SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Meaning of a Sentence

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought or idea. A sentence

begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (.), a question mark (?), or an
exclamation mark (!).

A sentence must contain:

 A subject (who or what the sentence is about).

 A predicate (what the subject does or what is said about the subject).
Examples

 - The boy + is reading

(subject) (predicate)

 Fatima + sings beautifully

(subject (predicate)

 We + are learning English.

(subject) (predicate)

 The teacher + explained the lesson.

(subject) (predicate)

 The sun + rises in the east.

(subject) (predicate)

---
PARTS OF A SENTENCE

Every complete sentence has two main parts:

A. Subject

The subject is the person, animal, place, or thing that performs the action or is being
talked about.

Examples

- Musa is writing.
- The teacher entered the classroom.
- The birds are singing.
- Our principal addressed the students.
- My brother plays football.

B. Predicate

The predicate tells us what the subject does or what is said about the subject. It always
contains the verb.

Examples

- Musa is writing a letter.

- The teacher entered the classroom.
- The birds are singing loudly.
- Our principal addressed the students.
- My brother plays football every Saturday.
Examples Showing the Subject and Predicate

Subject Predicate
The girl is reading a story.
Ahmed plays football
My mother cooked delicious food
The pupils answered the questions correctly.
The dog barked loudly

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SENTENCE

A good sentence:

o expresses a complete idea;

o begins with a capital letter;
o ends with the correct punctuation mark;
o contains a subject and a predicate;
o is grammatically correct.

Exercise A: Underline the subject and circle the predicate.

1. Musa. cleaned the classroom

2. The teacher marked our books.
3. My father repaired the car.
4. The pupils sang the national anthem.
5. The baby cried loudly.
6. Fatima washed the plates.
7. The lion chased the antelope.
8. We attended the assembly.
9. The farmer planted maize.
10. The children played happily.
---

Exercise B: Write the subject and predicate separately.

1. The boy kicked the ball. (Subject: The boy Predicate: kicked the ball_
2. The doctor treated the patient.
3. Amina cooked rice.
4. The birds built a nest.
5. Our school won the competition.
6. The baby smiled happily.
7.
Exercise C: Complete each sentence by adding a suitable predicate.

1. The teacher _______________________________________.

2. My father _______________________________________.
3. The pupils _______________________________________.
4. The lion _________________________________________.
5. The baby _______________________________________.

Assignment

1. Define a sentence.
2. Mention the two main parts of a sentence.
3. Explain the meaning of the subject.
4. Explain the meaning of the predicate.
5. Write ten sentences and identify the subject and predicate in each.
TYPES OF SENTENCES

Meaning of Types of Sentences

Sentences are grouped into different types according to the purpose or function of the
speaker or writer. A sentence may make a statement, ask a question, give a command, or
express strong feelings.

There are four main types of sentences:

A. Declarative (Assertive) Sentence

B. Interrogative Sentence
C. Imperative Sentence
D. Exclamatory Sentence

A. Declarative (Assertive) Sentence

A declarative sentence is a sentence that makes a statement, gives information, states a

fact, or expresses an opinion. It is the most common type of sentence in English. A
declarative sentence always ends with a full stop (.)

Examples

1. The sun rises in the east.

2. Muhammad is my best friend.
3. We are learning English grammar today.
4. My father is a business man.
5. The pupils cleaned the classroom.
6. Nigeria is a country in West Africa.
7. The baby is sleeping.
8. Our director is a kind man
9. The teacher marked our books.
 10. Fatima speaks English fluently.

B. Interrogative Sentence

An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question. It is used when the speaker
wants information or an answer. An interrogative sentence always ends with a question
mark (?)

Examples
1. What is your name?
2. Where do you live?
3. When did the lesson begin?
4. Why are you late?
5. Who wrote this book?
6. Which subject do you like most?
7. Are you ready for the examination?
8. Did Musa attend school yesterday?
9. Can you solve this problem?
10. How many pupils are in your class?

C. Imperative Sentence

An imperative sentence gives a command, instruction, advice, request, warning, or

invitation. The subject "you" is usually understood but is not written.

Imperative sentences usually end with a full stop (.), but they may end with an
exclamation mark (!) when expressing strong emotion.

Examples
 1. Close the door.
2. Open your books.
3. Keep quiet.
4. Submit your assignment.
5. Stand up.
6. Please help me.
7. Do not make noise.
8. Wash your hands before eating.
9. Listen carefully to the teacher.
10. Always tell the truth.

D. Exclamatory Sentence

An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feelings or emotions such as joy, surprise,

fear, excitement, sadness, admiration, or anger. It always ends with an exclamation mark
(!)

Examples

1. What a beautiful flower!

2. How wonderful the performance was!
3. What an amazing goal!
4. Oh, what a pleasant surprise!
5. How clever you are!
6. What a lovely day!
7. Hurray! We won the competition!
8. Alas! The old man is dead!
9. Wow! That is fantastic!
10. How fast the boy runs!
Exercise A: State the type of each sentence.

1. Please close the window. Ans: Imperative

2. What is your favourite subject? Ans: interrogative
3. The children are playing football.
4. What a wonderful idea!
5. Bring your notebook tomorrow.
6. Did you finish your homework?
7. We visited Kano during the holiday.
8. How beautiful this garden is!
9. Always obey your parents.
10. The teacher praised the pupils.

Exercise B: Change the following as directed.

1. Musa is in the classroom. (Change to an interrogative sentence.)

Ans: Is Musa in the classroom?
2. Close the gate. (Change to an exclamatory sentence.)
__________________________________________________
3. Are you ready? (Change to a declarative sentence.)
__________________________________________________
4. The weather is very hot today. (Change to an exclamatory sentence.)
__________________________________________________
5. You should respect your elders. (Change to an imperative sentence.)
__________________________________________________
Exercise C Write:

- Five declarative sentences.

- Five interrogative sentences.

- Five imperative sentences.

- Five exclamatory sentences.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Define a sentence.
2. Mention the four types of sentences.
3. Explain each type with two examples.
4. Write 10 sentences and identify the type of each.
5. State the correct punctuation mark used for each type of sentence.

A phrase is a group of words that forms a meaningful unit in a sentence but does not
contain both a subject and a verb.

A phrase cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.

Examples:

in the classroom

a very beautiful girl

with great courage

after the examination

the old wooden house

Difference Between a Phrase and a Clause

Phrase

Clause
Does not contain both subject and verb

Contains a subject and a verb

Cannot stand alone as a sentence

Can stand alone or depend on another clause

Example: in the school compound

Example: The pupils are playing

Types of Phrases

The common types of phrases are:

Noun Phrase

Verb Phrase

Adjective Phrase

Adverbial Phrase

Prepositional Phrase

1. Noun Phrase

A noun phrase is a group of words that functions as a noun in a sentence. It contains a

noun and words that describe or modify it.

Examples:

The intelligent student in my class won the scholarship.

A very tall young man helped the old woman cross the road.

The beautiful flowers in the garden attracted many visitors.

My elder brother from Abuja is a medical doctor.

The hardworking students of our school performed well in the examination.

2. Verb Phrase

A verb phrase is a group of words that contains a main verb and one or more helping
verbs.

Examples:

The students have completed their assignments before the teacher arrived.

She is preparing for the final examination this week.

They were playing football in the school field yesterday.

Musa has been reading his books carefully since morning.

The teacher will explain the topic clearly to the students.

3. Adjective Phrase

An adjective phrase is a group of words that describes a noun or pronoun.

Examples:

The girl with a beautiful smile won the competition.

The man full of wisdom and experience advised the students.

We saw a house larger than the one beside it.

The boy very proud of his achievement received an award.

The food delicious and well prepared was enjoyed by everyone.

4. Adverbial Phrase
An adverbial phrase is a group of words that performs the function of an adverb. It tells
us how, when, where, or why an action happens.

Examples:

The students completed their work with great enthusiasm.

The old man walked very slowly along the narrow road.

We arrived at the school early in the morning.

The children played football in the open field behind the classroom.

She answered the question with confidence and courage.

5. Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun.

Examples:

The books on the wooden table near the window belong to me.

The students gathered in the school hall after the assembly.

The cat was hiding under the old chair in the corner.

We travelled through the long and narrow road to Kano.

The teacher stood beside the entrance of the classroom.

Exercise A

Identify the type of phrase underlined.

The hardworking boy from our village won the prize.

The pupils have been studying very hard for the examination.
The woman with a kind heart helped the child.

He completed the task with great determination.

The books are on the teacher's table.

Exercise B

Underline the phrases in the following sentences.

The young boy with a bright smile greeted his teacher politely.

The students have been preparing for the inter-school competition.

We visited the large market near the main road.

She spoke with great confidence during the debate.

The beautiful house beside the river belongs to my uncle.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE ACCORDING TO COMPOSITION

Sentence structure according to composition refers to how a sentence is formed or

arranged based on the number and type of clauses it contains.

A. A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb.

There are two main types of clauses:

1. Independent (Main) Clause: An independent clause expresses a complete thought. It

can stand alone as a sentence.

Examples
- Musa is reading.
- The teacher entered the classroom.
- We played football after school.
2. Dependent (Subordinate) Clause: A dependent clause has a subject and a verb but
does not express a complete thought. It cannot stand alone as a sentence.

Examples
- because he was sick
- although it was raining
- when the bell rang
- if you study hard
- after the lesson ended

Types of Dependent Clauses

There are three major types:
1. Noun Clause
A noun clause is a clause that functions as a noun in a sentence. It can be used as the
subject or object of a verb.
Examples:
1. What he said is true.
2. I know that she is honest.
3. Who will win the race is unknown.
4. We believe that he will come.
5. Tell me what you want.

2. Adjective Clause (Relative Clause)

An adjective clause is a clause that describes or gives more information about a noun or
pronoun.
It usually begins with: who, whom, whose, which, that
Examples:
1. The boy who won the prize is my brother.
 2. The book that I bought is interesting.
3. The woman whose car was stolen reported to the police.
4. The house which was built last year is beautiful.
5. I met the teacher who taught me English.

3. Adverbial Clause
An adverbial clause is a clause that functions as an adverb. It tells us about time, reason,
condition, place, purpose, or manner.

Types and Examples

(a) Adverbial Clause of Time : Shows when something happens.

Words used: when, while, before, after, until
Examples:
1. I arrived when the meeting started.
2. We waited until the rain stopped.

(b) Adverbial Clause of Reason: Shows why something happens.

Words used: because, since, as
Examples:
1. He stayed home because he was sick.
2. She cried because she lost her book.

(c) Adverbial Clause of Condition

Shows a condition.
Words used: if, unless
Examples:
1. If you work hard, you will succeed.
 2. You will fail unless you study.

(d) Adverbial Clause of Purpose

Shows the purpose of an action.
Words used: so that, in order that
Examples:
1. He studied hard so that he could pass.
2. She saved money in order that she could buy a car.

Exercise
A. Identify the type of clause in each sentence.
1. I know that he is a good boy.
2. The man who came yesterday is my uncle.
3. We stayed indoors because it was raining.
4. She likes reading books.
5. If you come early, you will meet him.
B. Underline the clause in each sentence.
1. The girl who won the competition is my sister.
2. I will go when my father returns.
3. What he did surprised everyone.
4. We left because it was late.
5. The teacher praised the boy who answered correctly.

Evaluation
1. What is a clause?
2. State the two main types of clauses.
3. Differentiate between a phrase and a clause.
4. Mention the three types of dependent clauses.
 5. Write two examples each of:
6. Noun clause
a. Adjective clause
b. Adverbial clause
c.
Assignment
Identify the clauses in the following sentences and state their types:
1. The student who worked hard passed the examination.
2. I know that Musa is intelligent.
3. We stayed at home because it was raining.
4. If you read your books, you will pass.
5. The man who helped me is a teacher.

TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO COMPOSITION

There are four main types:

1. Simple Sentence
2. Compound Sentence
3. Complex Sentence
4. Compound-Complex Sentence

1. Simple Sentence

A simple sentence contains one independent clause. It has one subject and one predicate
and expresses one complete idea. Although it may contain a compound subject or
compound verb, it still has only one independent clause.

Examples
1. Umar is reading.
 2. The pupils cleaned the classroom.
3. My mother cooked rice.
4. The baby cried loudly.
5. We visited the museum.
6. Shahuda sings beautifully.
7. The farmer harvested maize.
8. Ahmed kicked the ball.
9. The teacher explained the lesson.
10. Birds fly in the sky.

2. Compound Sentence

A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses joined by a

coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so, yet, for, nor) or by a semicolon. Each clause
can stand alone as a complete sentence.

Examples

1. Hauwa studied hard, and she passed the examination.

2. I wanted to play, but it started raining.
3. Hurry up, or you will miss the bus.
4. She was tired, yet she completed the work.
5. The bell rang, so the pupils entered the classroom.
6. Sayhan cooked dinner, and Ali served it.
7. We visited the zoo, and we enjoyed ourselves.
8. The teacher explained the topic, but some students did not understand.
9. The rain stopped, so we continued our journey.
10. He is honest, and everyone respects him.
3. Complex Sentence

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
The clauses are joined by subordinating conjunctions such as because, although, if,
when, while, since, unless, before, after, until, as.

Examples

1. Because Khadija studied hard, she passed the examination.

2. Although it was raining, the match continued.
3. If you obey your parents, you will succeed.
4. When the teacher entered, the pupils stood up.
5. Since she was ill, she stayed at home.
6. After the bell rang, the lesson began.
7. Before you leave, lock the door.
8. Unless you work hard, you cannot succeed.
9. While my mother cooked, I washed the plates.
10. As the sun set, we returned home.

4. Compound-Complex Sentence

A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and one or

more dependent clauses. It combines the features of both compound and complex
sentences.

Examples
1. Although it was raining, we continued the match, and everyone enjoyed it.
2. When the teacher arrived, the pupils stood up, and the lesson began.
3. If you study hard, you will pass, and your parents will be proud.
4. Because she was tired, she rested, but she completed her assignment later.
 5. While the boys played football, the girls sang, and the teachers watched.
6. After the meeting ended, we went home, and we rested.
7. Although Shuaibu was sick, he attended school, and he wrote the test.
8. Since the road was blocked, we took another route, and we arrived safely.
9. Before the examination started, the invigilator gave instructions, and the students
listened carefully.
10. As the rain stopped, the children came outside, and they continued playing.

Type of Sentence Number of Clauses

Simple One independent clause
Compound Two or more independent clauses
Complex One independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
Compound-Complex Two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent
clauses

Exercise A: State whether each sentence is Simple, Compound, Complex, or Compound-

Complex.

1. The boy is sleeping. (Simple)

2. Musa came late, but he apologised.
3. Because it was raining, we stayed indoors.
4. The teacher entered the class, and the pupils greeted her.
5. Although he was ill, he came to school, and he wrote the examination.
6. Fatima cooked dinner.
7. If you study hard, you will succeed.
8. We visited the museum, and we took many photographs.
9. After the bell rang, the lesson started.
10. Since the power returned, we switched on the lights, and everyone cheered.

Exercise B: Join the following pairs of simple sentences to form the type indicated.
 1. Musa studied hard and He passed the examination. (Compound)
Musa studied hard and He passed the examination
2. It was raining. We continued the match. (Complex)
_________________________________________________________
3. The teacher arrived. The pupils stood up. The lesson began. (Compound-Complex)
__________________________________________________________
4. Amina washed the plates. (Simple)
___________________________________________________________
5. I was hungry. I ate my lunch. (Compound)
___________________________________________________________

Assignment
1. Define a clause.
2. Differentiate between an independent clause and a dependent clause.
3. Mention the four types of sentences according to composition.
4. Write five examples of each type.
5. Identify the clauses in five complex and five compound sentences.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE (JSS 2)

Meaning of Voice

Voice is the form of a verb that shows whether the subject performs the action or
receives the action.

There are two voices in English:

1. Active Voice
2. Passive Voice
A. Active Voice

A sentence is in the active voice when the subject performs the action of the verb. The
subject is the doer of the action.

Structure

Subject + Verb + Object (S + V + O)

Examples

1. Musa kicked the ball.

2. The teacher explained the lesson.
3. Amina washed the clothes.
4. The pupils cleaned the classroom.
5. My father repaired his car.
6. The farmer harvested the maize.
7. Fatima wrote a letter.
8. The doctor treated the patient.
9. The police arrested the thief.
10. We planted trees.

In all these sentences, the subjects (Musa, the teacher, Amina, the pupils, my father, the
farmer, Fatima, the doctor, the police, and we) perform the actions.

B. Passive Voice

A sentence is in the passive voice when the subject receives the action instead of
performing it. The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive
sentence.

Structure

Object + appropriate form of "be" + Past Participle (V³) + by + Subject

 The food + was + cooked + by + my sister

Obj aux past participle (V3) subject

The word "by" introduces the doer of the action. Sometimes the doer is omitted if it is
unknown or unimportant.

Examples

1. The ball was kicked by Musa.

2. The lesson was explained by the teacher.
3. The clothes were washed by Amina.
4. The classroom was cleaned by the pupils.
5. The car was repaired by my father.
6. The maize was harvested by the farmer.
7. A letter was written by Fatima.
8. The patient was treated by the doctor.
9. The thief was arrested by the police.
10. Trees were planted by us.

RULES FOR CHANGING ACTIVE VOICE TO PASSIVE VOICE

Rule 1 -Identify the subject, verb, and object.

Example: The teacher taught the lesson.
- Subject: The teacher
- Verb: taught
- Object: the lesson
Rule 2 - Move the object to the beginning of the sentence.

- The lesson...

Rule 3 - Use the correct form of the verb "be" according to the tense.

Rule 4 - Change the main verb to its past participle (V³).

- teach → taught
- write → written
- eat → eaten
- drive → driven
Rule 5 - Add "by" before the doer of the action.

- The lesson was taught by the teacher.

Changing Different Tenses into Passive Voice

Tenses Active Passive

Simple Present The teacher teaches English English is taught by the teacher.

Present Continuous The teacher is teaching English is being taught by the

English teacher.

Present Perfect The teacher has taught English has been taught by the
English. teacher

Simple Past The teacher taught English

English was taught by the
teacher
Past Continuous The teacher was teaching English was being taught by the
English teacher

Past Perfect The teacher had taught English had been taught by the
English teacher

Simple Future The teacher will teach English

English will be taught by the
teacher
Future Perfect The teacher will have taught English will have been taught by
English. the teacher.

Active Voice Passive Voice

 Musa opened the door. The door was opened by Musa.
 Amina cooked the food. The food was cooked by Amina.
 The teacher praised the pupils. The pupils were praised by the teacher.
 We planted flowers. Flowers were planted by us.
 The doctor examined the patient. The patient was examined by the doctor.
 Fatima wrote the letter. The letter was written by Fatima.
 The mechanic repaired the car. The car was repaired by the mechanic.
 The pupils sang the anthem. The national anthem was sung by the pupils.
 The police caught the robber. The robber was caught by the police.
 My mother washed the dishes. The dishes were washed by my mother.

Notes
1. Only transitive verbs (verbs that take objects) can be changed into the passive voice.
2. The tense of the sentence must remain the same after changing the voice.
3. The main verb must always change to its past participle (V³) in the passive voice.
4. The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
5. The subject of the active sentence becomes the object after by.

Exercise A: Change these active sentences into passive voice.

1. Musa kicked the ball.

2. The teacher marked the books.
3. Fatima washed the clothes.
4. We cleaned the classroom.
5. The doctor treated the patient.
6. My father repaired the bicycle.
7. The pupils planted trees.
8. Amina wrote a story.
9. The farmer harvested rice.
10. The police arrested the suspect.

Exercise B: Change these passive sentences into active voice.

1. The lesson was explained by the teacher.

2. The food was prepared by my mother.
3. The classroom was swept by the pupils.
4. The patient was examined by the doctor.
5. The letter was written by Musa.
6. The road was repaired by the workers.
7. The football match was won by our school.
8. The books were arranged by the librarian.
9. The flowers were watered by the gardener.
10. The assignment was completed by the students.

Exercise C: State whether each sentence is in the Active Voice or Passive Voice.

1. The girl solved the problem.

2. The problem was solved by the girl.
3. My father built the house.
4. The house was built by my father.
5. The teacher is teaching English.
6. English is being taught by the teacher.
7. We will finish the work tomorrow.
8. The work will be finished tomorrow.
9. The pupils cleaned the laboratory.
10. The laboratory was cleaned by the pupils.

Assignment

1. Define voice.
2. Differentiate between active voice and passive voice.
3. State five rules for changing active voice to passive voice.
4. Change 10 active sentences into passive voice.
5. Change 10 passive sentences into active voice.
6. Write 10 pairs of sentences, each showing the active and passive forms.
Unit 6: DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH (REPORTED SPEECH)

Speech is the act of expressing thoughts, ideas, or information through spoken or written
words.

There are two ways of reporting what someone says:

A. Direct Speech
B. Indirect (Reported) Speech

A. Direct Speech

Direct speech reports the exact words spoken by a person. The speaker's words are
enclosed in quotation marks ( " " ).

Features of Direct Speech

- It uses quotation marks.

- The speaker's exact words are not changed.
- A comma is usually placed before the opening quotation marks.
- The first word inside the quotation marks begins with a capital letter.
Structure

Speaker + Reporting Verb + "Exact Words Spoken."

Examples
1. Musa said, "I am happy."
2. The teacher said, "Open your books."
3. Amina said, "I will come tomorrow."
 4. My father said, "Work hard."
5. Fatima said, "I have finished my homework."
6. The principal said, "Assembly begins at 8:00 a.m."
7. John asked, "Where are you going?"
8. The doctor said, "Take your medicine."
9. Mary said, "We are playing football."
10. The policeman said, "Stop there!"
B. Indirect (Reported) Speech

Indirect speech reports what someone said without repeating the exact words. Quotation
marks are not used. Some words, tenses, pronouns, and time expressions may change.

Structure:
Speaker + Reporting Verb + Reported Statement

Examples
1. Musa said that he was happy.
2. The teacher told the pupils to open their books.
3. Amina said that she would come the next day.
4. My father advised me to work hard.
5. Fatima said that she had finished her homework.
6. The principal said that assembly began at 8:00 a.m.
7. John asked where I was going.
8. The doctor advised the patient to take the medicine.
9. Mary said that they were playing football.
10. The policeman ordered the man to stop there.

Rules for Changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech

Rule 1: Remove the Quotation Marks

Direct: Musa said, "I am tired."
Indirect: Musa said that he was tired.

Rule 2: Change the Pronouns

The pronouns must agree with the speaker and the listener.
Examples:
- I → he/she
- me → him/her
- my → his/her
- we → they
- our → their
- you → I, we, he, she, they (depending on the meaning)
Example

Direct: Amina said, "I lost my bag."

Indirect: Amina said that she had lost her bag.

Rule 3: Change the Tense (When the Reporting Verb is in the Past)

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Simple Present Simple Past
Present Continuous Past Continuous
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Simple Past Past Perfect
Will Would
Shall Should/Would
Can Could
May Might

Examples
- "I play football." → He said that he played football.
- "I am reading." → She said that she was reading.
- "I have finished." → He said that he had finished.
- "I will come." → She said that she would come.
Rule 4: Change Time and Place Expressions

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

today that day
tomorrow the next day
yesterday the previous day
now then
tonight that night
last week the previous week
next month the following month
here There
this that
Examples
these those
Direct: "I will come tomorrow."
Indirect: He said that he would come the next day.

Rule 5: Change the Reporting Verb When Necessary

Different sentences require different reporting verbs.
Examples:
- said - told - asked
- advised - ordered - requested
- warned - suggested - explained

Reporting Commands and Requests

Direct: The teacher said, "Keep quiet."

Indirect: The teacher ordered the pupils to keep quiet.
Direct: Mother said, "Please wash the plates."
Indirect: Mother requested me to wash the plates.
Reporting Questions
Direct: John asked, "Where do you live?"
Indirect: John asked where I lived.
Direct: The teacher asked, "Have you finished your assignment?"
Indirect: The teacher asked whether we had finished our assignment.

More Examples

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

 "I am hungry," Musa said.  Musa said that he was hungry.
 "We are ready," the pupils said.  The pupils said that they were ready.
 "I will help you," Mary said.  Mary said that she would help me.
 "Open the door," the teacher said.  The teacher told the pupils to open the door.
 "Do not run," the principal said.  The principal warned the pupils not to run.
 "Where are you going?" he asked.  He asked where I was going.
 "Can you swim?" she asked.  She asked whether I could swim.
 "Please help me," Amina said.  Amina requested me to help her.
 "Study hard," my father said.  My father advised me to study hard.
 "We have won," the players said.  The players said that they had won.

Exercise A: Change the following into Indirect Speech.

1. Musa said, "I am tired."

2. The teacher said, "Read your books."
3. Fatima said, "I will visit my aunt tomorrow."
4. John asked, "Where do you live?"
5. Mother said, "Please clean the room."
6. The doctor said, "Take this medicine."
7. Amina said, "I have finished my work."
8. The principal said, "Do not come late."
9. Ahmed said, "We are playing football."
10. Mary asked, "Can you help me?"

Exercise B: Change the following into Direct Speech.

1. Musa said that he was happy.
2. The teacher told the pupils to sit down.
3. Amina said that she would travel the next day.
4. The doctor advised the patient to rest.
5. John asked where I lived.
6. Mother requested me to wash the plates.
7. Fatima said that she had completed the assignment.
8. The principal warned the pupils not to fight.
9. Mary asked whether I could swim.
10. The boys said that they were ready.

Assignment
1. Define Direct Speech.
2. Define Indirect Speech.
3. State five differences between direct and indirect speech.
4. Explain five rules for changing direct speech to indirect speech.
5. Change 10 direct sentences into indirect speech.
6. Change 10 indirect sentences into direct speech.

QUESTION TAGS

A question tag is a short question added to the end of a statement. It is used to:
- ask for confirmation;
- seek agreement;
- check whether something is true;
- encourage a response from the listener.
A question tag is separated from the statement by a comma (,) and always ends
with a question mark (?).
Examples
- You are a student, aren't you?
- She can swim, can't she?
- They have finished, haven't they?

Rules for Forming Question Tags

Rule 1: Positive Statement → Negative Tag

When the statement is positive (affirmative), the question tag must be negative.
Examples

1. Musa is a good boy, isn't he?

2. They are playing football, aren't they?
3. She can drive, can't she?
4. We will travel tomorrow, won't we?
5. Fatima has finished her work, hasn't she?
6. M likes English, doesn't he?
7. The teacher teaches well, doesn't she?
8. You were absent yesterday, weren't you?
9. It is raining, isn't it?
10. The children have arrived, haven't they?

Rule 2: Negative Statement → Positive Tag

When the statement is negative, the question tag must be positive.

Examples
1. Musa is not late, is he?
2. They are not sleeping, are they?
3. She cannot swim, can she?
4. We will not fail, will we?
5. Fatima has not finished, has she?
6. Ahmed does not like fish, does he?
7. The teacher did not come, did she?
8. You were not present, were you?
9. It is not cold today, is it?
10. The boys have not arrived, have they?

Rule 3: The Verb in the Tag Must Match the Main Verb
The helping (auxiliary) verb used in the statement must also be used in the question tag.

Examples
- She is singing, isn't she?
- They have arrived, haven't they?
- We will travel, won't we?
- He can speak French, can't he?
- You should study hard, shouldn't you?

Rule 4: If There Is No Helping Verb, Use Do, Does, or Did

For sentences in the simple present or simple past without an auxiliary verb, use do,
does, or did.
Examples
- Musa plays football, doesn't he?
- They like rice, don't they?
- She visited Kano, didn't she?
- We enjoyed the match, didn't we?
- The baby cried, didn't it?

Rule 5: Match the Pronoun

The noun in the statement changes to the correct pronoun in the tag.
Examples
 - Musa is here, isn't he?
- Amina is singing, isn't she?
- The children are playing, aren't they?
- The dog is barking, isn't it?
- My parents are coming, aren't they?

Special Rules
1. I am → aren't I?
Examples
- I am your friend, aren't I?
- I am late, aren't I?

2. Let's → shall we?

Examples
- Let's go home, shall we?
- Let's begin the lesson, shall we?

3. Imperative Sentences
Commands often take will you?, won't you?, would you?, or can you?

Examples
- Open the door, will you?
- Help me, would you?
- Sit down, will you?
- Pass me the pen, can you?
- Don't be late, will you?

Examples
1. You are ready, aren't you?
2. She isn't tired, is she?
3. Musa plays football, doesn't he?
4. They don't like beans, do they?
5. We shall meet tomorrow, shan't we?
 6. The teacher explained the lesson, didn't she?
7. Fatima has written the letter, hasn't she?
8. I am your friend, aren't I?
9. Let's start now, shall we?
10. Close the window, will you?

Common Mistakes to Avoid

- ❌ She is a pupil, doesn't she?
✔ She is a pupil, isn't she?

- ❌ Musa plays football, isn't he?

✔ Musa plays football, doesn't he?

- ❌ They have finished, don't they?

✔ They have finished, haven't they?

Exercise A: Add the correct question tag.

1. Musa is a good boy, __________?

2. They are playing football, __________?
3. She has finished her assignment, __________?
4. Ahmed likes Mathematics, __________?
5. We shall meet tomorrow, __________?
6. Fatima did not come yesterday, __________?
7. The pupils cleaned the classroom, __________?
8. It is raining, __________?
9. You can swim, __________?
10. I am your teacher, __________?

Exercise B: Choose the correct question tag.

1. She is a nurse, ________? (a) doesn't she? (b) isn't she? (c) didn't she?

2. Musa plays football, ________? (a) isn't he? (b) doesn't he? (c) didn't he?

3. They have arrived, ________? (a) don't they? (b) haven't they? (c) aren't they?

4. We will travel tomorrow, ________? (a) won't we? (b) don't we? (c) aren't we?

5. Let's begin the lesson, ________? (a) will we? (b) shall we? (c) aren't we?

Exercise C: Rewrite the following statements and add the correct question tag.
1. The teacher teaches English.
____________________________________________________
2. Amina can drive.
____________________________________________________
3. They were absent yesterday.
____________________________________________________
4. We have completed the work.
____________________________________________________
5. My father is at home.
____________________________________________________
6. The boys will come tomorrow.
____________________________________________________
7. She doesn't eat meat.
____________________________________________________
8. You are my friend.
____________________________________________________
9. The baby is sleeping.
____________________________________________________
[Link] did not win the match.
____________________________________________________

Assignment
1. Define a question tag.
2. State five rules for forming question tags.
3. Write 10 positive statements with the correct negative question tags.
4. Write 10 negative statements with the correct positive question tags.
5. Explain the special rules for "I am", "Let's", and imperative sentences with examples.

PUNCTUATION MARKS

Punctuation marks are symbols used in writing to make the meaning of sentences clear.
They help readers know where to pause, stop, ask questions, show strong feelings, quote
someone's exact words, or separate ideas.

Correct punctuation makes writing easy to read and understand. Incorrect

punctuation can change the meaning of a sentence.

Example
- Let's eat, children. ✔ (The speaker is inviting the children to eat.)
- Let's eat children. ✘ (This wrongly suggests eating the children.)

Common Punctuation Marks

A. Full Stop (.)
B. Comma (,)
C. Question Mark (?)
D. Exclamation Mark (!)
E. Colon (:)
F. Semicolon (;)
G. Apostrophe (')
H. Quotation Marks (" ")
I. Hyphen (-)
J. Brackets ( )

A. FULL STOP (.)

A full stop is used at the end of a statement or command that is not expressed with strong
emotion. It tells the reader that the sentence has ended.
Uses of full stop
- To end declarative (statement) sentences.
- To end polite commands.
- In some abbreviations.

Examples
1. Musa is my friend.
2. We attended school yesterday.
3. The teacher marked the books.
4. Nigeria is in West Africa.
5. Open your notebooks.
6. My father is a farmer.
7. The children played happily.
8. The lesson has ended.
9. She washed the plates.
10. They travelled to Kano.

B. COMMA (,)
A comma is used to separate words, phrases, or clauses. It also shows a short pause while
reading.

Uses of comma
- To separate items in a list.
- After introductory words or phrases.
- Before some coordinating conjunctions joining two independent clauses.
- To separate names in direct address.

Examples
1. I bought rice, beans, yam, and fish.
2. After the lesson, we went home.
3. Musa, come here.
4. Although it rained, we played football.
5. She is kind, honest, and hardworking.
6. We arrived early, but the gate was closed.
 7. Yes, I understand the question.
8. On Monday, we shall write our test.
9. Fatima, Amina, and Zainab are classmates.
10. My father, who is a doctor, works in Abuja.

C. QUESTION MARK (?)

A question mark is used at the end of a direct question.

Examples
1. What is your name?
2. Where do you live?
3. Who wrote this book?
4. Are you ready?
5. Can you swim?
6. Why are you laughing?
7. When will the lesson begin?
8. Which colour do you prefer?
9. Have you completed your assignment?
10. Did Musa attend school yesterday?

D. EXCLAMATION MARK (!)

An exclamation mark expresses strong feelings or emotions, such as joy, surprise, fear,
excitement, anger, or sorrow.

Examples
1. What a beautiful house!
2. Hurray! We won the match!
3. Alas! The old man is dead!
4. Wow! That was amazing!
5. Excellent!
6. Stop!
7. What a wonderful performance!
8. Oh no!
9. How fast he runs!
10. Congratulations!
E. COLON (:)
A colon introduces a list, explanation, example, or quotation.

Examples
1. Bring the following items: books, pens, rulers, and pencils.
2. She has one goal: to become a doctor.
3. The notice read: "School resumes on Monday."
4. We need these materials: paper, glue, scissors, and crayons.
5. There is one reason for his success: hard work.
6. My favourite colours are: blue, green, and white.
7. The teacher announced: "The examination begins tomorrow."
8. Pack these items: clothes, shoes, and toiletries.
9. He has one hobby: reading.
10. Remember this: honesty is the best policy.

F. SEMICOLON (;)
A semicolon joins two closely related independent clauses without using a conjunction. It
can also separate complex items in a list.

Examples
1. Musa studied hard; he passed the examination.
2. It was raining; we stayed indoors.
3. She was tired; however, she completed the work.
4. The bell rang; the pupils entered the classroom.
5. We revised together; our teacher guided us.
6. The meeting ended; everyone went home.
7. The baby cried; its mother comforted it.
8. He apologised; she forgave him.
9. The lights went out; the generator was switched on.
10. The match ended; the players celebrated.

G. APOSTROPHE (')
An apostrophe is used to show possession or to indicate missing letters in contractions.
Uses of apostrophe

A. Possession B. Contractions
- Musa's bag - don't (do not)
- The teacher's book - can't (cannot)
- The girls' hostel - it's (it is)
- I'm (I am)

Examples
1. Musa's book is new.
2. The teacher's office is upstairs.
3. The boys' football is missing.
4. I can't swim.
5. She's my sister.
6. We're going home.
7. It's raining.
8. Don't be late.
9. My mother's car is blue.
10. The children's playground is clean.

H. QUOTATION MARKS (" ")

Quotation marks are used to show the exact words spoken by a person in direct speech.

Examples
1. Musa said, "I am happy."
2. The teacher said, "Open your books."
3. Mother said, "Wash the plates."
4. John asked, "Where are you going?"
5. The doctor said, "Take this medicine."
6. Fatima said, "I have finished."
7. "Come here," said the principal.
8. "Well done!" the teacher exclaimed.
9. "Please help me," Amina pleaded.
10. The policeman shouted, "Stop!"
I. HYPHEN (-)
A hyphen joins two or more words to form a compound word or compound adjective.

Examples
1. well-known
2. twenty-one
3. father-in-law
4. part-time
5. up-to-date
6. long-term
7. self-control
8. full-time
9. check-in
10. editor-in-chief

J. BRACKETS ( )
Brackets enclose extra information that is helpful but not essential to the main sentence.

Examples
1. Musa (our class captain) welcomed the visitors.
2. Abuja (the capital of Nigeria) is beautiful.
3. The meeting starts at 10:00 a.m. (sharp).
4. We visited Kano (a historic city).
5. The teacher (Mrs. Bello) is absent today.
6. My uncle (a lawyer) lives in Lagos.
7. English (our favourite subject) is interesting.
8. The players (except Musa) arrived early.
9. The examination (scheduled for Monday) has been postponed.
10. Rice (my favourite food) is ready.

Exercise A: Insert the correct punctuation marks.

1. what is your name

2. musa said i am ready
3. we bought rice beans yam and fish
4. hurray we won the competition
5. the teachers office is locked
6. dont make noise
7. bring the following books pens rulers and pencils
8. the meeting ended everyone went home
9. come here musa
10. abuja the capital of nigeria is beautiful

---

Exercise B: State the punctuation mark that should be used.

1. At the end of a question. ___________________

2. To separate items in a list. ___________________
3. To show possession. ___________________
4. To end a statement. ___________________
5. To express strong feelings. ___________________
6. To introduce a list. ___________________
7. To join closely related independent clauses. ___________________
8. To show direct speech. ___________________
9. To join compound words. ___________________
10. To enclose additional information. ___________________

---
Assignment

1. Define punctuation marks.

2. Mention 10 punctuation marks.
3. Explain the use of each punctuation mark with two examples.
4. Rewrite a paragraph of at least 10 sentences, inserting the correct punctuation marks.
5. Write 10 original sentences, each using a different punctuation mark correctly.

CAPITALIZATION (USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS)

Capitalization is the use of capital letters (uppercase letters) at the beginning of words
according to the rules of English grammar.
Using capital letters correctly makes writing neat, clear, and grammatically
correct. Failure to capitalize the correct words is considered a grammatical error.

Rules of Capitalization
Rule 1: Capitalize the First Word of Every Sentence
The first word of every sentence must begin with a capital letter, regardless of the
kind of sentence.

Examples

1. The pupils are studying English.

2. We visited the museum yesterday.
3. Where do you live?
4. Please close the window.
5. How beautiful this flower is!
6. My father is a businessman.
7. They travelled to Kaduna last week.
8. Can you solve this problem?
9. Open your notebooks.
10. What an exciting match!

---
Rule 2: Capitalize Proper Nouns
A proper noun is the special name of a particular person, place, river, mountain,
country, school, organization, or institution.

Examples

1. Musa is my friend.
2. We live in Nigeria.
3. She travelled to Lagos.
4. River Niger is one of the longest rivers in Africa.
5. He attends Government Secondary School.
6. My uncle lives in Abuja.
 7. Africa is a large continent.
8. We visited Kano during the holiday.
9. Mount Kilimanjaro is in Tanzania.
10. Ahmadu Bello University is located in Zaria.

---
Rule 3: Capitalize Days, Months, and Public Holidays
The names of days, months, festivals, and public holidays always begin with
capital letters.

Examples

1. We have lessons on Monday.

2. My birthday is in July.
3. School resumes in September.
4. We celebrate Christmas in December.
5. Muslims celebrate Eid al-Fitr.
6. Friday is our sports day.
7. The meeting is on Tuesday.
8. The examination begins in May.
9. We observed New Year's Day.
10. October is the tenth month of the year.

---
Rule 4: Capitalize Titles Before Names
Titles such as Mr., Mrs., Miss, Dr., Prof., Chief, Alhaji, Mallam, Hon., Rev. are
capitalized when they come before a person's name.

Examples

1. Mr. Bello is our teacher.

2. Mrs. Musa is a nurse.
3. Dr. Ahmed treated the patient.
4. Prof. Ibrahim delivered the lecture.
5. Chief Okoro donated books.
6. Mallam Usman teaches Arabic.
 7. Alhaji Musa travelled to Makkah.
8. Hon. Bello addressed the gathering.
9. Rev. John led the prayer.
10. Miss Grace won the competition.

---
Rule 5: Capitalize Nationalities, Languages, Religions, and Tribes
The names of nationalities, languages, religions, and ethnic groups begin with
capital letters.

Examples

1. She speaks English fluently.

2. He understands French.
3. They are Nigerians.
4. The Hausa people are found in Northern Nigeria.
5. She is learning Arabic.
6. They practise Islam.
7. Many people in the South-East are Igbo.
8. Some pupils study Yoruba.
9. Christianity is one of the major religions in Nigeria.
10. He greeted us in Fulfulde.

---
Rule 6: Capitalize the Pronoun "I"
The pronoun I is always written as a capital letter, no matter where it appears in a
sentence.

Examples

1. I am a student.
2. Musa and I are classmates.
3. My sister and I travelled together.
4. I will help you.
5. If I study hard, I will succeed.
6. I enjoy reading novels.
 7. My friend invited me, and I accepted.
8. I visited my grandmother yesterday.
9. I like English Language.
10. I will arrive tomorrow.

---
Rule 7: Capitalize the First Word in Direct Speech
The first word inside quotation marks in direct speech begins with a capital letter.

Examples

1. Musa said, "I am ready."

2. The teacher said, "Open your books."
3. Mother said, "Wash the plates."
4. John asked, "Where are you going?"
5. Fatima said, "We have finished."
6. The doctor said, "Take this medicine."
7. The principal announced, "Assembly begins at 8:00 a.m."
8. Amina said, "Please help me."
9. The policeman shouted, "Stop!"
10. The coach said, "Work as a team."

---
Common Capitalization Mistakes

Incorrect → Correct
- nigeria → Nigeria
- Monday → Monday
- english → English
- i am happy. → I am happy.
- mr. Bello → Mr. Bello
- islam → Islam
- lagos → Lagos
- christmas → Christmas
- hausa → Hausa
- government secondary school kaduna → Government Secondary School Kaduna
---

Exercise A: Rewrite the following sentences using the correct capital letters.

1. musa travelled to lagos on monday.

2. i am learning english language.
3. my father visited kano in december.
4. dr. ahmed treated the patient.
5. they celebrate eid al-fitr every year.
6. the teacher said, "open your books."
7. we live in nigeria.
8. mr. bello teaches mathematics.
9. mary and i attended church on sunday.
10. the river niger flows through nigeria.

---
Exercise B: State the capitalization rule used.

1. Abuja is the capital of Nigeria.

2. We shall meet on Friday.
3. Prof. Ibrahim is our guest speaker.
4. I will come tomorrow.
5. She speaks French.
6. Musa said, "Please sit down."
7. Christmas is celebrated in December.
8. Mallam Musa teaches Arabic.
9. River Benue is important to Nigeria.
10. Government Secondary School won the competition.

---
Exercise C: Choose the correctly written sentence.

1. (a) i live in nigeria. (b) I live in Nigeria. (c) I live in nigeria.

2. (a) We shall meet on monday. (b) We shall meet on Monday. (c) we shall meet on
Monday.

3. (a) Dr. Bello is a doctor. (b) dr. Bello is a doctor. (c) dr. bello is a Doctor.

4. (a) She speaks english. (b) She speaks English. (c) she Speaks English.

5. (a) Musa said, "come here." (b) Musa said, "Come here." (c) musa said, "Come here."

---

Assignment

1. Define capitalization.
2. State seven rules of capitalization.
3. Write 10 sentences using capital letters correctly.
4. Rewrite a paragraph of 10 sentences, correcting all capitalization errors.
5. Explain why capitalization is important in written English.