Biological Classification

NCERT Class 11 Biology — Chapter 2 | Short Notes & Summary

Introduction
Biological classification is the scientific grouping of organisms based on shared characteristics. Aristotle was
the first to classify organisms into two groups — plants and animals — based on habitat. Linnaeus later gave
the Two Kingdom classification (Plantae and Animalia), which failed to distinguish between
prokaryotes/eukaryotes, unicellular/multicellular, and photosynthetic/non-photosynthetic organisms.

Five Kingdom Classification (R.H. Whittaker, 1969)

Whittaker proposed five kingdoms based on: cell structure, body organisation, mode of nutrition,
reproduction, and phylogenetic relationships.

Kingdom Key Feature

Monera Prokaryotic, unicellular (bacteria)

Protista Eukaryotic, unicellular

Fungi Eukaryotic, heterotrophic, cell wall of chitin, absorptive nutrition

Plantae Eukaryotic, multicellular, autotrophic (photosynthetic)

Animalia Eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic (holozoic)

Kingdom Monera
Includes all prokaryotes (bacteria) — most abundant micro-organisms, found in extreme habitats.
Cell wall (if present) does not contain cellulose. Cell structure lacks a defined nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles.
Classified on the basis of cell wall, motility and nutrition into:

• Archaebacteria: live in extreme habitats — halophiles (salt), thermoacidophiles (hot springs), methanogens
(marshy areas/gut of ruminants). Distinct cell wall structure enables survival in harsh conditions.
• Eubacteria (true bacteria): rigid cell wall, may/may not have flagellum. Includes cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae), mycoplasma, etc.

Shapes of bacteria: coccus (spherical), bacillus (rod-shaped), vibrium (comma-shaped), spirillum (spiral).
Nutrition modes: autotrophic (photosynthetic/chemosynthetic) or heterotrophic (mostly saprophytic).
Cyanobacteria: photosynthetic, autotrophic, unicellular/colonial/filamentous; some fix atmospheric nitrogen in
specialised cells called heterocysts (e.g., Nostoc, Anabaena).
Mycoplasma: lack a cell wall, smallest living organisms, can survive without oxygen, many are pathogenic.

Kingdom Protista
Unicellular eukaryotes; forms a link with fungi, plants and animals. Have a well-defined nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles. Reproduce both asexually and sexually.
Major groups:
• Chrysophytes: diatoms and golden algae (desmids); found in freshwater/marine; cell walls form two thin
overlapping shells (diatomaceous earth used in polishing, filtration).
• Dinoflagellates: mostly marine, photosynthetic, two flagella; rapid multiplication causes 'red tides' (e.g.,
Gonyaulax).
• Euglenoids: freshwater, mostly in stagnant water; have a protein-rich layer called pellicle instead of a cell
wall; autotrophic in light, heterotrophic in absence of sunlight (e.g., Euglena).
• Slime moulds: saprophytic protists; form aggregations called plasmodium under favourable conditions.
• Protozoans: heterotrophic, live as predators or parasites — Amoeboid (Amoeba), Flagellated
(Trypanosoma), Ciliated (Paramecium), Sporozoans (Plasmodium).

Kingdom Fungi
Heterotrophic (mostly saprophytic), eukaryotic organisms with cell walls made of chitin and glucan. Body
made of long filaments called hyphae; network of hyphae = mycelium.
Hyphae may be coenocytic (aseptate, multinucleate) or septate. Nutrition: saprophytic, parasitic, or
symbiotic.
Reproduction: vegetative (fragmentation, fission, budding), asexual (spores like conidia, sporangiospores,
zoospores), and sexual (via oospores, ascospores, basidiospores) involving plasmogamy → karyogamy →
meiosis.

Class Features Examples

Phycomycetes Aquatic/decaying wood/obligate parasites; coenocytic mycelium

Mucor, Rhizopus, Albugo

Ascomycetes Sac fungi; unicellular/filamentous; spores in asci Aspergillus, Penicillium, yeast

Basidiomycetes Mushrooms, bracket fungi, puffballs; basidiospores on basidium

Agaricus, Ustilago, Puccinia

Deuteromycetes 'Imperfect fungi'; only asexual/vegetative phase known Alternaria, Trichoderma, Colletotrichum

Kingdom Plantae & Kingdom Animalia

Both include eukaryotic, multicellular organisms — covered in detail in later chapters (Plant & Animal
Kingdom). Plantae is autotrophic with cellulose cell walls; Animalia is heterotrophic and lacks a cell wall.

Viruses, Viroids, Prions and Lichens

These are not placed under the five-kingdom system.

• Viruses: obligate parasites; non-cellular, made of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) covered by a protein coat
(capsid); considered 'living' only inside a host cell. Term 'virus' (poison) coined by Pasteur; D.J. Ivanowsky
first reported a virus (tobacco mosaic); M.W. Beijerinck termed it Contagium vivum fluidum.
• Viroids: discovered by T.O. Diener (1971); consist only of free RNA (no protein coat); smaller than viruses;
cause diseases like potato spindle tuber disease.
• Prions: abnormal, infectious proteins (no nucleic acid) that cause neurological diseases such as mad cow
disease (Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans).
• Lichens: symbiotic association between algae (phycobiont, provides food) and fungi (mycobiont, provides
shelter/absorbs nutrients); good pollution indicators (do not grow in polluted areas).

Quick Recap
• Two Kingdom (Linnaeus) → Plantae, Animalia
• Five Kingdom (Whittaker, 1969) → Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
• Basis of classification: cell structure, nutrition, body organisation, reproduction, phylogeny
• Viruses, viroids, prions, and lichens fall outside the five-kingdom classification