Depression scale

Aim : To assess the level of depression in an individual using the

Depression Scale developed by Dr. Shamim Karim and Dr. Rama
Tiwari.
INTRODUCTION:
Definition of Depression:
Depression is a common but serious mood disorder that affects how
an individual feels, thinks, and handles daily activities. According to
the American Psychiatric Association, depression (major depressive
disorder) is characterized by persistent feelings of sadness and loss of
interest or pleasure in most activities. It can interfere significantly
with a person’s ability to work, sleep, study, eat, and enjoy life.
Types of depression
There are several types of depression, some of which are listed
below.
• Mild depression: Depression is described as mild when it has
a limited negative effect on your daily life.
• Major depression Major depression interferes with an
individual’s daily life - with eating, sleeping and other
everyday activities. Some people may experience only one
episode but it is more common to experience several
episodes in a lifetime. It can lead to hospital admission, if the
person is so unwell they are at risk of harm to themselves.
• Bi-polar disorder: The mood swings in bi-polar disorder can
be extreme - from highs, where the individual feels
extremely elated and indestructible, to lows, where they
may experience complete despair, lethargy and suicidal
feelings. Sometimes people have very severe symptoms
where they cannot make sense of their world and do things
that seem odd or illogical.
• Post-natal depression : Many new mothers experience what
are sometimes called 'baby blues' a few days after the birth.
These feelings of anxiety and lack of confidence are very
distressing but in most cases last only a couple of weeks.
Post-natal depression is more intense and lasts longer. It can
leave new mothers feeling completely overwhelmed,
inadequate and unable to cope.

Theories of depression
Behaviourist theory : Behaviourist theory focuses on
observable behaviour and places emphasis on the
importance of the environment in shaping behaviour.
Operant conditioning (Lewinsohn, 1974) considers the cause
of depression to be the removal of positive reinforcement
from the environment, or situations that would serve to
reinforce ‘maladaptive’ behaviour, leading to increased social
isolation, and an inability to seek or respond to alternative
sources of positive reinforcement.
Psychodynamic theories
Psychodynamic theories view depression in terms of
inwardly directed anger, loss of self-esteem or self-worth,
egotistic or excessive narcissistic or personality demand, or
deprivation in mother-child relationship. Freud’s (1917)
psychoanalytic theory is an example of the psychodynamic
approach. Repressed anger at a loss is directed inwards,
reduces self-esteem and increases vulnerability to further
experiences in the future, causing the individual to ‘re-
experience’) the loss when encountering similar triggering
stimuli during adulthood. The theory argues that people
prone to depression have an excessively high interpersonal
dependency. The theory argues that people prone to
depression have an excessively high interpersonal
dependency. Those who may depend on others for their
sense of self-esteem may therefore remain in a more
vulnerable ‘depression-prone’ state.

Cognitive theories
Cognitive theories consider the manner in which people
think about and process personal information, by focusing
on core beliefs , underlying assumptions and systematic
negative bias in thinking. Beck’s (1967) cognitive triad
model of depression identifies three common forms of
negative self-referent thinking which occur spontaneously.
The three core beliefs interact and interfere with cognitive
processing, leading to impairments in perception, memory,
problem solving and reinforce an ‘obsession’ with negative
thinking. in individuals with depression: negative thoughts
about the self, the world and the future.
 Neurotic depression
Joseph Wolpe (1986) introduced the idea of ‘neurotic
depression’ based on earlier concepts of ‘neuroses’ that
made reference to forms of ‘nervousness’ − psychological or
behavioural conditions in which anxiety was a primary
characteristic that made reference to forms of ‘nervousness’
− psychological or behavioural conditions in which anxiety
was a primary characteristic He viewed some forms of
depression as ‘neurotic’ in the sense that they were
‘secondary to learned maladaptive anxiety responses that
are the core of neuroses’. He considered neurotic depression
to arise:
 secondary to a severe and prolonged conditioned anxiety
 as a consequence of a cognitively-based anxiety
 secondary to social anxiety or to a feeling of interpersonal
intimidation
 as a result of unresolved bereavement.

Biological explanations for depression

Genetic, molecular and neuroimaging studies have continued to contribute to
advances in understanding the neurobiological basis of depressive illness
(Kupfer et al., 2012). Animal models for depression, and rodent models in
particular (see Box 10), have been extensively used to test the efficacy of
antidepressant medications leading up to clinical trials, and to inform and
guide pharmacological therapies.
Neuroimaging studies have highlighted changes in neural
systems involved in the processing and regulation of emotion,
and in reward-seeking in people with major depressive illness.
Methofology
Material required
 Depression Scale questionnaire booklet and manual
 Scoring key
 Response sheet
 Pen pencil
Description of the test
The Depression Scale by Dr. Shamim Karim and Dr. Rama Tiwari is a
self-report tool developed in 1986. It consists of 96 items divided into
12 dimensions, i.e., apathy, sleep disturbance pessimism, fatigability,
irritability, social withdrawal and self centeredness, dejected or
sadness, self dislike, self acquisition, self harm somatic reoccupation
and indecisiveness. Each item is rated on a 5-point scale ranging
from 0 (Not at all) to 4 (Extremely). The test measures various
symptoms of depression such as apathy, pessimism, and self-harm. It
takes approximately 15–20 minutes to complete.
Reliability
the Spilt half reliability is +.862 and +.916 and test retest is +.891.
Validity
validity has been calculated through the method of Factors Analysis.

Procedure
Pre arrangement
Before the arrival of the testee its made sure the lab is wll lit and
distraction free. All the material is placed on the table in a way that
the contents are not visible. After arrival, rapport is established by
asking the testee some trivial questions.
Instructions
After rapport us established , the following instructions are given ,
“You’ll see 96 statements. For each, select how much it applied to
you from ‘Not at all’ to ‘Extremely.’ Answer honestly—there are no
right or wrong answers.”
Actual administration
After the instructions are given and doubts are cleared the
administration begins. The testee take a little time to think each
question properly then puts the appropriate response on the
response sheet. This continues for around 20 minutes .
Precautions
1. It should be ensured that rapport is well established and the
testee is in a neutral condition.
2. Confidentiality must be ensured.
3. The lab should be free of distractions.
4. Since it is a depression scale the testee must be debriefed
properly and reassured of their scores if possible.
Introspective report
“When I first came to the lab I was very excited but also nervous
since I diddnt know what the test would be about. When I found
out it was about depression I was a little anxious about my results.
I became calm after the administrator reassured my confidentiality
and explained the practical”
Scoring
Scoring is done by allotting marks to each item. There are five
different responses on the scale from ‘never’ to ‘always’ where
‘never’ responses are scored ‘0’ increasing by 1 for each response.
Raw score is calculated and converted into standard scores.
 The testee’s raw score came out to be 222 after calculation.
Result Table
Given on lhs (make two columns – one with item number , one
with marks)
Interpretation
The purpose of this test is to measure the level of depression in an
individual using Depression scale given by karim and Tiwari which
consists of 96 items divided into 12 dimensions.
Depression is a psychological condition characterized by persistent
sadness, low energy, and a lack of interest or pleasure in previously
enjoyable activities. It can impair daily functioning and overall well-
being. There are several types of depression: Mild, Major, Bipolar and
postnatal.
Scoring is done by allotting marks to each item ranging from 0-4.
The testee had a score of 222 after scoring. With most items having a
score of 3 or “quite a lot” and some having the score of 4 or “always”.
Since the testee is a woman, she falls under the category of
“moderate depression” with the grade of ‘C’ and percentile of 55.
So according to the the types of depression, it may be said that
the testee has mild to moderate forms which can negatively impact
daily life to some limit. It is recommended that she engages in
positive coping strategies such as regular physical activity, social
support, and, if needed, counseling or therapy.

Conclusion
It can be concluded that the testee is moderately depressed with a
raw score of 222 and p-score of 55.
 Next practical
Coping strategies
Aim : to assess coping strategies of the testee using css by punia and
devi
Introduction : Coping is defined as what people do to try to minimize
stress and is commonly seen as problem-focused, that is, directed at
reducing the threats and losses of the illness, or emotion-focused,
namely directed at reducing the negative emotional consequences.
 Problem-focused coping:
This involves actively trying to eliminate the source of
stress. Examples include seeking information about a problem,
developing a plan to address it, or taking direct action to change the
situation.
 Emotion-focused coping:
This focuses on managing the emotional distress caused by a
stressful situation. Examples include seeking social support,
practicing relaxation techniques, or engaging in distracting activities.
 Adaptive vs. Maladaptive Coping:
Adaptive coping strategies are healthy ways of handling stress that
lead to positive outcomes, while maladaptive strategies may provide
short-term relief but ultimately worsen the situation or create new
problems.
Coping strategies are essential for maintaining mental and physical
well-being, especially when facing life's challenges. Developing
healthy coping mechanisms can help individuals navigate stressful
situations, maintain a positive self-image, and prevent the negative
consequences of prolonged stress.
Methodology
Testee details
Material required : CSS questionnaire and manual , pencil, eraser
Description: CSS(2019) for students by Dr. vandana punia and mrs
pushpa devi has been developed to assess students’ coping strategies
in stressful situations. It consists of 53 statements the responses vary
on a 5 point scale planned from Likert scale ranging from Strongly
agree to strongly disagree.
Reliability: reliability came out to be +.767 and .778.
Validity: Validity came out to be 0.5 .

Procedure
pre arrangement
before testees arrival,all material is arranged properly. The lab is well
lit and distraction free. After his arrival, rapport is established and
instructions are given.
Instructions
the following instructions are given, “this scale consists of 53 items
with responses ranging from ‘Strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’.
choose the response which seems most appropriate to you. Theres
no wrong answers.
Actual administration
after instructions are given conduction begins. The testee takes
roughly 10 seconds for each response. This goes on for about 15
mins.
Scoring
scoring is done by proving 5 marks to Strongly agree responses
decreasing by 1 till strongly disagree.
Testee’s raw score comes out to be 150

Result table is given on lhs

Interpretation
The purpose of the scale is to measure the level of coping strategies
in students.
Coping can be defined as what people do to try to minimize stress
and is commonly seen as problem-focused, that is, directed at
reducing the threats and losses of the illness, or emotion-focused,
namely directed at reducing the negative emotional consequences.
The testees raw score came out be 73 in problem focused and 77 in
emotion focused strategies. Since the testee is a female the levels of
coping strategies for both comes out to be low.
Conclusion
The testees raw score in 73 and 77 in problem and emotion focused
respectively and both are interpreted as low levels of strategies.
 Student stress scale
Aim : to assess stress levels of the testee using stress scale by dr. abcd
Intorduction :
Stress is a psychological and physiological response to any demand or
challenge that threatens an individual's sense of well-being. It arises
when a person perceives a situation as overwhelming,
unmanageable, or beyond their coping abilities. While stress is often
seen as harmful, it is not always negative—mild stress can motivate
individuals to perform better and meet challenges efficiently.
There are two main types of stress: eustress (positive stress) and
distress (negative stress). Eustress enhances functioning and is linked
with feelings of excitement and motivation—for instance, before a
competition. Distress, on the other hand, leads to anxiety, poor
concentration, and health problems when not managed effectively.
Stress can be acute or chronic. Acute stress is short-term and occurs
in response to immediate perceived threats, like an upcoming exam
or argument. Chronic stress is long-lasting and stems from persistent
life situations, such as family conflict or financial troubles. Chronic
stress has more serious consequences on physical and mental health.
There are several sources of stress, including life events, daily
hassles, and traumatic experiences. Life events like death in the
family or shifting to a new city cause major emotional upheavals.
Daily hassles such as traffic, arguments, or workload are smaller but
frequent irritants that accumulate stress over time. Traumatic
experiences like natural disasters or abuse can cause lasting
psychological damage.
Individual differences also play a crucial role in how stress is
experienced and managed. Personality traits, past experiences, social
support, and coping styles all influence the impact of stress. For
instance, people with a high sense of self-efficacy or optimism tend
to handle stress better than those who feel helpless or lack
emotional support.
In conclusion, stress is a normal part of life that varies in intensity,
type, and duration. Understanding the nature, causes, and types of
stress is essential for developing healthy coping mechanisms and
maintaining psychological well-being.
Methodology
Prelims
Material required : Student stress scale questionnaire and manual,
pencil eraser
Description of the test :

Reliability : reliability came out to be 0.90.

Validity : validity came out to be 0.94.
Procedure
Pre administration: before testees arrival,all material is arranged
properly. The lab is well lit and distraction free. After his arrival,
rapport is established and instructions are given.

Instructions :“in the following questionnaire, there are 34 items

given with 5 responses from ‘very often’ to ‘never’ . read the
questions carefully and respond with the answer that feels applicable
to your situation.”
Administration: after instructions are given conduction begins. The
testee takes roughly 10 seconds for each response. This goes on for
about 15 mins.
Scoring : marks are allotted to each item acc to the response. 4 marks
are allotted for “ very often” and 1 for “never” responses. Raw score
of the testee comes out to be 64.
Result table given on the lhs

Interpretation : Stress is a psychological and physiological response to

any demand or challenge that threatens an individual's sense of well-
being. There are two main types of stress: eustress (positive stress)
and distress (negative stress).
Student stress scale by DR prerna puri and dr prof manju mehta is a
34 item scale used to measure the stress levels of students.
The raw score of the testee came out to be 64, the percentile of
which is 25. According to the following scores it can be said that the
testee has Below Average stress levels. This shows that the testee
experiences moderate to low levels of stress which are often
beneficial.
conclusion
The raw score of the testee came out to be 64, the percentile 25.
According to the following scores it can be said that the testee has
Below Average stress levels.