Standard Progressive Matrices
Purpose
Intro
Intelligence is a key construct employed to know how individuals differ from one another. It also
provides an understanding of how people adapt their behaviour according to the environment they
live in. Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as the power of perceiving, learning, understanding,
and knowing. Early intelligence theorists also used these attributes in defining intelligence. Alfred
Binet was one of the first psychologists who worked on intelligence. He defined intelligence as the
ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.
Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are most widely used, understood intelligence in terms of its
functionality, i.e. its value for adaptation to environment. He defined it as the global and aggregate
capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/his
environment.
Theories of intelligence
Psychologists have used two major approaches in the study of intelligence (Sternberg et al., 2003 ):
The Psychometric Approach: Psychometrics is the statistical study of psychological tests . The
psychometric approach to intelligence tries to identify and measure the abilities that un derlie
individual differences in performance. In essence, it tries to provide a measurement-based map of
the mind.
1. Alfred Binet was the first psychologist who tried to formalise the concept of intelligence in
terms of mental operations. Binet’s theory of intelligence was rather simple as it arose from
his interest in differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals. He, therefore,
conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used for
solving any or every problem in an individual’s environment. His theory of intelligence is
called Uni or one factor theory of intelligence
2. In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence employing a
statistical method called factor analysis. He showed that intelligence consisted of a general
factor (g-factor) and some specific factors (s-factors). The g-factor includes mental operations
which are primary and common to all performances. In addition to the g-factor, he said that
there are also many specific abilities. These are contained in what he called the s-factor.
3. Spearman’s theory was followed by Louis Thurstone’s theory. He proposed the theory of
primary mental abilities. It states that intelligence consists of seven primary abilities, each of
which is relatively independent of the others. These primary abilities are: (i) Verbal
Comprehension (ii) Numerical Abilities (iii) Spatial Relations (iv) Perceptual Speed, (v) Word
Fluency (vi) Memory (vii) Inductive Reasoning
4. Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical model of intelligence consisting of abilities operating
at two levels, called Level I and Level II. Level I is the associative learning in which output is
more or less similar to the input (e.g., rote learning and memory). Level II, called cognitive
competence, involves higher-order skills as they transform the input to produce an effective
output.
5. J.P. Guilford 's structure-of-intellect model classifies intellectual traits among three
dimensions: operations (what the respondent does), contents (nature of information on
which operations are performed), and products (form in which information is processed by
the respondent).
6. Raymond Cattel classified intelligence into two types, crystalised and fluid. Crystalised
intelligence refers to facts and concrete knowledge whereas fluid intelligence refers to
problem solving capabilities and higher order thinking.
7. J.P. Guilford 's
structure-of-intellect
model classifies
intellectual traits
among three
8. dimensions:
operations (what the
respondent does),
contents (nature of
information on
9. which operations are
performed), and
products (form in
which information is
10. processed by the
respondent)
11. J.P. Guilford 's
structure-of-intellect
model classifies
intellectual traits
among three
12. dimensions:
operations (what the
respondent does),
contents (nature of
information on
13. which operations
are performed), and
products (form in
which information is
14. processed by the
respondent)
15. J.P. Guilford 's
structure-of-intellect
model classifies
intellectual traits
among three
16. dimensions:
operations (what the
respondent does),
contents (nature of
information on
17. which operations
are performed), and
products (form in
which information is
18. processed by the
respondent)
19. J.P. Guilford 's
structure-of-intellect
model classifies
intellectual traits
among three
20. dimensions:
operations (what the
respondent does),
contents (nature of
information on
21. which operations
are performed), and
products (form in
which information is
22. processed by the
respondent)
23. J.P. Guilford 's
structure-of-intellect
model classifies
intellectual traits
among three
24. dimensions:
operations (what the
respondent does),
contents (nature of
information on
25. which operations
are performed), and
products (form in
which information is
26. processed by the
respondent)
The information processing approach describes the processes people use in intellectual reasoning
and problem solving. The major focus of this approach is on how an intelligent person acts. Rather
than focusing on structure of intelligence or its underlying dimensions, information processing
approaches emphasise studying cognitive functions underlying intelligent behaviour.
1. Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence. Sternberg views
intelligence as “the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one’s
goals and those of one’s society and culture”. According to this theory, there are three basic
types of intelligence:
Componential Intelligence : Componential or analytical intelligence is the analysis of
information to solve problems. Persons high on this ability think analytically and
critically and succeed in schools.
Experiential Intelligence: Experiential or creative intelligence is involved in using past
experiences creatively to solve novel problems. It is reflected in creative
performance. Persons high on this aspect integrate different experiences in an
original way to make new discoveries and inventions. They quickly find out which
information is crucial in a given situation.
Contextual Intelligence : Contextual or practical intelligence involves the ability to
deal with environmental demands encountered on a daily basis. It may be called
‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’. Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to
their present environment or select a more favourable environment than the existing
one, or modify the environment to fit their needs.
2. Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences. According to him,
intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of intelligences exist. Each of these
intelligences are independent of each other. He described 8 types of intelligences: Linguistic,
Logical-Mathematical, Spatial, Musical. Bodily-Kinaesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal and
Naturalistic.
Factors affecting intelligence
1. Genetics and environment : Genes and environment both influence intelligence, but they
rarely operate independently of one another. The environment can influence how genes
express themselves, as when prenatal factors or malnutrition retard gene-directed brain
development. Likewise, genetic factors can influence the effects produced by the
environment. For example, genetic factors influence which environments people select for
themselves, how they respond to the environment, and how the environment responds to
them. The more genes people have in common, the more similar they tend to be in IQ. In
identical twins, the IQ correlation remains at about .80 from age 4 through adulthood. In
adulthood, correlations for fraternal twins drop to around .40. IQ correlations for identical
twins raised together are slightly higher than those for identical twins raised apart. The
importance of the home environment is also shown in studies of children who are removed
from deprived environments and placed in middle- or upper class adoptive homes. Typically,
such children show a gradual increase in IQ on the order of 10 to 12 points (Scarr &
Weinberg, 1977; Schiff & Lewontin, 1986). Conversely, when deprived children remain in
their impoverished environments, either they show no improvement in IQ or they actually
deteriorate intellectually over time.
2. Cultural differences : people in different cultures have different conceptions of what
intelligence is. Asian and African cultures tend to have broader and more encompassing
views of intelligence than do Western cultures. Asians and Africans place less emphasis on
mental speed and more emphasis on social and emotional aspects of behavior, as well as on
wisdom. Studies of performances by people, especially children, in different cultures suggest
that the strengths of individuals across cultures are not necessarily well represented by
conventional intelligence tests.
3. Gender differences : The gender differences lie not in levels of general intelligence but rather
in the patterns of cognitive skills that men and women exhibit. Men, on average, tend to
outperform women slightly on certain spatial tasks. Women, on average, perform better on
tests of perceptual speed, verbal fluency, and mathematical calculation and on precise
manual tasks requiring fine motor co ordination. however, men and women also vary
considerably among themselves in all of these skills, and the performance distributions of
males and females overlap considerably.
History
4. in 1939 David Weschler published the Weschler-Bellevue Intelligence scale. in 1955, it was
revised and named the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Wechsler developed two
different tests specifically for use with children: the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI). The adult
version of the test has been revised since its original publication and is now known as the
WAIS-IV. Rather than scoring based on chronological and mental age, the WAIS IV is scored
by comparing the test taker's score to the scores of others in the same age group.
Measurement of IQ
The modern intelligence-testing movement began at the turn of the 20th century, when the
French psychologist Alfred Binet was commissioned by France’s Ministry of Public Education to
de velop the test that was to become the forerunner of all modern intelligence tests. In
developing his tests, Binet made two as sumptions about intelligence: First, mental abilities
develop with age. Second, the rate at which people gain mental competence is a characteristic of
the person and is fairly constant over time.
To develop a measure of mental skills, Binet asked experienced teachers what sorts of problems
children could solve at ages 3, 4, 5, and so on, up through the school years. He then used their
answers to develop a standardized interview in which an adult examiner posed a series of
questions to a child to determine whether the child was performing at the correct mental level
for his or her age. The result of the testing was a score called the mental age. The concept of
mental age was subsequently expanded by the German psychologist William Stern to provide a
relative score—a common yardstick of intellectual attainment—for people of different
age, multiplied by 100: IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100. Thus, a child who was
chronological ages. Stern’s intelligence quotient (IQ) was the ratio of mental age to chronological
performing at exactly his or her age level would have an IQ of 100.
Today, the Wechsler tests (WAIS-IV and WISC-IV) are the most popular individually administered
intelligence tests. Wechsler believed that intelligence tests should measure a wide array of men
tal abilities Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing
Speed. A psychologist can therefore plot a profile based on the scores on each of the subtests to
assess a person’s pattern of intellectual strengths and weaknesses.
Methodology
Description of the test
the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM) is a non-verbal test by JC Raven (1938, later
revised in 2013) which is used to measure the abstract reasoning of the individual. For the same,
it estimates the concept of fluid intelligence (gf) as proposed by Raymond Cattell. The booklet is
divided into five sets (A to E), each with 12 problems. Each set's items grow more difficult,
requiring greater cognitive capacity to encode and process data. Appropriate for ages 8-65, the
SPM consists of 60 problems, all of which involve completing a pattern or figure with a part
missing by choosing the correct missing piece from among six alternatives. The test is untimed
but generally takes 15-45 minutes and results in a raw score which is then converted to a
percentile ranking.
The test was found to have an internal consistency of 0.60 to 0.98. The test-retest reliability was
found to be 0.90, while validity coefficient was reported as high as 0.70.
Material required: SPM test booklet, Response sheet and manual, pencil, eraser
Description of the testee
Name
Age
Gender
Educational qualification
Procedure
Pre arrangement
Before the arrival of the testee, the lab is prepared. It is ensured that the space is well lit and
ventilated and a space safe is set for the testee to perform the test at. Materials are kept on the
table making sure that the contents of the manual and booklet are not visible. After the testee’s
arrival good rapport is established by asking them menial questions. They are reassured of their
confidentiality and provided with the test booklet.
Instructions
The following instructions are given, “On every page of this booklet, there is a pattern with a
piece missing. You have to choose which of these pieces below the right one to complete the
pattern. When you think you have found the right piece, write its corresponding number next to
the problem number in the answer sheet. If you make a mistake or want to change your answer,
put a cross across the incorrect answer and then write the corresponding number of the correct
answer on your answer sheet. Go on like this until you get to the end of the booklet. There is no
time limit and finish at your own pace. Do not leave any item unanswered. If you have no further
questions, you may begin”.
Actual administration
Pre administration, all material required was arranged diligently, rapport was established with
the testee and their confidentiality was assured. For individual administration, the examiner
provides the test booklet and a response sheet to the examinee. The examiner reads the general
instructions aloud and allows the examinee to ask clarifying questions before beginning. The
examinee works through the test items independently, selecting the missing piece to complete
each matrix pattern from the answer options provided. The examinee records their responses on
the separate response sheet.
Precautions
1. It should be ensured that the testee has no prior knowledge about the test.
2. It should be ensured that the testee is in a stable condition before beginning.
3. It should be ensured that the print of the booklet and response sheet is legible and
properly arranged.
4. It should be ensured that there are no extraneous variables such as noise that could
affect the performance of the testee.
Introspective report
The introspective report is taken to ensure that personal variables of the testee did not affect
their performance. The following is a verbatim transcript from the testee’s verbal report , “
Scoring
The examiner compares the testee's responses to the 60 questions with the scoring key provided
in the manual and determines the total score, which is the total number of correct responses.
Then, the examiner calculates the percentile rank found in the manual. The testee's grade is also
determined from the manual based on the percentile rank. The examiner calculates discrepancies
by subtracting the expected score, as seen from the manual, from the obtained/observed score for
each of the 5 sets. The range of discrepancies determines the validity and consistency of the
participant's performance. A discrepancy outside the range of -3 to +3 would deem the test
invalid.
Result table
The result table is given on the left side.
Interpretation
The purpose of Standard Progressive Matrices was to measure the intelligence levels of the testee
particularly the abstract reasoning skills. The test, created by John C Raven, is a culturally-relevant
non-verbal test that measures the ability to think rationally and solve novel problems.
Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are most widely used, understood intelligence in terms of its
functionality, i.e. its value for adaptation to environment. He defined it as the global and aggregate
capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/his
environment. Psychologists gave multiple theories to understand intelligence. The theory of
intelligence by Raymond Cattell which states that intelligence can be classified into two types,
crystalized and fluid. Crystalized intelligence refers to facts and concrete knowledge whereas fluid
intelligence refers to problem solving capabilities and higher order thinking. Standard Progressive
Matrices is a test which essentially measures the fluid intelligence of the testee.
With the help of scoring key, right answers are given one mark and wrong answers are given zero.
The scores obtained by the subject on set A B C D and E are 11, 12 ,10, 8 and 8 the total of which is
49. It took 22 minutes for the subject to complete the test.
Discrepancy score is the difference between the score a person obtains on each set and that
normally expected for his total score is called the discrepancy score shown numerically as 0, -1, +2, -
2, +1. If a person’s score on one of the sets deviates by more than 2, his total score on the scale
cannot be expected at its face value. The expected score for a person scoring 49 on eat set A B C D E
are 12 11 10 10 and 8. By subtracting from the subject score on each of the spice sets that is normal
expected from it said the following describing scores are obtained: - 1, + 1, 0 – 2, and + 1 as shown in
the table of discrepancies. As the discrepancies obtained do not deviate by +2 or -2, the percentile is
calculated.
Considering the age of the subject is 20, and the score obtained is 49, the percentile is 75.
Using the grade norms table, the subject falls under Grade III or ‘intellectually average’ as her score
lies between the 25th and 75th percentile. This implies that she has intellectually average capacity to
think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/his environment. And grade is III as
the participant's percentile is the median. This shows that she has average intellectual capacity for
higher order thinking as well as average capacity to solve novel problems.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is evident from the raw score i.e., 49 and the percentile i.e., 75, that the testee falls
under the category of “intellectually average” with grade III according to norms.