, x x, y X (Symmetry)
(iv) d x, y d x, z d z, y x, y, z X (Triangle Inequality)
The ordered pair (X, d) is called a metric space and d x, y is called the distance between x and y.
The elements of X are called its points.
Remarks :
1. Condition (i) in the above definition of metric space can be derived from other three conditions. But
due to its basic nature it is included in the definition by most of the authors. we see that
d x, y d y, x d x, x [Using (iv)]
d x, y d y, x 0 [Using (ii)]
2d x, y 0 [Using (iii)]
d x, y 0
2. The triangle inequality may be expressed as that “The length of one side of any triangle can not
exceed the sum of lengths of the other two sides”.
Further the sign of equality occur in the triangle inequality when the three points are in a straight line.
3. The triangle inequality can be generalized in the following way :
d x, y d x, z1 d z1, z2 ...... d zn , y where x, y, z1, z2 ,....., zn X .
Example 1 : (Usual metric space) : Let X = R be the set of real numbers. For x, y X define
d x, y | x y | . Then X , d is a metric space.
Remark : In above example, we have proved all the four properties of metric with the help of
properties of modulus function and there is no use of algebraic properties of set of real numbers . So
if we replace by (the set of complex numbers), (the set of rational numbers), [0, 1), (0, 1], or
any other subset of , then also the above metric will work.
386
Def. Pseudo metric : Let X be a non-empty set. A function d : X X ,where is the set of
real numbers, is said to be a Pseudo metric if it satisfies the following conditions :
(i) d x, y 0 x, y X
(ii) If x y then d x, y 0
(iii) d x, y d y, x x, y X
(iv) d x, y d x, z d z, y x, y, z X
Remarks :
1. The condition (ii) is the only difference in the definition of metric and Pseudo metric. In the metric,
if two points are same then their distance is zero and if the distance between two points is zero then
they are same. Whereas, in the Pseudo metric, if two points are same then their distance is zero but
not conversely. i.e., if distance between two points is zero then they are not necessarily same.
2. Obviously, every metric is Pseudo metric but converse is not true in general.
Result : Sum of a metric and a Pseudo metric is a metric.
Example 2 : Let be the set of real numbers. For x, y , define d ( x, y ) x 2 y 2 . Then, d ( x, y)
is a Pseudo metric but not a metric on .
Example 3 : Let be the set of all real numbers. For x, y , define d ( x, y ) x n y n . Then,
d ( x, y) is a metric on if n is a positive odd integer and is a Pseudo metric but not a metric on if
n is a positive even integer.
Example 4 : (Discrete metric space) : Let X be any non-empty set. For x, y X , define
0 if x y
d x, y .
1 if x y
Then (X, d) is a metric space. The metric d is called the discrete metric and the space (X, d) is called
the discrete metric space.
Example 5 : Let X 2 x1, x2 : x1, x2 .
For x x1, x2 and y y1, y2 , define d in the following ways :
(a) d x, y x1 y1 2 x2 y2 2
(b) d x, y max. | x1 y1 |, | x2 y2 |
(c) d x, y | x1 y1 | | x2 y2 | .
Then each d, defined above, is a metric on 2 .
Example 6 : Let X n x1, x2 ,..., xn : xi .
For x x1, x2 ,....., xn and y y1, y2 ,....., yn , define d in the following ways :
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(a) d x, y x1 y1 2 x2 y2 2 ...... xn yn 2
(b) d x, y max | x1 y1 |, | x2 y2 |,.....,| xn yn |
(c) d x, y | x1 y1 | | x2 y2 | ...... | xn yn | .
Then each d is a metric on n .
Example 7 : (The l pn space) Let X n x1, x2 ,....., xn : xi
For x x1, x2 ,....., xn and y y1, y2 ,....., yn , define d as
1
n p
d x, y | xi yi | p where 1 p .
i 1
Then d is a metric on n and the metric space n , d is popularly denoted by l pn .
Example 8 : (The lp space) Let 1 p and X denote the set of all real sequences
x xn such that |x
n 1
n | p . For x xn and y yn , define d as
1
p
d x, y | xn yn | p .
n 1
Then d is a metric on X and the metric space (X, d) is popularly denoted by lp.
Example 9 : (The space ln ) Let X n x1, x2 ,....., xn : xi
For x x1, x2 ,....., xn and y y1, y2 ,....., yn , define d as
d x, y max x1 y1 , x2 y2 ,...., xn yn .
Then d is a metric on n and the metric space n , d is popularly denoted by ln .
Example 10 : (The space l) Let X denote the set of all real bounded sequences. For x xn and
y yn , define d as d x, y sup | xn yn | .
n
Then d is a metric on X and the metric space (X, d) is popularly denoted by l.
Example 11 : Let B a, b denote the set of all real valued functions defined and bounded on the
closed interval [a, b]. For f , g B a, b define d as d(f, g)= sup | f x g x | . Then B a, b , d
x a , b
is a metric space.
388
Example 12 : Let C[a, b] denote the set of all real valued functions defined and continuous on the
b
closed interval [a, b]. For f , g C a, b define d as d f , g | f x g x | dx , the integral on
a
the right hand side is taken in the sense of Riemann which is possible since the functions f and g are
continuous and every continuous function is Riemann integrable. Then d is a metric on C [a, b].
Example 13 : Let f be a real valued one-one function defined on a set X, then
d ( x, y) f ( x) f ( y) x, y X is a metric on X .
Example 14 : Let f be a real valued many-one function defined on a set X, d ( x, y) f ( x) f ( y)
x, y X is a Pseudo metric but not a metric on X.
Def. Induced metric : Let (X, d) be a metric space. On the set X, we can define new metric d* with
the help of given metric d. This new metric d* is known as metric induced (formed) by d.
Example 15 : Let (X, d) be a metric space and let f be any real-valued function on X. For x, y X
define d* as d * x, y d x, y | f x f y | . Then, d* is a metric on X.
Results :
1. Let (X, d) be a metric space and let k be a fixed positive real number. For x, y X define d* as
d * x, y k d x, y . Then d* is a metric on X.
2. Let (X, d) be a metric space. For x, y X define d* as d * x, y min 2, d x, y . Then d* is a
metric on X.
Remark : If d ( x, y) is a metric and k 0 , then the function d * ( x, y) max k , d ( x, y) is not a metric.
d x, y
3. Let (X, d) be a metric space. For x, y X define d * as d * x, y . Then d* is a
1 d x, y
metric on X.
Results :
1. Let (X, d) be a metric space and x, y, z be any three points of X. Then d x, y | d x, z d z, y | .
2. Let (X, d) be a metric space and let x1, x2 , y1, y2 X then | d x1, y1 d x2 , y2 | d x1, x2 d y1, y2 .
3. If d1 and d2 are two metrics on a non-empty set X, then d1 + d2 is also a metric on X.
4. Let X be a non-empty set and let d1, d2 be two metrics on X. Then, the function d : X X
defined by d x, y d1 x, y 2 d 2 x , y 2 , x, y X is a metric on X.
5. Let X be a non-empty set and d1, d2 be two metrics on X. Then, d x, y max d1 x, y , d2 x, y
x, y X is a metric on X.
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Exercise 11.1
1. Let R be the set of real numbers. For x, y R define d x, y min 1, | x y | . Prove that d is a
metric on R.
2. Let (X, d) be a metric space. For x, y X define d* as follows :
(i) d * x, y 2d x, y (ii) d * x, y min 1, d x, y
Prove in both the cases that d* is a metric on X.
0 if x y
3. Let R be the set of real numbers. For x, y R define d as d x, y .
| x | | y | if x y
Prove that (R, d) is a metric space.
4. Let X denote the set of all real sequences. For x xn and y yn in X, define
| xn yn |
d x, y . Prove that d is a metric on X.
n 1 2 1 | xn yn |
n
5. Let X denote the set of all functions defined and Riemann integrable on the closed interval [0, 1].
1
For any f, g X, define d f , g | f x g x | dx . Show that d is a Pseudo metric but not a
0
metric on X.
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11.2 Open and closed sets in Metric Spaces
Def. Open sphere : Let X , d be a metric space. Let x0 X and r 0 be any real number. The
open sphere with centre at x0 and radius r, is denoted by Sr x0 and is defined as
Sr x0 x X : d x0 , x r
Def. Closed sphere : Let X , d be a metric space. Let x0 X and r 0 be any real number. The
closed sphere with centre at x0 and radius r, is denoted by Sr x0 and is defined as
Sr x0 x X : d x0 , x r
Remarks :
1. Open spheres and closed spheres are also known as open balls and closed balls respectively.
2. Other common notations used for the open sphere Sr x0 are S x0 , r , Br x0 and B x0 , r .
Similarly the closed sphere Sr x0 is also denoted by S x0 , r , Br x0 and B x0 , r .
390
3. A sphere (open or closed) is always non-empty since it contains its centre at least.
Example 1 : In the usual metric space (R, d) show that
(i) Every open sphere is an open interval.
(ii) Every closed sphere is a closed interval.
Example 2 : Describe open and closed spheres in a discrete metric space.
Example 3 : Describe geometrically the open and closed spheres with centre (0, 0) and radius 1 in the
metric space R 2 , d , where d is defined in following ways (as in example 3 of previous chapter) :
(i) d x1, x2 , y1, y2 x1 y1 2 x2 y2 2
(ii) d x1, x2 , y1, y2 max. | x1 y1 |, | x2 y2 |
(iii) d x1, x2 , y1, y2 | x1 y1 | | x2 y2 |
Def. Neighbourhood : Let (X, d) be a metric space and x X . A subset A of X is said to be a
neighbourhood of x if there exists an open sphere centred at x and contained in A i.e., if there exists a
real number r > 0 such that Sr x A .
Example 4 : In the discrete metric space X , d , any subset A of X is a neighbourhood of each of its
points.
Example 5 : In the usual metric space (R, d) we have already shown in Example 1 that every open
sphere is an open interval. Therefore we have the following observations :
(i) The open interval (a, b) is neighbourhood of each of its points, since for any x a, b , the open
interval a, b itself will serve as a required open sphere i.e., x a, b a, b .
(ii) The closed interval a, b is a neighbourhood of each point of a, b but it is not a
neighbourhood of the end points a and b. We note that for any x a, b , we have
x a, b a, b . But for the end point a (or b), there is no open sphere (i.e., open interval)
which contains a (or b) and is wholly contained in [a, b].
(iii) The intervals a, b] and [a, b are neighbourhoods of each point in a, b but are not the
neighbourhoods of end points a and b.
(iv) R is neighbourhood of each of its points because for any x R , we have x x , x R
for every 0 .
(v) The set of natural numbers N is not a neighbourhood of any of its points because for any x N ,
we can not find an open sphere (i.e., an open interval) (a, b) such that x a, b N .
Similarly, the sets Z, Q, I(set of irrationals) are not neighbourhoods of any of their points.
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1 1
(vi) The set 1, , ,.......... is not a neighbourhood of any of its points because this set can not
2 3
contain an open interval.
(vii) A finite set is not a neighbourhood of any of its point because a finite set can not contain an open
interval.
Theorem 1 : Let (X, d) be a metric space and x X . Prove that
(i) If M and N are two neighbourhoods of x then M N is also a neighbourhood of x.
(ii) If M is a neighbourhood of x and M N then N is also a neighbourhood of x.
Def. Open set : Let X , d be a metric space. A subset G of X is said to be an open set if it is
neighbourhood of each of its points.
OR
A subset G of X is said to be an open set if for every x G , there exists a real number r 0 such that
Sr x G .
Example 6 : In discrete metric space (X, d) every subset of X is open. In particular, every singleton
{x} is open.
Example 7 : In the usual metric, keeping definition of open set and Example 5 in mind, we have the
following observations :
(i) Every open interval (a, b) is an open set.
(ii) Any of intervals [a, b], [a, b), (a, b] is not an open set.
(iii) R is an open set.
(iv) The sets N , Z , Q and I are not open sets.
1 1
(v) The set 1, , ,....... is not an open set.
2 3
(vi) Any finite subset and in particular any singleton of R is not an open set.
Theorem 2 : Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then the empty set and the whole space X are open sets.
Theorem 3 : Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then every open sphere in X is an open set.
Theorem 4 : Let (X, d) be a metric space. A subset G of X is open iff it is the union of open spheres.
Theorem 5 : Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then
(i) Arbitrary union of open sets in X is open.
(ii) Finite intersection of open sets in X is open.
Example 8 : Let (X, d) be any metric space. Then
392
(i) Complement of every singleton is an open set.
(ii) Complement of every finite set is an open set.
Def. Interior Point : Let (X, d) be a metric space and A be any subset of X. A point x A is said to be
an interior point of A if A is a neighbourhood of x.
OR
A point x A is said to be an interior point of A if there exist a real number r 0 such that
Sr x A .
Def. Interior of a set : The interior of a set A is denoted by A0, and is defined as the set of all interior
points of A.
i.e., A0 x A : Sr x A for some r 0
Remarks :
1. By definition, it is clear that A0 A .
2. The word „interior point‟ should not be mis-interpreted with its literal meaning. In the real life
situations, by the interior of an object, we usually mean something which lies inside the object. But
in the above concept every point belonging to the set is not an interior point, where as every
interior point belongs to the set.
Example 9 : Let (X, d) be the discrete metric space and A be any subset of X then A0= A.
Example 10 : In the usual metric space (R, d), we have the following observations :
(i) In Example 5, we have shown that the intervals a, b , a, b, [a, b, a, b] are neighbourhoods
of each point in (a, b) but they are not the neighbourhoods of end points.
Therefore, in terms of interior point, we can say that every point of (a, b) is an interior point of
each of intervals a, b , a, b, [a, b, a, b] .
Hence, a, b0 a, b a, b]0 [a, b0 a, b .
0
(ii) Again, in Example 5, we have shown that N , Z , Q, I are not neighbourhoods of any of their
points, so no point is an interior point of N, Z, Q and I so N 0 Z 0 Q0 I 0 .
(iii) R is neighbourhood of each real number so every real number is an interior point of R and so
R0 = R.
(iv) If F is a finite set then F 0 .
Theorem 6 : Let (X, d) be a metric space and A be any subset of X, then
(i) A0 is an open set.
(ii) A0 is the largest open set contained in A.
(iii) A is open iff A = A0.
(iv) A0 is the union of all open sets contained in A.
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Theorem 7 : Let (X, d) be a metric space and A and B are any subsets of X. Then
(i) 0 , X 0 X
(ii) A0 0 A0
(iii) A B A0 B0
(iv) A B 0 A0 B0
(v) A B 0 A0 B0
Remark : The equality in the relation A B 0 A0 B0 may or may not hold.
For example, if we take A 0, 1 and B = [1, 2] in the usual metric space (R, d) then
A0 0, 1 , B0 1, 2 and A0 B0 0, 1 1, 2
A B 0 0, 1 1, 2 0, 2 0, 2
0 0
but
Thus A B 0 A0 B0
On the other hand, if we take A = (0, 1) and B = (1, 2) then it is easy to see that A B 0 A0 B0 .
Def. Closed Set : Let (X, d) be any metric space. A subset A of X is said to be a closed set if its
complement X A is open.
Example 11 : In the discrete metric space every set is a closed set.
Example 12 : In the usual metric space (R, d), we have the following observations :
(i) The interval [a, b] is a closed set since R a, b , a b, is open.
(ii) The interval a, b] is not closed since its complement R a, b] , a] b, is not open.
(iii) The sets N and Z are closed since their complements
R N , 1 1, 2 2, 3 .........
and R Z .......2, 1 1, 0 0, 1 1, 2 ....... are open.
(iv) The set Q of rationals is not closed since R Q i.e., set of irrationals is not open. Similarly the set
I of irrationals is not closed.
(v) R is closed since R R = is open.
(vi) is closed since R = R is open.
Example 13 : Let (X, d) be any metric space. Then
(i) Every singleton is a closed set.
(ii) Every finite subset of X is a closed set.
394
Theorem 8 : Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then the empty set and the whole space X are closed sets.
Theorem 9 : Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then every closed sphere in X is a closed set.
Theorem 10 : Let (X, d) be a metric space. Then
(i) Arbitrary intersection of closed sets in X is closed.
(ii) Finite union of closed sets in X is closed.
Def. Limit Point : Let (X, d) be a metric space and A be any subset of X. A point x X is said to be a
limit point of A if every open sphere centred at x contains at least one point of A other than x.
i.e., A Sr x x for every r 0
Remarks :
1. Limit point of a set may or may not belong to the set.
2. Limit point is also known as accumulation point or cluster point.
Def. Derived set : The set of all limit points of A is called the derived set of A and is denoted by A.
Def. Adherent Point : Let (X, d) be a metric space and A be any subset of X. A point x X is said to
be an adherent point of A if every open sphere centred at x contains at least one point of A i.e.,
A Sr x for every r > 0.
Remarks :
1. Limit point is always an adherent point but adherent point may not be a limit point because
A Sr x x A Sr x
but A Sr x x
A Sr x
2. Every point belonging to a set is always its adherent point.
In fact, if x A then for every open sphere Sr x , we clearly have,
x A Sr x i.e., A Sr x
Thus, we can say that the points of a set and its limit points are collectively called the adherent points.
To be precise, we give the name „isolated point‟ to those points of a set which are not its limit
points. Let us define it in a formal way :
Def. Isolated Point : Let (X, d) be a metric space and A be any subset of X. A point x A which is not
a limit point of A is called isolated point of A.
Remark : According to the three definitions made above, we can say that isolated points and limit
points are called the adherent points. In other words, we can say that adherent points are of two types,
namely, isolated points and limit points. The general situation for any set A can be understood by the
following figure.
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X
A A
Isolated Points Limit Points
Adherent Points
Example 14 : Let (X, d) be the discrete metric space. Then any point of X is not a limit point of any
subset of X.
OR
Let (X, d) be a discrete metric space and A be any subset of X then A = .
Example 15 : In the usual metric space (R, d) we have the following observations :
(i) a, b a, b .
We see that any x such that a < x < b is a limit point of (a, b) because any open interval containing x
will certainly contain infinitely many points of (a, b).
( ( x ) )
a b
Further „a‟ is a limit point of (a, b) because every open interval containing „a‟ will contain infinitely
many points of (a, b). Similarly „b‟ is also a limit point of (a, b).
( a ) ( b )
Finally any x < a (or x > b) can not be a limit point of (a, b) because if we take
a x or x b then the interval x , x does not contain a point of (a, b).
x a b x
( ) ( )
x x + x x +
Thus the points lying in the closed interval [a, b] are limit points of (a, b).
Therefore (a, b) = [a, b].
(ii) In the same manner as above, it is easy to see that
396
a, b] [a, b [a, b] [a, b] .
(iii) The set of integers Z has no limit point i.e., Z = . Any integer x can not be a limit point of Z
1 1
because the open interval x , x contains no point of Z other than x. Further any non-
2 2
integer also can not be a limit point of Z, since if x is any non-integer then there exists an integer
n such that n x n 1 and then n, n 1 is an open interval containing no point of Z. Hence
Z .
(iv) The set of natural numbers has no limit point i.e., N .
(v) Every real number is a limit point of Q(the set of rationals) i.e., Q = R, because if x is a real
number than every open interval containing x will contain infinitely many rationals.
(vi) Every real number is a limit point of I(the set of irrationals) i.e., I = R.
(vii) R = R.
1 1 1
(viii) If S 1, , , ,...... then O is the only limit point of S, i.e., S {0} :
2 3 4
Second Def. of Limit Point : Let (X, d) be a metric space and A be any subset of X. A point x X is
said to be a limit point of A if every open sphere centered at x contains infinitely many points of A.
Theorem 11 : Finite sets in a metric space have no limit points.
Theorem 12 : A subset A of a metric space is closed iff A contains all its limit points i.e., A A.
Theorem 13 : The derived set of any set in a metric space is a closed set.
OR
Let A be any subset of a metric space then A A .
Theorem 14 : Let X , d be a metric space and A and B are any two subsets of X. Then
(i)
(ii) A A
(iii) A B A B
(iv) A B A B
(v) A B A B
Def. Closure of a set : Let X , d be a metric space and A be any subset of X. The closure of A is
denoted by A and is defined as union of A and the set of all its limit points i.e., A A A .
We know that the points of a set and its limit points are collectively called the adherent points.
Therefore we can say that A is the set of all adherent points of A and so
x A iff A Sr x for every r 0 .
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Remark : By the definition of A , it is clear that A A .
Theorem 15 : Let (X, d) be a metric space and A be any subset of X, then
(i) A is a closed set
(ii) A is the smallest closed set containing A.
(iii) A is closed iff A = A
(iv) A is the intersection of all closed sets containing A.
Theorem 16 : Let X , d be any metric space and A, B are any subsets of X, then
(i) , X X
(ii) A A
(iii) A B A B
(iv) A B A B
(v) A B A B
Theorem 17 : Let A be any subset of a metric space (X, d) then prove that X A0 X A .
Exercise 11.2
1. Define the following concepts in a metric space :
(i) Open sphere (ii) Closed sphere (iii) Neighbourhood
(iv) Open set (v) Interior point (vi) Closed set
(vii) Limit point (viii) Adherent point (ix) Isolated point
(x) Derived set (xi) Closure (xii) Exterior point
(xiii) Boundary point (xiv) Sub-space
2. In the usual metric on [0, 1], describe the open spheres :
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(i) S 0, (ii) S 0, 1 (iii) S , (iv) S , 1 (v) S , (vi) S ,
2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2
3. Let X , d be a metric space and A, B are any two subsets of X. Then prove or disprove the
following :
(i) A B 0 A0 B0 (ii) A B A B (iii) A B A B
(iv) A B 0 A0 B0 (v) A B A B (vi) A B A B
398
4. In any metric space, prove or disprove the following statements :
(i) Finite union of open sets is open.
(ii) Finite union of closed sets is closed.
(iii) Finite intersection of open sets is open.
(iv) Finite intersection of closed sets is closed.
(v) Arbitrary union of open sets is open.
(vi) Arbitrary union of closed sets is closed.
(vii) Arbitrary intersection of open sets is open.
(viii) Arbitrary intersection of closed sets is closed.
5. In any metric space, prove that S x, r S x, r . Also give an example to show that equality
may not hold i.e., closure of the open sphere of radius r and centered at x is not necessarily equal
to the closed sphere of radius r centered at x. [Hint . Discrete metric space]
6. Give an example of two sets A and B in a metric space such that
(i) A B but A0 B0 (ii) A B but A B (iii) A B but A B
7. Let Y , dY be a subspace of a metric space X , d and A be any subset of Y, then prove that
(i) x Y is a limit point of A in Y if and only if x is a limit point of A in X.
* *
(ii) A A Y where A and A denote the closures of A w.r.t. dY and d respectively.
Answers
1 1 3 3
2. (i) 0 , (ii) 0 , 1 (iii) 0 , 1 (iv) 0 , 1 (v) , (vi) 0 ,
2 4 4 4
5. In the discrete metric space X , d for any a X , S a, 1 a , S a, 1 X , S a, 1 a .
6. In the usual metric space R, d
(i) A 0, 1 , B 0, 1 (ii) A 0 , 1 , B 0, 1 (iii) A 0 , 1 , B 0, 1
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11.3 Distance between sets and Equivalent metrics
Def. Distance of a point from a set : Let A be any non-empty subset of a metric space X , d . If
x X be any point then distance of x from A is denoted by d x, A and is defined as
d x, A inf d x, a : a A .
Def. Distance between two sets : Let X , d be a metric space and A, B be any two non-empty
subsets of X, then distance between A and B is denoted by d A, B and is defined as
d A, B inf d a, b : a A , b B .
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Remark : Since d x, y d y, x for all x, y X . so it is evident that d A, B d B, A .
Def. Diameter of a set : Let X , d be a metric space and A be a non-empty subset of X. The
diameter of A is denoted by A and is defined as
A sup d x, y : x, y A
Remark : The diameter of empty set is defined to be zero i.e., = 0.
Theorem 1 : Let A be any non-empty subset of a metric space X , d and x X . Then
d x, A 0 iff x A .
Remark : d x, A 0 iff x A .
Theorem 2 : Let X , d be a metric space and A, B be any two subsets of X then
(i) A B A B
(ii) A A
(iii) A B A d A, B B
(iv) If A B then d A, B 0
(v) If A B then A B A B
Remark : In part (iv) of above theorem, we have shown that if A B then d A, B 0 . But
converse need not be true, which is clear by following examples :
(i) Let R, d be the usual metric space and
1 1 1 1
A 2, 3, 4, 5,..... and B 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,......
2 3 4 5
1
be two subsets of R. Clearly A B . Now for any n A and n B , we see that
n
1 1
d n , n n n 0 as n and therefore
n n
d A, B inf d a, b : a A, b B 0
(ii) If we take A 1, 2 and B 2, 3 in the usual metric space R, d , then it is easy to see that
A B but d A, B 0 .
Def. Bounded metric space : A metric space X , d is said to be bounded if there exists a real
number K such that d x, y K x, y X
400
Remark : An equivalent definition for bounded metric space is that there exists a real number K such
that X K .
Def. Bounded subset : A subset A of a metric space is said to be bounded if there exist a real number
K 0 such that d x, y K x, y A or A K
Def. Unbounded metric space : A metric space which is not bounded is called unbounded metric
space.
Example 4 : The usual metric space R, d is unbounded whereas the discrete metric space is
bounded.
Example 5 : Every metric space X , d can be converted into a bounded metric space.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11.4 Sequences in a metric space
Def. Sequence : Let X , d be a metric space and N denotes the set of natural numbers. A function
f : N X is called a sequence in X. The elements of this sequence are f 1, f 2,....., f n,.....
For the sake of convenience, we generally denote the terms of the sequence by x1, x2 ,...., xn ,....
and the sequence is denoted by xn .
Def. Range of a sequence : Let X , d be a metric space and xn be a sequence in X. Then the
set of all distinct terms of the sequence is said to be range or range set of the sequence xn .
Def. Convergent sequence : Let X , d be a metric space. A sequence xn in X is said to be
convergent to a point x X , if for given 0 , there exists a positive integer n0 such that
d xn , x for all n n0
OR
A sequence xn in X is said to converge to a point x X , if for each 0 , there exists a positive
integer n0 such that xn S x n n0
Symbolically, we express this by writing xn x as n or lim xn x or simply xn x .
n
Speakingly, we express this by saying xn approaches x or xn tends to x or xn converges to x.
The element x is called the limit of the sequence.
Theorem 1 : In a metric space, every convergent sequence has a unique limit.
Def. Bounded Sequence : A sequence xn in a metric space X , d is said to be bounded if there
exists a real number K > 0 such that d xn , xm K n, m N
Theorem 2 : Every convergent sequence is bounded.
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Theorem 3 : Let A be any subset of a metric space X , d . A point x X is a limit point of A if and
only if there exists a sequence xn of distinct points of A such that xn x as n .
Theorem 4 : Let A be any subset of a metric space X , d . Then A is closed if and only if every
convergent sequence of points of A converges in A.
Theorem 5 : Let X , d1 and Y , d2 be two metric spaces. A sequence xn , yn in the product
metric space X Y converges to x, y iff xn x , yn y as n .
Def. Cauchy Sequence : A sequence xn in a metric space X , d is said to be a Cauchy sequence
if for each > 0, there exists a positive integer n0 such that
d xm , xn m n0 , n n0
OR
A sequence xn in a metric space X , d is said to be a Cauchy sequence if for each
> 0, there exists a positive integer n0 such that d xn , xn0 n n0
OR
A sequence xn in a metric space X , d is said to be a Cauchy sequence if for each
> 0, there exists a positive integer n0 such that
d xn p , xn n n0 , p 1
Theorem 6 : In a metric space, every convergent sequence is a Cauchy sequence.
Example 1 : Give two examples to show that converse of above theorem is not true i.e., a Cauchy
sequence may not be convergent in a metric space.
Def. Subsequence : Let xn be a sequence in X and nk be a strictly increasing sequence of
natural numbers i.e., n1 n2 n3 ....... Then xnk is called a subsequence of xn .
Further a subsequence xnk converges to a point x X , if for given > 0 there exists a
positive integer n0 such that | xnk x | k n0 .
Theorem 7 : Let X , d be a metric space and xn be a convergent sequence in X such that
xn x . If xnk be any subsequence of xn then xnk x as k
OR
Every subsequence of a convergent sequence is convergent and it converges to the same limit to which
the sequence converges.
402
Theorem 8 : Let X , d be a metric space and xn be a Cauchy sequence in X. Then xn is
convergent if and only if it has a convergent subsequence.
Theorem 9 : Every Cauchy sequence is bounded in a metric space.
Def. Complete metric space : A metric space X , d is said to be complete if every Cauchy
sequence in X is convergent to a point in X.
Example 2 : Every discrete metric space is complete.
Example 3 : The space Q, d , where d is the usual metric, is not complete.
Example 4 : The space X 0, 1 with the usual metric is not complete.
Example 5 : The usual metric space R, d is complete.
Theorem 10 : Let X , d be a complete metric space and Y , dY be a subspace of X , d . Then Y
is complete iff Y is closed.
Remark : Any closed interval a, b with the usual metric is a complete metric space.
Theorem 11 : A metric space X , d is complete iff every Cauchy sequence in X has a convergent
subsequence.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11.5 Compactness
Def. Cover: Let A be a subset of a metric space X , d . A collection G : is said to be a
cover of A if A G .
Def. Open Cover : If all the members of a cover are open, then it is said to be an open cover.
Def. Subcover : Let C G : be a cover of a set A in a metric space X , d . A subcollection
C G : , is said to be subcover of C if C itself covers A i.e., A G .
Def. Finite subcover : A subcover C of a cover C is said to be a finite subcover if C has only finite
number of members.
OR
If C G : is a cover of a set A in a metric space X and some finite members of collection C,
say G1 , G2 ,......, Gn are able to cover A, then the collection G1 , G2 ,......, Gn is called a finite
subcover of C.
Note : Sometimes the word „covering‟ is also used in place of „cover‟.
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Def. Compact metric space : A metric space X , d is said to be compact if every open cover of X
has a finite subcover.
Remark : A metric space X , d is not compact if there exists at least one open cover of X which has
no finite subcover.
Example 1 : The usual metric space R, d is not compact.
Remark : In above example, we can also consider the open cover.
C n, n : n Z
This collection is an open cover of R but any finite subcollection of C can not cover R.
However, a notable fact about the collection C and C is that we can not remove even a single
set from the collection C but we can remove some finite sets from collection C and still it covers R. In
other words, the collection C has no subcover (finite or infinite), whereas collection C has no finite
subcover but it can have infinite subcover. To the end, the inherent character of the collection C and C
is different, but both serve our purpose of showing that R is not compact.
Def. Compact Subset : A subset Y of a metric space X , d is said to be compact if it is compact as a
metric subspace i.e., if the metric space Y , dY is compact.
Therefore, if any subset Y of a metric space is required to prove compact, then start with any
open covering of Y w.r.t. the metric space Y , dY and then reduce it to a finite subcover.
Theorem 1 : Every closed subset of a compact metric space is compact.
Theorem 2 : Continuous image of a compact metric space is compact.
Exercise
1. Give an example of each of the following :
(i) a closed subset of R which is compact.
(ii) a closed subset of R which is not compact
(iii) a bounded subset of R which is compact
(iv) a bounded subset of R which is not compact
2. Show that the set [0, ) is not compact in the usual metric space.
3. Prove that union of two compact sets is compact.
4. Prove that intersection of two compact sets is compact.
404
5. Show that the usual metric space R, d is not sequentially compact.
6. Show that every compact subset of a metric space is closed.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11.6 Connectedness
Def. Separated sets : Let X , d be a metric space. Two non-empty subsets A and B of X are said to
be separated if A B and A B
For example, in the usual metric space R, d ,
(i) the sets A 0, 1 and B 1, 2 are separated.
(ii) the sets A 0, 1 and B 1, 2 are not separated.
Remarks :
(i) The two conditions A B and A B can be merged into single condition
A B A B
which is known as Hausdorff-lennes separation condition.
(ii) Two separated sets are disjoint but two disjoint sets are not necessarily separated e.g. the sets
A 0, 1 and B 1, 2 are disjoint but not separated.
(iii) If A and B be separated subsets of a metric space X , d and let C and D be non-empty subsets of
X s.t. C A , D B, then C D A B and C D A B
C and D are separated sets. Thus, we can say that subsets of separated sets are separated.
Theorem 1 : Two closed subsets in a metric space are separated iff they are disjoint.
Theorem 2 : Two open subsets in a metric space are separated iff they are disjoint.
Theorem 3 : If A and B be two separated subsets of a metric space such that
(i) A B is closed, then A and B are closed sets.
(ii) A B is open, then A and B are open sets.
Def. Disconnected set : Let X , d be a metric space. A subset E of X is said to be disconnected if E
can be expressed as the union of two non-empty separated sets. Equivalently, E is disconnected if
there exists two sets A and B s.t.
E A B , A , B and A B , A B
Def. Connected set : A set E in a metric space X , d is said to be connected if it is not disconnected.
Equivalently E is connected if it cannot be expressed as the union of two non-empty separated sets,
i.e., if E A B, A , B , then either
A B or A B
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Example 1 : The empty set and every singleton set in a metric space are connected.
Example 2 : In a discrete metric space, the sets consisting of two elements are not connected.
Theorem 4 : A metric space X , d is disconnected iff there exists a non-empty proper subset of X
which is both open and closed.
Corollary (A) : A metric space X , d is connected iff the only non-empty subset of X which is both
open and closed is X itself.
Corollary (B) : A metric space X , d is disconnected iff X is the union of two non-empty disjoint
open (closed) sets.
Corollary (C) : A metric space X , d is connected iff X is not the union of two non-empty disjoint
open (closed) sets.
Theorem 5 : If E is connected subset of a metric space X , d s.t. E A B where A and B are
separated sets, then either E A or E B .
Theorem 6 : Let X , d be a metric space and let E be a connected subset of X. If F is a subset of X
s.t. E F E , then F is connected. In particular, E is connected.
Theorem 7 : Let X , d be a metric space and E be any subset of X. If every two points of E are
contained in some connected subset of E, then E must be connected.
Theorem 8 : Let X , d be a metric space and let C be a non-empty collection of connected
subsets of X s.t. C
, then C
is a connected set.
Theorem 9 : Let X , d be a metric space and let C be a nonempty collection of connected
subsets of X s.t. no two sets of the collection are mutually disjoint, then C is connected.
Def. Component : A maximal connected subset of a metric space is called a component of metric
space. Maximal connected subset means connected subset which is not properly contained in any other
connected set.
For example, (i) let X , d be discrete metric space, then we know that the singleton sets are only
connected subsets of X and hence they are the maximal connected sets. Thus each singleton set is a
component in a discrete metric space.
(ii) If X , d be a connected metric space, then X has only one component namely X itself.
Theorem 10 : Every component of a metric space X , d is closed.
406
Theorem 11 : Let X , d be a metric space, then each connected set in X is contained in a
component.
Theorem 12 : Each connected subset of X which is both open and closed is a component of X.
Theorem 13 : Let X , d be a metric space, then each point of X is contained in exactly one
component of X.
Theorem 14 : Any two components of a metric space X , d are separated.
Theorem 15 : The real line in a usual metric space R, d is connected.
Theorem 16 : Let X , d and Y , d * be two metric spaces and f be a continuous mapping of X onto
Y. If X is connected, then Y is also connected i.e., continuous image of a connected space is connected.
Exercise
1. Give an example to show that subset of a connected set need not be connected.
2. Prove that a subset of R containing at least two points is connected iff it is an interval.
3. Give an example of three set A, B, C in the usual metric space R, d such that
(i) A B C
(ii) A and C are connected in R but B is not connected in R.
4. Show that continuous image of a connected set is connected.
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True false exercise 11. In a metric space, finite union of open sets
is open.
1. Let X , d be a metric space and x, y, z be
12. In a metric space, every closed sphere is a
any three points of x, then closed set.
d x, y d x, z d z, y .
13. In a metric space, finite intersection of
2. Let X , d be a metric space and let closed sets is closed.
x1, x2 , y1, y2 X , then 14. In a metric space, arbitrary union of closed
d x1, y1 d x2 y2 sets is closed.
d x1, x2 d y1, y2
Assignment
3. Let X be a non-empty set X , d1 and
X , d2 be two metric space, ---------------------- S C Q ---------------------
then d x, y max d1 x, y , d2 x, y 1. Let S , T R 2 be given by
x, y X is a metric on X.
1
S x,sin :0 x 1 {(0,0)} and
4. Let X denote the set of all functions defined x
and Riemann integrable on 0,1 . For any 1
1 T x, x sin :0 x 1 {(0,0)}
x
f , g X , d f , g f x g x dx is a
0 Then, under the usual metric on R 2 ,
metric on X.
1. S is compact but not T
5. In a usual metric space every open sphere is 2. T is compact but not S
an open interval.
3. both S and T are compact
6. In a usual metric space every closed sphere 4. neither S nor T is compact
is a closed interval.
(GATE 2006)
7. In discrete metric space X , d , every 2. Let X , d be a metric space and let
subset of X is open.
A X . For x X , define
d x, A inf d x, a : a A . If
8. In a usual metric, every open interval is an
open set.
d x, A 0 for all x X , then which of the
9. In a metric space, every open sphere is an
open set. following assertions must be true ?
10. In a metric space, arbitrary interaction of 1. A is compact 2. A is closed
open set is open. 3. A is dense in X 4. A = X
(CSIR NET Dec 2011)
408
3. Let X be a metric space and A X be a 2. Which of the following are metrics on
connected set with at least two distinct C f : 0,1 iscontinuousfunction
points. Then the number of distinct points
in A is
1. d f , g sup f x g x : x 0,1 .
1. 2
2. d f , g inf f x g x : x 0,1 .
2. more than 2, but finite 1
3. countably infinite 3. d f , g f x g x dx.
0
4. uncountable
(CSIR NET Dec 2012)
4. d f , g sup f x g x : x 0,1
4. Let f : X Y be a function from a metric 1
f x g x dx
space X to another metric space Y. For any 0
Cauchy sequence xn in X, (CSIR NET June 2012)
3. For x x1, x2 ,..., xn and
1. if f is continuous then f xn is a
Cauchy sequence in Y. y y1, y2 ,..., yn in n let
2. if f xn is Cauchy then f xn is
1
n p p
d p x, y x j y j for p ,
always convergent in Y. i 1
3. if f xn is Cauchy in Y then f is
and d x, y max x j y j : j 1,2,..., n .
continuous.
Let Bp x n : d p x,0 1 ,1 p .
4. xn is always convergent in X.
Which of the following are correct ?
(CSIR NET June 2014)
1. B1 is open in the d metric.
2. B2 is open in the d metric.
----------------------- M C Q ------------------------
3. B1 is not open in the d 2 metric.
1. Which of the following is/are metrics on 4. B2 is not open in th d 2 metric.
? (CSIR NET June 2012)
4. Consider the , the set of rational
1. d x, y min x, y
numbers, with the metric d p, q p q .
2. d x, y x y
Then which of the following are true ?
3. d x, y x 2 y 2
1. q 2 q 3 is closed
2
4. d x, y x3 y 3
(CSIR NET June 2011)
2. q 2 q 4 is compact
2
3. q 2 q 4 is closed
2
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4. q q 1 is compact
2 1. If S is closed and d x, S 0 then x is
(CSIR NET June 2013) not an accumulation point of S.
5. Let A be a subset of p and x p . 2. If S is open and d x, S 0 then x is
Denote d x, A inf d x, y : y A . not an accumulation point of S.
There exists a point y0 A with 3. If S is closed and d x, S 0 then S
d y0 , x d x, A , if
does not contain x.
4. If S is open and d x, S 0 then x S.
1. A is any closed non empty subset of p
(CSIR NET Dec 2014)
2. A is any non empty subset of p
3. A is any non empty compact subset of 8. Let d1, d 2 be the following metrics on n .
n
p d1( x, y ) xi yi ,
i 1
4. A is any non empty bounded subset of
1
p n 2
d 2 ( x, y ) xi yi
2
(CSIR NET June 2013) i 1
6. Let A and B be two disjoint nonempty Then decide which of the following is a
subsets of 2 s.t. A B is open in 2 . metric on n .
d ( x, y ) d 2 ( x, y)
Then, 1. d ( x, y) 1
1 d1( x, y) d 2 ( x, y)
1. if A is open and A B is connected, 2. d ( x, y) d1( x, y) d2 ( x, y)
then B must be closed in 2 . 3. d ( x, y) d1( x, y) d2 ( x, y)
2. if A is closed, then B must be open in 4. d ( x, y) e d1( x, y) e d2 ( x, y )
(CSIR-NET Dec 2016)
2 . 9. Consider the set of rational numbers as
3. if both A and B are connected, then a subspace of with the usual metric.
Suppose a and b are irrational numbers
A B must be disconnected.
with a b and let K a, b . Then
4. if A B is disconnected, then both A 1. K is a bounded subset of
and B are open. 2. K is a closed subset of
3. K is a compact subset of
(CSIR NET Dec 2013)
4. K is an open subset of
7. For a non empty subset S and a point x in a
(CSIR NET Dec 2017)
connected metric space X , d , let
10. Let X , the set of positive integers.
d x, S = inf d x, y : y S . Which of Consider the metrics d1 , d 2 on X given by
the following statements is/are correct ?
d1 m, n m n , m, n X
410
1 1 True false key
d 2 m, n , m, n X
m n 1. F 2. T 3. T 4. F
Let X 1 , X 2 denote the metric spaces 5. T 6. T 7. T 8. T
X , d1 , X , d2 respectively. Then 9. T 10. F 11. T 12. T
13. T 14. F
1. X 1 is complete
2. X 2 is complete Assignment key
3. X 1 is totally bounded SCQ
4. X 2 is totally bounded 1. 3 2. 3 3. 4 4. 3
(CSIR NET Dec 2018)
11. Let X be a countable set. Then which of the MCQ
1. 2,4 2. 1,3,4 3. 1,2 4.1,3
following are true ?
5. 1,3 6. 2 7. 1,2,3 8. 1,3,4
1. There exists a metric d on X such that
9. 1,2,4
X ,d is complete
2. There exists a metric d on X such that
X ,d is not complete
3. There exists a metric d on X such that
X ,d is compact
4. There exists a metric d on X such that
X ,d is not compact
(CSIR NET June 2019)
12. For a , let denote the greatest
integer smaller than or equal to . Define
d : [0, ) by d x, y x y ,
x, y . Then which of the following are
true ?
1. d x, y 0 if and only if x y,
x, y .
2. d x, y d y, x , x, y
3. d x, y d x, z d z, y , x, y, z
4. d is not a metric on
(CSIR NET June 2019)
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Chapter - 12
Improper integral
12.1 Basic definitions
b
Def. Proper Integral : The definite integral f x dx is said to be a proper integral if
a
(i) The interval of integration a, b is finite (or bounded)
(ii) The integrand f is bounded on a, b
b
Def. Improper Integral : The integral
a
f x dx is an improper integral if
(i) either the interval of integration a, b is not finite
(ii) or f is not bounded on a, b
(iii) neither the interval a, b is finite nor f is bounded over it.
b
Def. Improper integral of first kind : In the definite integral
a
f x dx , if either a or b or both a and
b
b are infinite so that the interval of integration is unbounded but f is bounded, then
a
f x dx is called
an improper integral of the first kind.
0
dx dx
For example, , e dx , 2
2x
are improper integrals of the first kind.
1 x
x 2x 2
t
In this case, we define
a
f x dx lim
t
a
f x dx , where t a
The improper integral
a
f x dx will be convergent if the limit on the right hand side exists finitely
and will be divergent if the limit is + or .
If the integral is neither convergent nor divergent, then it will be oscillating.
b
Def. Improper integral of second kind : In the definite integral
a
f x dx , if both a and b are finite
so that the interval of integration is finite but f has one or more points of infinite discontinuity i.e., f is
b
not bounded on a, b , then f x dx is called an improper integral of the second kind.
a
1 2 4
dx dx dx
For example, 0
x2
,
1
,
2 x 1 x 1 4 x
are improper integrals of the second kind.
412
b b
In this case, we define
f x dx lim
t f x dx,
t
where t b
b
The improper integral
f x dx will be convergent if the limit on the right hand side exists finitely
and will be divergent if the limit is + or .
b
Def. Improper integral of third kind : In the definite integral
a
f x dx , if the interval of
b
integration is unbounded (so that a and b or both are infinite) and f is also unbounded, then
a
f x dx
is called an improper integral of the third kind.
e x
For example, dx is an improper integral of the third kind.
0 x
c
In this case, we define
f x dx
f x dx
c
f x dx where c is any real number
c t2
lim
t1 f x dx lim
t1
t2
c
f x dx
The improper integral
f x dx will be convergent if both the limits on the right hand side exist
finitely and independent of each other, otherwise it will be divergent.
c t
Note : (a) f x dx lim f x dx f x dx
t
t c
(b) In the improper integral of second kind, both a and b are finite but f has one (or more) points of
infinite discontinuity on a, b .
b b
(i) If f x becomes infinite at x = b only, we define
a
f x dx lim
0
a
f x dx .
b
The improper integral
a
f x dx will be convergent if the limit on the right hand side exists finitely
and will be divergent if the limit is + or .
b c
(ii) If f x becomes infinite at x = a only, we define
a
f x dx lim
0
a
f x dx .
b
The improper integral f x dx
a
will be convergent if the limit on the right hand side exists finitely,
otherwise it will be divergent.
(iii) If f x becomes infinite at x c only where a c b , we define
b c b c 1 b
a
f x dx f x dx
a
c
f x dx lim
1 0
a
f x dx lim
2 0
c
f x dx
2
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b
The improper integral
a
f x dx will be convergent if both the limits on the right hand side exist
finitely and independent of each other, otherwise it will be divergent.
Note : 1. If f has infinite discontinuity at an end point of the interval of integration, then the point of
discontinuity is approached from within the interval.
Thus if the interval of integration is a, b and
(i) f has infinite discontinuity at ‘a’, we consider a , b as 0 .
(ii) f has infinite discontinuity at ‘b’, we consider a, b as 0 .
2. A proper integral always converges.
b
3. If f x dx
a
converges, then
b
(i) k f x dx converges, k
a
b c b
(ii) f x dx f x dx f x dx where a c b and each integral on right hand side converges.
a a c
4. For any c between a and b, i.e., a c b, we have
b c b
a
f x dx f x dx
a
c
f x dx
b b c
If f x is a proper integral, then the integrals
c a
f x dx and f x dx
a
converge or
b
diverge together. Thus while testing the integral f x dx for convergence at a, it may be
a
c
replaced by
a
f x dx for any convenient c such that a c b .
Improper integrals of first kind :
Example : Examine the convergence of the improper integrals :
dx dx
(i)
0
1 x2
(ii) 1 x
(iii) sin x dx
0
t
dx dx
1 x 1 x
t
Solution : (i) We have 2
lim 2
lim tan 1 x
t t 0
0 0
lim tan 1 t tan 1 0 (finite)
t 2
dx
Hence
0
1 x 2
converges to
2
.
414
t t 1
dx dx
(ii) We have
1
lim
x t
1 x
lim
t
1
x 2
dx
t
lim 2 x lim 2 t 2
t 1 t
dx
Hence 1 x
diverges to .
t
sin x dx lim sin x dx lim cos x lim 1 cos t
t
(iii) We have 0
t t t
0 0
which does not exist uniquely since cos t oscillates between 1 and +1 when 1 .
Hence
0
sin x dx oscillates.
Exercise 12.1
Examine the convergence of the following improper integrals and if convergent, find their value
x dx
1. e dx m 0
mx
2. dx 3.
0 a
1 x 2
2 x x 1
2
dx tan 1 x
4.
2
x log x
5.
0
x sin x dx 6. 1
x2
dx
0 0 0
dx
x
7. e dx 8. 9. cosh x dx
p q2 x2
2
1
dx dx
x
10. 11. e dx 12.
1 x2
1 x2
Answers
1
1. Convergent ; 2. Divergent 3. Convergent ; 4. Divergent
m 4
1
5. Oscillates log 2
6. Convergent ; 7. Divergent [Link];
4 2 2 pq
3
9. Divergent 10. Convergent ; 11. Divergent 12. Convergent ;
4
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12.2 Improper integrals of second kind
1 2
dx dx
Example : Test the convergence of the integrals : (i)
0 x
(ii)
1
x log x
Solution : (i) Here 0 is the only point of infinite discontinuity of the integrand on [0, 1]
1 1 1
dx 1
Therefore 0 x 0 0 2 dx lim
lim x
0
2 x lim 21 2 (finite)
0
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1
dx
Hence
0 x
converges to 2.
(ii) Here 1 is the only point of infinite discontinuity of the integrand on [1, 2]
1
2 2
dx
Therefore 1 x log x lim x dx
0 1 log x
lim log log x 1 lim log log 2 log log 1
2
0 0
log log 2 log0 log log 2
2
dx
Hence
1
x log x
diverges to .
Exercise 12.2
Examine the convergence of the following improper integrals and if convergent find their value :
1
2 e 2 1
x dx dx
1.
1 x 1
dx 2.
0
x log x 2
3.
1 x x2 1
4.
0
log x dx
1 2 2
dx cos x dx dx
5.
0
x 3x 2
2
6.
0 1 sin x
dx 7.
0
sin x
8.
0
2 x x2
Answers
8
1. Convergent ; 2. Convergent ; 1 3. Convergent ; 4. Convergent ; 1
3 3
5. Divergent 6. Convergent ; 2 7. Divergent 8. Divergent
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b
12.3 Tests for convergence of
a
f x dx at a
Let the only point of infinite discontinuity of f on a, b be a. The case when b is the only
point of infinite discontinuity can be dealt with in the same way. Without any loss of generality, we
assume that f is positive (or non-negative) on a, b . In case f is negative, we can replace it by f
b
for testing the convergence of f x dx .
a
Results :
b
1. A necessary and sufficient condition for the convergence of the improper integral f x dx
a
at a,
where f is positive on (a, b], is that there exists a positive number K, independent of > 0 such that
416
b
a
f x dx K for all in 0, b a .
b
Note : If for every K 0 and some in 0, b a ; A K , then
a
f x dx is not bounded above.
b b
Thus
a
f x dx tends to + as 0+ and hence the improper integral f x dx diverges to +.
a
2. Comparison Test I : If f and g are two positive functions with f x g x for all x in a, b] and
a is the only point of infinite discontinuity on a, b , then
b b
(i) Convergence of g x dx implies the convergence of
a a
f x dx .
b b
(ii) Divergence of
a
f x dx implies the divergence of g x dx .
a
3. Comparison Test II : If f and g be two positive functions on a, b] , a being the only point of
f x
infinite discontinuity, and lim l where l is non-zero finite number, then the two integrals
xa g x
b b
a
f x dx and g x dx converge or diverge together.
a
4. Let f and g be two positive functions on a, b , a being the only point of infinite discontinuity.
Then
f x
b b
(i) lim 0 and g x dx converges a f x dx converges
xa g x
a
f x
b b
(ii) lim
xa g x
and
a
g x dx diverges
a
f x dx diverges
b
dx
5. The improper integral x a
a
n
is convergent if and only if n 1.
b
dx
6. The improper integral b x
a
n
is convergent if and only if n 1.
7. If a is the only point of infinite discontinuity of f on a, b and lim x a n f x exists and is non-
x a
b
zero finite, then
a
f x dx converges if and only if n 1.
8. If b is the only point of infinite discontinuity of f on a, b and lim b x n f x exists and is non-
x b
b
zero finite, then f x dx converges if and only if
a
n 1.
Example : Examine the convergence of the integrals :
2 1 3
dx dx dx
(i) (ii) (iii)
1 1 x 2 x 1 x 2 1 x 3 1
0 2
x 2 3 x 2
4
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1
Solution : (i) Let f x
1 x 2 x
Here 2 is the only point of infinite discontinuity of f on [1, 2]
1 f x 1 1
If we take g x , then lim lim (finite and non-zero)
2 x x 2 g x x 2 1 x 3
2 2
Thus by comparison test,
1
f x dx and
1
g x dx converge or diverge together
2 2 b
dx dx 1
But,
1
g x dx
1 2 x
which is of the form a
b x n
with b 2 converges, n 1
2
2 2
dx
Hence
1
f x dx
1 1
x 2 x
is convergent.
1
(ii) Let f x
1 x 1 x 3
2
Here 1 is the only point of infinite discontinuity of f on [0, 1].
1 f x 1 1
If we take g x , then lim lim (finite and non-zero)
1 x 3
x 1 g x x 1 1 x
2
4
1 1
Thus by comparison test,
0
f x dx and 0
g x dx converge or diverge together.
1 1 b
dx dx
But g x dx which is of the form b x with b 1 diverges n 3 1
0 0
1 x 3 a
n
1 1
dx
Hence f x dx
0 0
1 x 2 1 x 3
is divergent.
1
(iii) Let f x 1
x 2 3 x 2 4
Here 2 and 3 are the only points of infinite discontinuity of f on [2, 3].
3 a 3
We may write
2
f x dx f x dx
2
a
f x dx, where 2 a 3 ......(1)
a
1
To test the convergence of f x dx at x 2 , let us take g x 1
, then
2
x 2 4
f x 1
lim lim 1 (finite and non-zero)
x2 g x x 2 3 x 2
a a
Thus by comparison test, the integrals
2
f x dx and
2
g x dx converge or diverge together.
a a b
dx dx 1
But
2
g x dx
2
x 21/4
which is of the form
a
x a n
converges. n 4 1
418
a
Hence 2
f x dx is convergent.
3
1
To test the convergence of
a
f x dx at x 3 , let us take g x
3 x 2
, then
f x 1
lim lim 1 (finite and non-zero)
x3 g x x 3 1
x 2 4
3 3
Thus by comparison test, the integrals
a
f x dx and
a
g x dx converge or diverge together. But
3 3 b
dx dx
g x dx which is of the form diverges. n 2 1
a a
3 x 2 a
b x n
3 3
Thus a
f x dx is divergent. Hence, from (1),
2
f x dx is divergent.
Exercise 12.3
Examine the convergence of following improper integrals
x2 1
1 1 3 2
dx dx x
1.
0 1 x3
2.
0
x 2 x 2 5
3
3.
2
x2 4
dx 4.
1
log x
dx
2 4 1
log x 1 sin x
5.
0 2 x
dx 6.
0 tan x
dx 7.
0
3
dx
2
x
2
8. Show that 0
x m cosecn x dx exists if and only if n m 1 .
2
2
9. Show that 0
sin x log sin x dx is convergent with value log .
e
Answers
1. Convergent 2. Divergent 3. Divergent 4. Divergent
5. Convergent 6. Convergent 7. Convergent.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12.4 General test for convergence
Note : This test for convergence of an improper integral (finite limits of integration but discontinuous
integrand) holds whether or not the integrand keeps the same sign.
b
Cauchy’s Test : The improper integral
a
f x dx , a being the only point of infinite discontinuity,
converges at a if and only if to each > 0, there corresponds a > 0 such that
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a 2
a 1
f x dx for all 0 1 , 2
b
Def. Absolute convergence : The improper integral a
f x dx is absolutely convergent if
| f x | dx is convergent.
a
Result : Every absolutely convergent integral is convergent.
Note : (i) Since | f x | is always positive, the comparison tests can be applied for examining the
b b
convergence of | f x | dx , i.e., absolute convergence of
a
a
f x dx .
(ii) The converse of the above theorem is not true. Every convergent integral is not absolutely
convergent. A convergent integral which is not absolutely convergent is called a conditionally
convergent integral.
1
1 sin
Example : Test the convergence of x dx .
0 x
1
sin
Solution : Let f x x
x
Clearly, f does not keep the same sign in a neighbourhood of 0.
1 1
sin sin
x x 1
Now, f x for all x 0, 1
x x x
1
1 1
But
0 x
dx is convergent at 0. n 2 1
1
Thus, by comparison test, | f x | dx is convergent at 0.
0
1
Since absolute convergence implies convergence, therefore
0
f x dx is convergent.
Convergence At , The Integrand Being Positive :
Results :
1. A necessary and sufficient condition for the convergence of
a
f x dx , where f x 0 for all
420
t
x x, t is that there exists a positive number K, independent of t such that f x dx K t a .
a
Note : If no such number K exists, then the monotonic increasing function F t is unbounded above
and therefore tends to as t .
t
a
f x dx diverges to
2. Comparison Test I : If f and g are two functions such that 0 f x g x for all x a, , then
(i) Convergence of
a
g x dx implies the convergence of
a
f x dx .
(ii) Divergence of
a
f x dx implies the divergence of g x dx .
a
f x
3. Comparison Test II : If f and g are positive functions on a, and lim l . Then
x g x
(i) if l is non-zero and finite, the two integrals a
f x dx and g x dx
a
converge or diverge together.
(ii) If l 0 and g x dx converges, then
a a
f x dx converges.
(iii) If l and
a
g x dx diverges , then
a
f x dx diverges
dx
4. The improper integral , where a 0 is convergent iff n 1 .
a
xn
dx
Example : Examine the convergence of
1 2 x x
.
1 1
Solution : Let f x 3
2 x x 2
x 2 1
x
1 f x 1
If we take g x 3 , then lim lim 1 (finite and non-zero)
x g x x 2
x2 1
x
Thus by comparison test,
1
f x dx and
1
g x dx converge or diverge together.
dx 3
But
1
g x dx
1
3
is convergent n 1
2
2
x
dx
Hence
1
f x dx
1 2 x x
is convergent.
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Exercise 12.4
Examine the convergence of following improper integral
x dx cos x
1. 3 dx 2. 3. dx
x 1 3
1 x2
0 e
x log x 2 0
dx 1
4. Show that the integral
1 x 1 x n
is convergent if and only if n .
2
dx
5. Show that the integral
e
x log x n 1
is convergent if and only if n 0 .
x2m 1
6. Show that the integral
0
1 x 2n
dx, m, n 0 is convergent iff n m .
2
Answers
1. Convergent 2. Convergent 3. Convergent
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------
12.5 General test for convergence at ‘’
Cauchy’s test : The improper integral f x dx converges at if and only if to each > 0, there
a
2
corresponds a > 0 such that f x dx
1
for all 1, 2 .
sin x
Example : Show that 1 x
dx is convergent at .
Proof : Let > 0 be given.
2 sin x
Now, let us evaluate dx using integration by parts
1 x
2 cos x 2
2
sin x cos x
We have, 1 x
dx
x 1
1 x2
dx
cos 1 cos 2 2 cos x
dx
1 2 1 x2
2 sin x cos 1 cos 2 2 cos x
1 x
dx
1
2
1 x2
dx
1 1 2 dx
| cos x | 1
1 2 1 x2
1 1 1 1
1 2 1 2
422
4
if both 1 , 2 are
4 4 4 4
=
2 sin x 4
Thus, we have : 1 x
dx for all 1 , 2
4
Let , so that we have
sin x 2
1 x
dx for all 1, 2
sin x
Hence by Cauchy’s test dx is convergent at .
1 x
Convergence of the integral of a product of two functions :
Abel’s test : If f x dx is convergent at and g x is bounded and monotonic for x a , then
a
f x g x dx is convergent at .
a
Dirichlet’s test : If f x dx is bounded for all a and g x is a bounded and monotonic
a
function for x a tending to 0 as x , then f x g x dx is convergent at .
a
sin kx
Example : Examine the convergence of the improper integral 0 x
dx .
sin kx 1 sin kx sin kx
Solution : We have, 0 x
dx
0 x
dx 1 x
dx ......(1)
sin kx 1
Here,
0 x dx is a proper integral and hence is convergent.
sin kx
Now, we examine the convergence of dx .
1 x
cos kx
We have 1
sin kx dx
k 1
1
cos k cos k
k
1
| cos k | | cos k |
k
1 2
1 1
k k
Hence 1
sin kx dx is bounded for 1
1
Also, is monotonically decreasing function of x and tends to zero as x .
x
sin kx
By Dirichlet’s test, dx is convergent.
1 x
Hence from (1), the given integral is convergent.
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Exercise 12.5
Examine the convergence of following improper integrals :
sin x sin x
1. sin x p dx p 1 2. dx 3. log x . dx
0 0 xp e x
cos x
4. 5. e a x cos bx dx
2 2
dx
0
x2 x 0
Answers
1. convergent 2. convergent 3. convergent 4. convergent 5. convergent
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True false exercise
1
1 2
x
b
11. The integral 1 x dx is convergent.
f ( x) dx
0
1. The integral is proper if the
a
1
1
interval of integration a, b is finite. x2 x 2
1
2. A proper integral may diverge. 12. The integral log 1 x dx is
0
x
convergent.
2 x2
3. The integral x4 1 dx converge to
2
1 2
cos x
log3 tan 1 2 . 13. The integral dx is convergent.
2 2 0 x3
x 2
4. The integral x e dx converges to a 2
sin 2 x
finite limit.
0 14. The integral x4
dx is convergent.
0
1 1
x
5. The integral 1 x 2
dx is convergent. 15. The integral e 10 x
x 2 dx is convergent.
5 0
3
dx Assignment
6. The integral x 2 2 diverges to .
1
---------------------- S C Q ---------------------
5
dx 2x2
7. The integral 1
is convergent. 1. The integral x 4 1 dx is
2 5 x 2 2
1. convergent and equal to
7 2
dx
7 x 3
2. convergent and equal to tan 1 2
8. The integral is convergent.
3 2
3. convergent and equal to
4 1
dx tan 1 2 log3
9. The integral 1
is convergent to 2 2
2 4 x 2 4. divergent
2. Consider the following improper integrals
2 2.
dx dx
I1 and I 2 .
x 2
1 1 3
10. The integral
1 x
dx is convergent. 1
1
x 2 2 1
1
x 2 2
0
Then,
1. I1 converges but not I 2
426
n1
2. I 2 converges but not I1 1
9. Let A n dx for n 1.
3. both I1 and I 2 converge n
x3
4. Neither I1 nor I 2 converges
For c let lim nc A n L .
n
dx
3. The integral is
Then
2
x2 1
1. L 0 if c 3
1. exist and equal to zero
2. L 1 if c 3
2. exists and equal to
2
3. L 2 if c 3
2
3. exists and equal to
4. L if 0<c 3
4. does not exists
(CSIR NET Dec 2018)
4. The integral sin x dx is
0 ----------------------- M C Q ------------------------
1. exists
1. Given integrals
2. exists and equal to zero
1
2. exists and equal to 1 dx dx
4. does not exist
(A) x2 (B) 2
1 1 3
1 x
m1
5. The integral x (1 x)n1 dx is Then,
0 1. (A) exist and converges to 1
convergent, when 2. (A) does not exist
1. m 0 2. n 0 3. (B) exist in general sense
3. m 0, n 0 4. m 0, n 1 4. (A) and (B) both exist
b
sin x
6. The integral
dx
( x a)n is convergent, when 2. Given integral x
dx, then
a 0
1. n 1 2. n 1 1. integral converges
3. n 1 4. n 1 2. integral is not converges
7. Consider the improper integrals 3. integral converges but not absolutely
4. integral also converges absolutely
dx 2
I1 and I 2 e x dx . Then,
x x 1 2 2
x
1 0 m
3. Given integral cosecn x dx
1. I1 is convergent but I 2 is divergent 0
2. I1 is divergent but I 2 is convergent Then,
3. both I1 and I 2 are convergent 1. it exist when n (m 1)
4. Neither I1 nor I 2 are convergent 2. it exist when n (m 1)
8. Consider the improper Riemann integral 3. it exist when n m 1
x 4. it does not exist
0
y 1/2 dy . 4. Consider the improper integral
This integral is :
2
1. continuous in [0, ) .
I log sin xdx . Then,
2. continuous only in (0, ) . 0
3. discontinuous in (0, ) . 1. I is convergent 2. I is divergent
4. discontinuous only in (1/ 2, ) .
3. I log 2 4. I log 2
(CSIR NET June 2016) 2 2
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5. Which of the following(s) improper (CSIR NET June 2018)
integral is/are convergent ?
cost
3 x2
10. Let f x dt . Then which of the
1. x e dx 1
x2 t 2
0
following are true ?
dx
2. 1. f is bounded on
1 x2
3. Exactly one of (1) and (2) 2. f is continuous on
4. None of these 3. f is not defined everywhere on
6. Which of the following(s) improper
integral is/are convergent ? 4. f is not continuous on
(CSIR NET June 2019)
x 2 dx
1. 1 x5
0
log x
2. x 2
dx
1 True false key
3. Both (1) and (2)
4. Exactly one of (1) and (2) 1. F 2. F 3. T 4. T
7. Which of the following(s) improper 5. F 6. T 7. T 8. F
integral is/are convergent ?
9. T 10. F 11. T 12. T
x tan 1 x dx
1. 1
dx 2. x log x 13. F 14. F 15. T
0
(1 4 3
x ) e2
3. Both (1) and (2) 4. Neither (1) nor (2) Assignment key
x n 1
8. Given, e x dx , then SCQ
0
1. 3 2. 2 3. 2 4. 4
1. the integral is divergent when n 0
2. the integral is convergent when 5. 3 6. 1 7. 3 8. 1
0 n 1
3. the integral is convergent when n 1
4. the integral is divergent when n 1 MCQ
1. 1,3,4 2. 1,3 3. 2 4.1,4
1
9. Let dt . Which of the following
1 t2 5. 1,2 6. 2,4 7. 4 8. 1,2,3
0
are true ? 9. 4
d 1
1.
dt 1 t 2
2. is a rational number
3. log 1
4. sin 1
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