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EVOLUTION
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EVOLUTION

Orderly change from one condition to another.

Evolution is a slow, gradual, continuous & irreversible process.

Origin of Universe

20 billion years ago

Origin of Earth

4.5 billion years

❑ Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of Earth,
i.e., almost four billion years back.
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Primitive Earth

No atmosphere

The conditions on earth were:

❑ High temperature
❑ Volcanic eruptions
❑ Lightening
❑ Unstable radioactive elements
❑ UV rays
❑ Reducing atmosphere containing CH4, NH3, etc.
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Theories for Origin of Life

1. Special creation
2. Cosmic panspermia
3. Abiogenesis/Spontaneous generation
4. Biogenesis
5. Oparin-Haldane’s/Modern Theory
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Theories for Origin of Life

Special creation Cosmic panspermia

Abiogenesis/Spontaneous generation Biogenesis

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Louis Pasteur’s Swan Neck Flask Experiment

Louis Pasteur demonstrated –

Life comes only from pre-existing life.
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Oparin - Haldane Theory (Modern Theory)

First form of life could have come from pre-existing

non-living organic molecules. (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.)

(A) CHEMICAL EVOLUTION ( Chemogeny )

(B) BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION ( Biogeny )

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Oparin-Haldane Theory
ATOMIC STAGE (4.5 bya)
C, H, O, N, Cl, F, He, Ar etc.

Chemogeny
MOLECULAR STAGE
H2O (vapour), NH3, CO2, CO, N2, H2, CH4, HCN, Cyanides, Carbides, Nitrides

SIMPLE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (i) Atomic Stage

Aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, pentose, hexose, amino acids, glycerol,
fatty acids, purines and pyrimidines
(ii) Molecular Stage (Inorganic Stage)
COMPLEX ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Protein (non-structural & non-enzymatic), polysaccharides, fats/lipids,
nucleotides ® Nucleic acids (non-replicable)
(iii) Simple Organic Stage (monomers/ biomicromolecules)

SUN
(iv) Complex Organic Stage (polymers/ biomacromolecules)
CLOUD

RAIN

EARLY GASES LIGHTENING RADIATIONS

N-BASES
NUCLEOTIDES
(PURINES &
H2 PYRIMIDINES)
SUGARS POLYSACCHARIDES
HIGH
Primitive oceans
NH3 AMINO ACIDS PROTEINS
TEMPERATURE
Hot dilute soup/
HCN GLYCEROL
FATS/LIPIDS
pre biotic soup
H2O FATTY ACIDS

CH4
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Stanley Miller Experiment
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Q. In 1953, S. L. Miller created primitive earth conditions in the

laboratory and gave experimental evidence for the origin of the
first form of life from pre-existing non-living organic molecules.
The primitive earth conditions created include:
(1) Low temperature, volcanic storms, atmosphere rich in oxygen
(2) Low temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere
(3) High temperature, volcanic storms, non-reducing atmosphere
(4) High temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere
containing CH4, NH3, etc.

Ans. (4)
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(B) Biological Evolution (Biogeny)

(i) Origin of Protobionts

Macromolecules which were synthesized abiotically in primitive

oceans later came together and formed large colloidal drop like
structures named as protobionts.

Macromolecules
Water Film Lipid
membrane

Protein

Coacervates Microspheres
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(ii) Origin of Protocells (Eobionts)

Non-Replicating Mutation Self-Replicating

Nucleic Acid Nucleic Acid

Self-Replicating Nucleic
Nucleoproteins
Acid + Proteins

Nucleoproteins were the first sign of life.

1st form of Life : Eobiont – non-cellular

These first non-cellular forms of life could have originated

3 billion years ago.
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(iii) Origin of First Cellular Form (Prokaryotes)

As a result of mutation, protocells became more complex and

efficient to use the materials available in the surrounding medium
and evolved into prokaryotic cells 2BYA; Chemoheterotroph and
anaerobic.

mutation
RNA DNA

organized
Ribozymes & Proteins Ribosomes
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It includes some major changes like-

Atmosphere of earth changed from reducing to oxidizing, hence

possibilities of further chemical evolution finished, because
chemical evolution always takes place in reducing environment.

Free O2 oxidized CH4 and NH3 to form CO2, N2 and H2O, etc.

Some prokaryotes adapted themselves for aerobic mode of

respiration which provides approximately 20 times more energy
than anaerobic respiration.

Accumulation of free oxygen formed a layer of ozone in the outer

atmosphere of the earth.
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(iv) Origin of Eukaryotic cell

Nucleus, mitochondria, and other cell organelles developed in the

cell, and the cell became metabolically more active. 1.5BYA
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A Brief Account of Evolution

500 mya - Invertebrates

350 mya - Jawless fishes
320 mya - Seaweeds and a few plants

First organisms that invaded land were plants.

Coelacanth, or lobefins evolved into the first amphibians.
Amphibians evolved into reptiles.
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A Brief Account of Evolution

Sauropsids (lizard like early reptiles)

Dinosaurs Modern Reptiles Birds

Synapsids were the mammal like early reptiles which gave rise to
mammals.
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Triceratops

Tyrannosaurus
Pteranodon

Crocodilian

Archaeopteryx

Stegosaurus Brachiosaurus

Thecodont
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A Brief Account of Evolution

About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth.

When reptiles came down mammals took over the earth.

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GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

Era Period Epochs Life forms

COENOZOIC Ice age.
QUATERNARY
(Age of Birds, Holocene Angiosperms, birds and mammals are
(Age of Man)
Mammals and dominant
Angiosperms) TERTIARY Early primates
Dinosaur Extinction, Early flowering plants,
CRETACEOUS
Appearance of modern birds
MESOZOIC (Age JURASSIC (Golden Golden age of Dinosaurs & conifers,
of Reptiles) age of Dinosaurs) Archeopteryx appeared
First dinosaurs
TRIASSIC First mammals
PERMIAN Synapsids (Mammal like reptiles)
Fern and seed plant
CARBONIFEROUS
Golden age of Amphibia
DEVONIAN Golden age of fishes
PALAEOZOIC
SILURIAN Golden age of jawless fishes
ORDOVICIAN Golden age of marine Invertebrates
Trilobites (Extinct arthropods) were
CAMBRIAN
dominant
PRECAMBIAN Multicellular organism appeared
Origin of life Early bacteria(stromatolites)
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Q. Match List I with List II. NEET 2024

Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
List I List II
A. Mesozoic Era I. Lower invertebrates
B. Proterozoic Era II. Fish & Amphibia
C. Cenozoic Era III. Birds & Reptiles
D. Paleozoic Era IV Mammals

(1) A-II, B-I, C-III, D-IV

(2) A-III, B-I, C-II, D-IV
(3) A-I, B-II, C-IV, D-III
(4) A-III, B-I, C-IV, D-II

Ans. (4)
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Q. What is the correct order (old to recent) of periods in Palaeozoic

era ? NEET 2024
(1) Silurian, Devonian, Permian, Carboniferous
(2) Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian
(3) Permian, Devonian, Silurian, Carboniferous
(4) Silurian, Carboniferous, Permian, Devonian

Ans. (2)
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Evidences of Organic Evolution

1. Palaeontological 2. Evidences from

Evidences Connecting Links
The geological history of the Earth Archaeopteryx-
is closely correlates with the Between Reptilia
biological history of the Earth. and Aves
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Q. Match List-I with List-II. NEET 2024

Choose the correct answer from the options given below:
List I List II
A. Living Fossil I. Elongated canine teeth
B. Connecting Link II. Vermiform appendix
C. Vestigial Organ III. Echidna
D. Atavism IV Latimeria
(1) A-IV, B-III, C-II, D-I
(2) A-IV, B-II, C-III, D-I
(3) A-IV, B-III, C-I, D-II
(4) A-III, B-IV, C-I, D-II

Ans. (1)
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Evidences from Comparative Morphology & Anatomy

Homology Analogy

Indicates common ancestry Does not indicate common ancestry

based on divergent evolution based on convergent evolution

Formation of multiple Different group of organisms

species from a common have similar adaptive features
ancestral species due to similar habitat or towards
the same function
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HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES
Homologous Organs

IN ANIMALS IN PLANTS

Human Cat Horse Bat Whale

❑ Forelimbs of mammals ❑ Thorn of Bougainvillea
❑ Vertebrates hearts and tendril of Cucurbita
❑ Potato and Ginger-both
❑ Vertebrates brain
are modified shoot
❑ Mouth parts of insects
❑ Radish and Carrot-both
❑ Testes in male and are modified roots
Bougainvillea Cucurbita ovaries in female
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Molecular Homology

Evidence from biochemistry.

Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function

among diverse organisms give clues to common ancestry.

For example, the plasma proteins found in the blood of man

and apes are similar.
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Adaptive Divergence

The process of evolution of different species in a given

geographical area, starting from a point and literally
radiating to other areas of geography (habitats) is called
adaptive radiation.

Marsupial radiation

Placental radiation

Darwin’s finches
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Sugar glider/ Tasmanian wolf

Flying phalanger

Tiger cat

Marsupial mole Marsupial

Radiation
Banded anteater/
Numbat

Koala Marsupial rat

Bandicoot Wombat Kangaroo

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Placental Mammals-

Flying squirrel
Wolf

Mole Bobcat
Placental
Radiation
Anteater
Rabbit

Mouse

Lemur Deer
Brown bear
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Darwin’s Finches :
During the journey of Galapagos Islands, Darwin observed an
amazing diversity of creatures. Of particular interest, small black
birds later called Darwin's Finches, amazed him.
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Q. Which evolutionary phenomenon is depicted by the sketch given

figure? NEET 2024

(1) Artificial selection

(2) Genetic drift
(3) Convergent evolution
(4) Adaptive radiation

Ans. (4)
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Analogy

Similar habitats that have resulted in the selection of similar

adaptive features in different groups of organisms but toward
the same function.

Analogy doesn't indicate common ancestry.

Analogy is based upon convergent evolution.

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Analogy

Examples

Wings of butterflies and birds

Eye of the octopus and mammal
Flippers of Dolphins & Penguins
Sweet potato & potato
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Convergent evolution or Adaptive convergence:

When more than one adaptive radiation appears to have occurred

in an isolated geographical area (representing different habitats),
this can be called convergent evolution.

E.g. Wolf (placental) and Tasmanian wolf (marsupial)

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Parallel Evolution

Parallel evolution occurs when two independent, but similar

species evolve in the same direction and thus independently
acquire similar characteristics.

E.g.
(i) Australian marsupials and corresponding placental mammals.
(ii) Evolution of human brain and language.
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Evidences From Embryology

Baer’s Law Biogenetic Law

“In embryonic stages, “Ontogeny recapitulates

general characters appear phylogeny”
first, and specialized
characters appear later".

This proves that all vertebrates have evolved from

common fish-like ancestors and also that both
birds & mammals have evolved from reptiles.
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Evidence from Biogeographical Distribution

On the basis of fauna and flora, Alfred Russel Wallace divided the
whole world into six biogeographical regions called realms.

After continental drift, pouched mammals (marsupials) of Australia

survived because of a lack of competition from any other mammals.
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Theories of Organic Evolution

(i) Lamarckism or Lamarck’s Theory of Inheritance of Acquired

Characters.

(ii) Darwinism or Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection.

(iii) Mutation Theory of Hugo de Vries.

(iv) Modern Concept of Evolution / Modern Synthetic Theory

of Evolution / Neo-Darwinism.
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Lamarck’s Propositions

Environmental Changes

Need for new structures

Development of new structure

Organ of use Organ of disuse

Inheritance of Degeneration of
adaptive characters the structure

Origin of new species

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Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

Branching Descent Natural Selection

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Basic Concepts of Darwinism

Overproduction

Struggle for existence

Variations and heredity

Natural selection/survival of the fittest

Origin of new species

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Fitness, according to Darwin, refers ultimately and only to

reproductive fitness.

As a result of heritable variations and natural selection, there

would be a change in the population characteristics, and hence,
new forms would appear.
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The main drawback of this theory is that Darwin didn't have the
knowledge of genetics, and he had no satisfactory explanation for
the causes, origin and inheritance of variations.
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Q. Read the following statements, A and B, and choose the correct

answer.
Statement-A: Any population has built-in variation in
characteristics.
Statement-B: According to Darwin, fitness ultimately refers only
to reproductive fitness.
(1) Both statements are correct
(2) Both statements are incorrect
(3) Only statement A is correct
(4) Only statement B is correct

Ans. (1)
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Mutation Theory of Hugo de Vries

Evening Primrose Mutation

Large
Sudden/Random
Inheritable changes
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Mutation is a discontinuous source of variations and provides

the raw material for evolution.

Mutations are random and directionless, while Darwinian

variations are small and directional.

Evolution for Darwin was gradual, while de Vries believed

mutation caused speciation and hence called it saltation
(single-step large mutation).
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Q. According to Hugo de Vries, speciation due to mutation is also

known as ‘saltation' which means:
(1) Single-step variation
(2) Variations at regular intervals
(3) Single-step large mutation
(4) Huge change due to Natural selection

Ans. (3)
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NEO-DARWINISM/Modern Synthetic Theory of Organic Evolution:

According to this theory, the following factors are responsible for

the formation of new species:
(i) Rapid multiplication (iv) Genetic variations
(ii) Limited food and space (v) Natural selection
(iii) Struggle for existence (vi) Isolation
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Genetic Variations

Gene Recombination: continuous and common source of variation.

Mutation: discontinuous source of variations.

Hybridization: crossing of organisms.

Gene Migration & Gene Flow: gene migration happens multiple

times is gene flow.

Genetic Drift: change in gene frequency occurs by chance.

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Natural Selection

Natural selection is a process in which heritable variations

enabling better survival are enabled to reproduce and leave a
greater number of progenies.

A critical analysis makes us believe that variation results in a

changed frequency of genes and alleles in future generations.
Coupled to enhance reproductive success, natural selection makes
it look like different population and lead to new species formation.
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Isolation

Isolation is the segregation of populations by some barriers which

prevent interbreeding.
SPECIATION

SYMPATRIC SPECIATION ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION

Without Geographical Isolation Geographical Isolation
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Q. Given below are two statements:

Statement-I: Natural selection is a process in which heritable
variations enabling better survival are enabled to reproduce and
leave a greater number of progeny.
Statement-II: Variation results in a changed frequency of genes.
(1) Statement I is correct, but Statement II is incorrect
(2) Statement I is incorrect, but Statement II is correct
(3) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct
(4) Both Statement I and Statement II are incorrect

Ans. (3)
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Q. Which of the following factors can lead to a change in gene

frequency in the population?
(1) Genetic drift
(2) Mutation
(3) Genetic recombination
(4) All of the above

Ans. (4)
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Genetic Drift (Sewall Wright Effect)

Random change of gene/allelic frequencies in a population merely

by chance is called genetic drift.

It operates rapidly in a small population.

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Genetic Drift (Sewall Wright Effect)

Founder Effect Bottleneck Effect

When a section of the population A sudden change in

gets isolated or migrated or drifted the environment due
from the original population, a to natural calamity
change in allelic frequency is called causes allelic changes
the founder effect. in the survivor
The original drifted population population, which is
becomes founders, and the effect called the bottleneck
is called the founder effect. effect.
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Hardy-Weinberg Principle

Large, randomly mating & non-evolving population

The sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1.
p + q = 1
The Binomial expansion of the Hardy-Weinberg equation is:-
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
Where: p2 - Frequency of individuals with genotype AA
q2 - Frequency of individuals with genotype aa
2pq - Frequency of individuals with genotype Aa
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Examples of
Natural Selection &
Artificial Selection
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Examples Of Natural Selection

Industrial Drug Pesticide and

Melanism resistance herbicide resistance

Remember that no Microbes flourish to Excess use of

variant is completely produce resulted in selection
wiped out. tolerant/resistant of resistant varieties
population in a much lesser
time scale.

These are examples of evolution by anthropogenic action.

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This also tells us that evolution is not a directed process in the

sense of determinism.

It is a stochastic process (random/by chance process) based on

chance events in nature and chance mutation in the organisms.

It means the preservation of genetic variability is maintained by

the selection of heterozygote which is called balanced
polymorphism.
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Artificial Selection

Artificial selection is similar to natural selection except that the

role of nature is taken over by man and the characters selected
are of human use.

Dogs, horses, pigeons, poultry, cows, goats, sheep and pigs

improved varieties of useful plants like wheat, rice, sugarcane,
cotton, pulses, vegetable, fruits etc.
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Q. Assertion : Evolution is not a directed in the sense of determinism.

Reason : Evolution is a stochastic process based on chance events
in nature and chance mutation in organisms.
(1) Both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is NOT the
correct explanation of Assertion
(2) Assertion is true, but Reason is false
(3) Assertion is false, but Reason is true
(4) Both Assertion and Reason are true, and Reason is the correct
explanation of Assertion

Ans. (4)
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Type of Favors Mean Environment Peak Example
selection phenotype value
Stabilizing Average Constant Constant Gets Mortality
higher in human
and babies
narrower

Directional One Always Changing Shifts in

Industrial
extreme change one
melanism,
direction
DDT
resistance
in pests.

Disruptive Both Changes Constant or Two Shell

extreme are changing peaks are patterns of
towards formed limpets
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Q. In a population of 1000 individual, 400 individual are tall, 200

individual are medium, 400 individual are short, If tall and short
individual survives, then which type of selection operates in
population?
(1) Sexual selection
(2) Stabilizing selection
(3) Directional selection
(4) Disruptive selection

Ans. (4)
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Genetic Basis of Adaptations

The rate of appearance of Fitness or adaptive ability is

new forms is linked to the life based on the characteristics
cycle or the life span. which are inherited.

Microbes that divide fast Microbial experiments show that

have the ability to multiply pre-existing advantageous
and become millions of mutations, when selected, will
individuals within hours. result in the observation of new
phenotypes leading to speciation.

A new environment does not induce pre-adaptive mutations but

selects those mutations that occurred earlier.
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Fitness or adaptive ability is based on the characteristics which

are inherited. It has a genetic basis. Hence, there must be a
genetic basis for getting selected and to evolve.
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Q. Assertion: Mutations cause speciation.

Reason: Pre-existing advantageous mutations, when selected,
will result in speciation over a few generations.
(1) Both Assertion & Reason are true, and the reason is a correct
explanation of the assertion
(2) Both Assertion & Reason are true, but reason is not a correct
explanation of the assertion
(3) Assertion is true, but the Reason is false
(4) Both Assertion and Reason are false

Ans. (1)
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ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN

Old-world monkeys are closer to humans.
The skull of a baby chimpanzee is more like an adult human skull
than an adult chimpanzee skull.
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Proconsul/ Dryopithecus Ape like (Semi erect)

Ape Fossils Ramapithecus more man-like
(15 mya) Shivapithecus more ape-like
Kenyapithecus Found in Kenya
Ape man fossils Australopithecus- Connecting link
(2 mya ) between apes and man.

Homo habilis (650-800 cc) First tool maker & Vegetarian

Prehistoric Man
(1.5 mya)
Homo erectus(900 cc) Erect, Ate meat
(Extinct species • Java man Used Fire, Omnivores,
of Homo) • Peking man Cannibalism
Neanderthal man(1400 cc) Buried their dead, speech, language
Homo sapiens Cro-Magnon man(1650 cc) Domestication, Cave paintings
(Africa) Modern man(1450 cc) Agriculture, family settlement
(Homo sapiens sapiens)
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Q. The probable first prehistoric man was:

(1) Ramapithecus
(2) Homo habilis
(3) Australopithecus
(4) Sinanthropus

Ans. (2)
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Q. The chronological order of human evolution from early to the

recent is:
(1) Ramapithecus → Homo habilis → Australopithecus
→ Homo erectus
(2) Australopithecus → Homo habilis → Ramapithecus
→ Homo erectus
(3) Australopithecus → Ramapithecus → Homo habits
→ Homo erectus
(4) Ramapithecus → Australopithecus → Homo habilis
→ Homo erectus

Ans. (4)