Chapter 4

Quadratic and Cubic Polynomials

4.1 Definition and properties

Consider an expression of the form

P (x) = a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 ,

where a0 , a1 , a2 and a3 are constant numbers. We say that P (x) is a cubic poly-
nomial or a polynomial of degree 3 in the variable x if a3 = 0; if a3 = 0 and
a2 = 0 we say that P (x) is a quadratic polynomial or a polynomial of degree 2;
in case that a3 = a2 = 0 and a1 = 0, we say that P (x) is a linear polynomial or a
polynomial of degree 1; finally, if a3 = a2 = a1 = 0 and a0 = 0, we say that P (x)
is a constant polynomial and its degree is 0. The degree of the polynomial P (x) is
denoted by deg(P ). The constants a3 , a2 , a1 and a0 are called the coefficients of
the polynomial. A polynomial with all the coefficients equal to zero is known as
the zero polynomial12 . If in a polynomial, the coefficient of the highest power of
x is 1, we say that the polynomial is a monic polynomial.
We say that a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and b3 x3 + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 , are two equal
polynomials if ai = bi , for i = 0, 1, 2, 3.
We can evaluate the polynomials by replacing the variable x by a number t, the
value of the polynomial P (x), in x = t, is P (t).
A zero of a polynomial P (x) is a number r such that P (r) = 0. We also say that
r is a root of the polynomial or a solution of the equation P (x) = 0.
If the coefficients of a polynomial P (x) are integers, we say that P (x) is a poly-
nomial over the integers or a polynomial with integer coefficients; similarly, if the
coefficients are rational numbers, we say that the polynomial is a polynomial over
the rationals, etc.

12 In this book, the zero polynomial has no degree.

© Springer Internationl Publishing Switzerland 2015 63

R.B. Manfrino et al, Topics in Algebra and Analysis,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-11946-5_4
64 Chapter 4. Quadratic and Cubic Polynomials

In many aspects, the polynomials are like the integers, they can be added, sub-
tracted, multiplied and divided. To see how this is done consider the polynomials

P (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 ,
Q(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + b3 x3 .

We define the sum of polynomials as

(P + Q)(x) = P (x) + Q(x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + (a2 + b2 )x2 + (a3 + b3 )x3 ;

the subtraction as

(P − Q)(x) = P (x) − Q(x) = (a0 − b0 ) + (a1 − b1 )x + (a2 − b2 )x2 + (a3 − b3 )x3 ,

and the product of a polynomial by a constant c as

(cP )(x) = cP (x) = ca0 + ca1 x + ca2 x2 + ca3 x3 .

The product of two polynomials is defined as

(P Q)(x) = (P (x))(Q(x)) = a0 b0 + (a0 b1 + a1 b0 )x + (a0 b2 + a1 b1 + a2 b0 )x2

+ (a0 b3 + a1 b2 + a2 b1 + a3 b0 )x3 + (a1 b3 + a2 b2 + a3 b1 )x4
+ (a2 b3 + a3 b2 )x5 + a3 b3 x6 .

Finally, we define the polynomial division. Given the above two polynomials, with
the following restrictions

P (x) = a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 with a3 = 0,
3 2
Q(x) = b3 x + b2 x + b1 x + b0 , with some coefficient different from zero,

there are always S(x) and R(x) such that

P (x) = S(x)Q(x) + R(x), with deg(R) < deg(Q) or R(x) = 0.

We call the polynomial S(x) the quotient and R(x) the remainder of the
division of P (x) by Q(x).
If R(x) = 0, we say that Q(x) divides (exactly) P (x) and we write Q(x)|P (x).
In the next section, we will see that a number a is a zero of a polynomial P (x) if
and only if x − a divides P (x).
A polynomial H(x) is the greatest common divisor of P (x) and Q(x) if and only if
1. H(x) divides both P (x) and Q(x),
2. If K(x) is any other polynomial which divides both P (x) and Q(x) then K(x)
also divides H(x).
It can be proved that H(x) is unique up to a multiplication by a constant number.
4.1 Definition and properties 65

4.1.1 Vieta’s formulas

(a) If a monic polynomial P (x) = x2 + px + q has roots a and b, then

x2 + px + q = (x − a)(x − b) = x2 − (a + b)x + ab,

comparing the coefficients, it follows that

p = −(a + b) and q = ab. (4.1)

(b) If a monic polynomial P (x) = x3 + px2 + qx + r has roots a, b and c, then

x3 + px2 + qx + r = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c) = x3 − (a + b + c)x2 + (ab + bc + ca)x − abc

and comparing the coefficients we have that

p = −(a + b + c), q = ab + bc + ca, r = −abc. (4.2)

Formulas (4.1) and (4.2) are known as Vieta’s formulas.

Let us see the following examples.
Example 4.1.1 (USSR, 1986). The roots of the polynomial x2 + ax + b + 1 = 0 are
natural numbers. Prove that a2 + b2 is not a prime number.
If r and s are roots of the polynomial, formula (4.1), assures us that r+s = −a
and rs = b + 1. Then, a and b are integers and a2 + b2 = (r + s)2 + (rs − 1)2 =
(r2 + 1)(s2 + 1) is the product of two numbers greater than 1.
Example 4.1.2 (Germany, 1970). Let p and q be real numbers, with p = 0, and let
3 2
 1 1px 1− px + qx + q.
a, b, c be roots of the polynomial
Prove that (a + b + c) a + b + c = −1.
Since px3 − px2 + qx + q = p(x3 − x2 + pq x + pq ) = p(x − a)(x − b)(x − c), by
formula (4.2), we have that
q
1 1 1 ab + bc + ca p
(a + b + c) + + = (a + b + c) = = −1.
a b c abc − pq

The generalization of Vieta’s formulas for polynomials of degree greater than

3, will be presented in Chapter 8, dedicated to the theory of polynomials.

Exercise 4.1. Find all solutions of m2 − 3m + 1 = n2 + n − 1, where m and n are

positive integers.

Exercise 4.2. Let P (x) = ax2 + bx + c be a quadratic polynomial with real coef-
ficients. Suppose that P (−1), P (0) and P (1) are integers. Prove that P (n) is an
integer number for every integer number n.
66 Chapter 4. Quadratic and Cubic Polynomials

Exercise 4.3. If a, b, c, p and q are integers, with q = 0, (p, q) = 1 and p

q a root
of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, prove that p divides c and q divides a.

Exercise 4.4. Let a, b, c be real numbers, with a and c non-zero. Let α and β be the
roots of the polynomial ax2 + bx + c and let α and β  be the roots of the polynomial
cx2 +bx+a. Prove that if α, β, α , β  are positive numbers then (α+β)(α +β  ) ≥ 4.

Exercise 4.5. Find all real numbers a such that the sum of the squares of the roots
of P (x) = x2 − (a − 2)x − a − 1 is a minimum.

Exercise 4.6. If p, q and r are solutions of the equation x3 − 7x2 + 3x + 1 = 0,

find the value of 1p + 1q + 1r .

Exercise 4.7. The solutions of the equation x3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 are p, q and r.

Find a quadratic equation with roots p2 + q 2 + r2 and p + q + r, in terms of b, c
and d.

Exercise 4.8. For which positive real numbers m, the roots x1 and x2 of the
equation
2m − 1 m2 − 3
x2 − x+ = 0,
2 2
satisfy the condition x1 = x2 − 12 ?

Exercise 4.9 (Kangaroo, 2003). Let P (x) be a polynomial such that P (x2 + 1) =
x4 + 4x2 . Find P (x2 − 1).

Exercise 4.10. The natural numbers a, b, c and d satisfy that a3 + b3 = c3 + d3

and a + b = c + d. Prove that two of these numbers are equal.

4.2 Roots
If we divide a degree 3 polynomial P (x) by x − a we get
P (x) = (x − a)Q(x) + r, with r∈R and deg(Q) = 2.
Let x = a, then it follows that P (a) = r, therefore
P (x) = (x − a)Q(x) + P (a). (4.3)
It follows, from equation (4.3), that
P (a) = 0 if and only if P (x) = (x − a)Q(x), (4.4)
for some polynomial Q(x). This result is known as the factor theorem.
4.2 Roots 67

If a1 and a2 are two different zeros of P (x), then, by equation (4.4), it follows
that P (x) = (x − a1 )Q(x). Since, P (a2 ) = (a2 − a1 )Q(a2 ) = 0 and a2 = a1 , then
Q(a2 ) = 0, hence Q(x) = (x − a2 )Q1 (x), for some polynomial Q1 (x). Then,

P (x) = (x − a1 )(x − a2 )Q1 (x) with deg(Q1 ) = 1.

If deg(P ) = 3 and P (ai ) = 0, for a1 , a2 , a3 , then

P (x) = c(x − a1 )(x − a2 )(x − a3 ) with c ∈ R.

If there exists m ∈ N and a polynomial Q(x) such that

P (x) = (x − a)m Q(x) with Q(a) = 0, (4.5)

we say that the multiplicity of the root a is m.

Example 4.2.1. If P (x) = ax2 + bx + c is a quadratic polynomial, then its roots are
√ √
−b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
and . (4.6)
2a 2a

Since a = 0, we can rewrite the polynomial P (x) as

b c
P (x) = ax2 + bx + c = a x2 + x +
a a
2 2
2bx b b 4c
= a x2 + + 2− 2+
2a 4a 4a 4a
- .
2
b 1  2 
=a x+ − 2 b − 4ac
2a 4a
⎡ √ 2 ⎤
2 2 − 4ac
b b
= a⎣ x + − ⎦
2a 2a
- √ .- √ .
b b2 − 4ac b b2 − 4ac
=a x+ − x+ +
2a 2a 2a 2a
-  √ . -  √ .
−b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
=a x− x− .
2a 2a

Then, √ √
−b + b2 − 4ac −b − b2 − 4ac
and are its roots.
2a 2a
The number Δ = b2 − 4ac is called the discriminant of the quadratic poly-
nomial P (x) = ax2 + bx + c.
68 Chapter 4. Quadratic and Cubic Polynomials

Observation 4.2.2. If the discriminant, b2 −4ac of the quadratic polynomial P (x) =

ax2 + bx + c is zero, the polynomial P (x) can be written as a constant multiplied
by the square of a linear polynomial. In this case the polynomial P (x) has only
one real root, which is equal to − 2a
b
.
In the case where the discriminant is greater than zero, that is, b2 − 4ac > 0
then the polynomial P (x) has two different real roots.
Finally, when the discriminant is negative, there are two distinct complex
roots. This case will be analyzed in Chapter 5.

Summarizing, if r and s are the roots of P (x), then the discriminant is zero
if and only if r = s. In case the discriminant is different from zero, then r = s,
and P (x) = a(x − r)(x − s).

Now, we shall see what is the geometric meaning of the discriminant of a

quadratic polynomial. Remember that P (x) = ax2 + bx + c can be written as
- .
2 2
b 1  2  b Δ
P (x) = a x+ − 2 b − 4ac = a x + − .
2a 4a 2a 4a

To construct the graph of the previous equation, that is, to locate the set
of pairs of points (x, y) = (x, P (x)) in the Cartesian plane, we let y = P (x) and
obtain the equation
2
Δ b
y+ =a x+ , (4.7)
4a 2a
 b Δ

which represents the parabola with vertex at the point − 2a , − 4a , where the sign
of the coefficient a determines if the parabola opens up (a > 0), or down (a < 0).
In fact, the equation (4.7) tells us much more about the quadratic polynomial
P (x). Suppose that a > 0, that is, the parabola opens up. The second coordinate
Δ
of the vertex, − 4a , is positive if and only if −Δ > 0, that is, if the discriminant of
P (x) is negative, which means that the graph of the parabola does not intersect
the X-axis. Then P (x) has no real roots.
Δ
If − 4a is negative, the graph of the parabola intersects the X-axis in two
points x1 and x2 , which are the roots of P (x). Observe that in this case, we
have that Δ is positive, which agrees with the fact that P (x) has two real roots.
Moreover, the polynomial P (x) reaches the minimum value at the point x = − 2a b
,
Δ
and − 4a is the minimum value of P (x).
Making a similar analysis if a < 0, we can conclude that when the parabola
opens down it will intersect the X-axis if and only if Δ ≥ 0. Here, the polynomial
P (x) reaches its maximum value at the point x = − 2a b
where the maximum value
Δ
of P (x) is − 4a .
4.2 Roots 69

Δ>0 Δ<0
a>0 a<0
 −b Δ

2a , − 4a
x1 x2

 −b Δ

2a , − 4a

When the graph of the parabola is tangent to the X-axis, we are in the case
in which the discriminant is zero, that is, when both roots are equal.

As an application for the quadratic polynomial theory we can prove the following
inequality.
Example 4.2.3 (Cauchy–Schwarz inequality). If a1 , . . . , an and b1 , . . . , bn are real
numbers, it follows that
 n   n 1/2  n 1/2
#  # #
  2 2
 ai b i  ≤ ai bi .
 
i=1 i=1 i=1
*n
The expression P (x) = i=1 (ai x + bi )2 is a quadratic polynomial in x. Since
P (x) ≥ 0, we have that P (x) cannot have two different real roots, therefore the
discriminant cannot be positive. Now, in order to calculate the discriminant of
this polynomial, we expand each term of the sum (ai x + bi )2 = a2i x2 + 2ai bi x + b2i ,
from where the polynomial takes the form
 n   n   n 
# # #
2 2 2
P (x) = ai x + 2 ai b i x + bi ,
i=1 i=1 i=1

therefore, the discriminant is

 n 2  n  
# # #
n
4 ai b i −4 a2i b2i ≤ 0.
i=1 i=1 i=1

Rewriting the above expression and taking the square root, we obtain the desired
result, that is,
 n   n 1/2  n 1/2
#  # #
  2 2
 ai b i  ≤ ai bi .
 
i=1 i=1 i=1
70 Chapter 4. Quadratic and Cubic Polynomials

Note that the equality holds if the discriminant is zero, that is, when the polyno-
mial has just one real root. Observe that this holds if x = −bi
ai for all i = 1, 2, . . . , n,
−bi
and this means ai is constant.

It is also possible to prove the inequality between the geometric mean and the
arithmetic mean of two numbers, by analyzing the discriminant of a certain quad-
ratic polynomial.
√
Example 4.2.4. For a, b ≥ 0, it follows that a+b2 ≥ ab and the equality holds if
and only if a = b.
√ √
Consider the quadratic polynomial P (x) = (x − a)(x − b), which has
two real roots, so$ its discriminant$is positive or zero. But the discriminant of
√ √ % 2 √ √ % √
P (x) = (x − a) x − b = x − a + b x + ab is

$√ √ %2 √ √
a + b − 4 ab = a + b − 2 ab.
√
Since the discriminant
√ is positive
√ or zero, then a + b ≥ 2 ab. Also, the equality
holds if and only if a = b and then a = b.
Example 4.2.5. The following construction dates from the Greek period and it is the
procedure to find geometrically what in modern terms are the roots of a quadratic
polynomial x2 + bx − c2 , with b and c positive numbers.
Construct first an isosceles triangle OP Q with base P Q of length b, and the
altitude from O of length c. We draw a circumference through the vertices P and
Q of the triangle and with center O.

O
B A

c
C P b Q D

Let AB be the diameter of the circumference parallel to P Q and construct

the rectangle ABCD. The positive root of x2 + bx − c2 is equal to the length of the
segment CP and the other root (the negative root) is equal to the negative length
of the segment CQ.
Let us see how to prove this statement. By Vieta’s formulas (4.1) it follows
that if α and β are the roots of the polynomial, α + β = −b and αβ = −c2 ,
then we necessarily have a negative root. Let us consider the right triangles BCP
4.2 Roots 71

and QCB. Since ∠P BC = ∠BQC, these triangles are similar. Then we have that
CP · CQ = BC 2 = c2 , therefore

CP (−CQ) = −c2 .

On the other hand, since CQ = CP + b, we have that CP − CQ = −b. Then, CP

and −CQ fulfill Vieta’s relations, therefore these last numbers are the roots of the
equation.
Example 4.2.6. Factorize a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc.

Let us consider the polynomial

P (x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c) = x3 − (a + b + c)x2 + (ab + bc + ca)x − abc,

with roots a, b and c. That is,

a3 − (a + b + c)a2 + (ab + bc + ca)a − abc = 0,

b3 − (a + b + c)b2 + (ab + bc + ca)b − abc = 0,
c3 − (a + b + c)c2 + (ab + bc + ca)c − abc = 0.

Adding these three equalities and factoring a + b + c, we get

a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca). (4.8)

Remember that the expression a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca can be written as

1! "
(a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 .
2
From this we get the following factorization,
1 ! "
a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c) (a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 . (4.9)
2
Example 4.2.7 (Czechoslovakia, 1969). Let a, b and c be real numbers such that
a + b + c > 0, ab + bc + ca > 0 and abc > 0. Prove that a, b, c are positive.

Let us consider the cubic and monic polynomial with roots a, b and c, that is,

P (x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c) = x3 − (a + b + c)x2 + (ab + bc + ca)x − abc.

For x ≤ 0, we have that P (x) < 0, then we can guarantee that the roots are
positive.
1
Exercise 4.11. For what values λ the polynomial λx2 + 2x + 1 − λ does have two
equal roots?
72 Chapter 4. Quadratic and Cubic Polynomials

Exercise 4.12. Let a, b and c be positive real numbers. Is it possible, for each of the
following polynomials P (x) = ax2 +bx+c, Q(x) = bx2 +cx+a, R(x) = cx2 +ax+b,
to have both real roots?

Exercise 4.13. For what integer values of k are the solutions of the equation

kx2 − (1 − 2k)x + k − 2 = 0

rational numbers?

Exercise 4.14 (Czech-Slovakia, 2006). Find all pairs of integers (a, b) such that
a + b is a root of the polynomial x2 + ax + b.

Exercise 4.15. Find all integer values of x for which the polynomial x2 − 5x − 1
is a perfect square.

Exercise 4.16. Solve, using geometry, the equation x2 + bx − c2 , with b and c

positive numbers, using the following construction due to R. Descartes. Draw a
circumference with center O and radius 2b . Draw QR, a tangent to the circumfer-
ence through Q, with QR = c. Let S and T be the points where the straight line
through R and O cuts the circumference.
R

S
c

b
2
O Q

The quadratic polynomial has one positive root and one negative root. In the
figure, the length of the segment RS is equal to the positive root and the negative
root is equal to the negative length of the segment RT .

Exercise 4.17. Let P (x) = ax2 +bx+c be a quadratic polynomial such that P (x) = x
does not have real solutions. Prove that P (P (x)) = x has no real solutions either.

Exercise 4.18 (Poland, 2007). Let P (x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients.
Prove that if P (x) and P (P (P (x))) have a common root, then they have a common
integer root.
4.2 Roots 73

Exercise 4.19 (Russia, 2009). Let a, b and c be non-zero real numbers such that
ax2 + bx + c > cx, for all real numbers x. Prove that cx2 − bx + a > cx − b, for all
real numbers x.

Exercise 4.20 (Russia, 2009). Two different real numbers a and b are such that
the equation (x2 + 20ax + 10b)(x2 + 20bx + 10a) = 0 has no real solutions. Prove
that 20(b − a) cannot be an integer number.

Exercise 4.21 (Russia, 2011). Let P (x) be a monic quadratic polynomial such that
P (x) and P (P (P (x))) have a common root. Prove that P (0)P (1) = 0.

Exercise 4.22. Let a, b, c, d, e and f be positive integers such that they satisfy the
relation ab + ac + bc = de + df + ef , and let N = a + b + c + d + e + f . Prove that
if N divides abc + def then N is a composite number.

Exercise 4.23. Let P (x) and Q(x) be two quadratic polynomials with integer co-
efficients. If both polynomials have an irrational number as a common zero, prove
that one of them is a multiple of the other.

Exercise 4.24. Determine if there exist polynomials x2 − b1 x + c1 = 0 and x2 −

b2 x + c2 = 0, with b1 , c1 , b2 and c2 different, such that the four roots are b1 , c1 ,
b2 and c2 .

Exercise 4.25. Let a, b and c be real numbers. Prove that at least one of the
following equations has a real solution:

x2 + (a − b)x + (b − c) = 0,
x2 + (b − c)x + (c − a) = 0,
x2 + (c − a)x + (a − b) = 0.

Exercise 4.26. Let a, b and c be real numbers such that a + b + c = 0. Prove that

a5 + b 5 + c5 a2 + b 2 + c2 a3 + b 3 + c3
= .
5 2 3

Exercise 4.27. Let a, b and c be real numbers such that a+b+c = 3, a2 +b2 +c2 = 5,
a3 + b3 + c3 = 7. Find a4 + b4 + c4 .

Exercise 4.28 (OMCC, 2001). Let a, b and c be real numbers such that the equation
ax2 +bx+c = 0 has two different real solutions p1 , p2 and the equation cx2 +bx+a =
0 has two different real solutions q1 , q2 . Also the numbers p1 , q1 , p2 , q2 , in this
order, form an arithmetic progression. Prove that a + c = 0.
74 Chapter 4. Quadratic and Cubic Polynomials

Exercise 4.29. Let a, b and c be real numbers different from zero, with a+ b + c = 0
and a3 + b3 + c3 = a5 + b5 + c5 . Prove that a2 + b2 + c2 = 65 .

Exercise 4.30 (Russia, 2010). Let P (x) be a cubic polynomial with integer coeffi-
cients such that there exist different integers a, b, and c such that P (a) = P (b) =
P (c) = 2. Prove that no integer number d satisfying P (d) = 3 exists.