about environmental problems we

Environmental Science & Engineering have created.

I. Introduction to Environmental Science
1. Defining the Environment II. Environmental Engineering
●​ Etymology: Derived from the 1. Definition & Goal
French word environner, meaning
"to encircle" or "to surround". ●​ Definition: A branch of engineering
●​ Definition: that focuses on protecting the
○​ The circumstances and environment and public health by
conditions that surround an developing solutions to
organization or a group of environmental problems, including
organisms. pollution control and waste
○​ It encompasses the social management.
and cultural conditions that ●​ Primary Goal: To protect human
affect an individual or a health and the environment by
community. preventing pollution and remediating
existing environmental issues.

2. What is Environmental Science? 2. Key Responsibilities

●​ Definition: The systematic study of Environmental engineers play a crucial role
our environment and our place in it. in addressing global challenges (climate
●​ Highly Interdisciplinary: It change, resource conservation, public
integrates information from: health) through:
○​ Natural Sciences: Biology, ●​ Designing Pollution Control
Chemistry, Physics. Systems: Developing systems for
○​ Social Sciences: Social treating wastewater, controlling air
Organization, Politics, and emissions, and managing solid and
Humanities. hazardous waste.
●​ Key Focus Areas: ●​ Conducting Environmental Impact
○​ How the earth works. Assessments (EIA): Evaluating
○​ How we are affecting the potential environmental
earth’s life support system. consequences of proposed projects
○​ How to deal with the and recommending mitigation
environmental problems we measures.
face. ●​ Remediating Contaminated Sites:
●​ Mission Oriented: Implies that we Investigating contaminated soil and
all have a responsibility to get groundwater, developing remediation
involved and try to do something plans, and overseeing cleanup
processes.
 ●​ Promoting Sustainable Practices: ●​ Conversion of forests into
Implementing sustainable solutions agricultural land.
in energy production, resource ●​ Conversion of forests/agricultural
management, and transportation. land into commercial and industrial
land.
●​ Conversion of mangrove swamps
III. Classification of Environmental into fishponds and salt beds.
Issues
1. Levels of Issues
IV. Status of the Philippine Environment
●​ Global Problems: Affect all or
several nations; can be solved only 1. Major Concerns
by cooperation among these ●​ The Philippines faces rapid
nations. population growth, degradation of
●​ National Problems: Affect a natural resources, and pollution of
country; can be solved internally by land, water, and air.
that country. ●​ Social Concern: Environmental
●​ Community Problems: Affect degradation is not merely an
specific localities or communities; ecological issue but a social concern
can be solved at that level. as well.

2. Specific Problem Areas (The "Big 2. Pollution Sources in the Philippines

Three")
●​ Land Pollution: Root causes include
A. Pollution mismanagement of solid wastes,
●​ Air pollution excessive use of fertilizers and
●​ Water pollution pesticides, and hazardous chemicals
from industrial wastes.
●​ Land/Soil pollution
●​ Water Pollution:
○​ Urban Areas: Caused by
uncontrolled dumping of
domestic and industrial
B. Degradation of Natural Resources wastes.
●​ Deforestation ○​ Rural Areas: Caused by
●​ Wildlife depletion fertilizer runoffs from
●​ Soil erosion croplands and organic
●​ Depleting mineral resources nutrients from domestic
●​ Degradation of marine ecosystems waste (which enrich bodies of
●​ Energy shortage water).
●​ Air Pollution: Main causes in urban
C. Changing and Conflicting Land Use centers are exhaust from motor
 vehicles and emissions from
industries and power plants. V. Environmental Principles (The 7 Laws)
1.​ Nature Knows Best (Ang Kalikasan
3. Impacts of Deforestation ang Mas Nakakaalam): Balance of
●​ Erosion, frequent flooding, siltation Nature.
of waterways, and decline of 2.​ All Forms of Life are Important
biodiversity. (Ang Lahat ng Uri ng may Buhay ay
Mahalaga): Diversity and Stability.
4. The 8 Environmental Issues in the 3.​ Everything is Connected to
Philippines Everything Else (Ang Lahat ay
Magkaugnay): Interdependence.
1.​ Natural Disasters: Typhoons, 4.​ Everything Changes (Ang Lahat ay
floods, landslides, earthquakes, Nagbabago): Change is constant.
volcanic eruptions. 5.​ Everything Must Go Somewhere
2.​ Human-caused Environmental (Ang Lahat ay may Patutunguhan):
Degradation: Improper waste The Materials Cycle / Pollution.
disposal, deforestation, soil erosion, 6.​ Ours is a Finite Earth (Ang
air/water pollution. Kalikasan ay may Hangganan):
3.​ Natural Resource Management: Finiteness of resources; Carrying
Conservation efforts, biodiversity Capacity.
issues, ecotourism, land use. 7.​ Nature is Beautiful and We are All
4.​ Industrialization: Mining industry, Stewards (Maganda ang Kalikasan
oil drilling/spills, disposal of toxic at Tayo ay Tagapangasiwa...):
wastes, water pollution. Stewardship of God's creation.
5.​ Energy: (Sources and consumption
issues).
6.​ Climate Change: (Global and local
VI. Sustainable Development
effects).
7.​ Population and Health Issues: 1. Concept and Definition
(Public health strain). ●​ Etymology: From Latin sustinere (to
8.​ Sustainable Development: hold up, support, endure).
(Balancing growth). ●​ Brundtland Commission
Definition (March 20, 1987):
5. Root Causes "Sustainable development is
●​ Population Explosion. development that meets the needs of
●​ Technological Advancement. the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs".
●​ Open Questions:
 ○​ Whether the benefits of country policies; reverse loss
technology will outweigh of environmental resources.
negative effects in the long ○​ Target 7B: Reduce
run is an open question. biodiversity loss.
○​ How can we use technology ○​ Target 7C: Halve the
to live in closer harmony proportion of people without
with nature?. access to safe drinking
water/sanitation.
○​ Target 7D: Improve lives of
2. The Three Pillars at least 100 million
Sustainability balances local and global slum-dwellers by 2020.
efforts across:
1.​ Economy (Economic development) 2. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
2.​ Society (Social development)
Adopted Sept 25, 2015 ("The 2030
3.​ Environment (Environmental
Agenda"). Covers traditional MDG areas
protection).
plus new topics (energy, infrastructure,
cities, etc.).
3. Strategies
●​ Environmental Unity: Requires the The 17 Goals:
combined efforts of all sectors of 1.​ No Poverty: End poverty in all its
society: the academe, the business forms everywhere.
circle, government offices, NGOs, 2.​ Zero Hunger: End hunger, achieve
and people's organizations. food security, promote sustainable
●​ Cooperation: Environmental issues agriculture.
involve conflicts of values and 3.​ Good Health and Well-being:
knowledge; improvement requires Ensure healthy lives for all at all
concerted effort from many people. ages.
4.​ Quality Education: Inclusive and
equitable quality education.
VII. Global Goals (MDGs & SDGs) 5.​ Gender Equality: Empower all
1. Millennium Development Goals women and girls.
(MDGs) 6.​ Clean Water and Sanitation:
Ensure availability and sustainable
Established by the UN in 2000 for the year management.
2015. 7.​ Affordable and Clean Energy:
●​ Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Access to affordable, reliable,
Sustainability. modern energy.
○​ Target 7A: Integrate
sustainable principles into
 8.​ Decent Work and Economic 3.​ Public Education: Explain the
Growth: Promote sustained, problem so the public can understand
inclusive economic growth. probable costs and results.
9.​ Industry, Innovation and 4.​ Political Action: Select a course of
Infrastructure: Build resilient action and implement it.
infrastructure. 5.​ Follow Through: Monitor the
10.​Reduced Inequalities: Reduce results.
inequality within and among
countries.
11.​Sustainable Cities and IX. The Role of Students and Youth
Communities: Make settlements
1. Importance
inclusive, safe, resilient.
12.​Responsible Consumption and ●​ "The youth is the hope of our
Production: Ensure sustainable future" - Dr. Jose Rizal.
patterns. ●​ "With great power, comes great
13.​Climate Action: Take urgent action responsibility" - Spiderman.
to combat climate change.
14.​Life Below Water: Conserve marine
resources.
15.​Life on Land: Protect terrestrial 2. Analysis of Student Involvement
ecosystems, combat desertification,
●​ Students are actively participating in
halt biodiversity loss.
movements and inspiring others.
16.​Peace, Justice and Strong
●​ They promote advocacies and start
Institutions: Promote peaceful
actions within themselves.
societies.
●​ Problems:
17.​Partnerships for the Goals:
○​ Collaboration issues between
Strengthen means of implementation.
students and other sectors.
○​ Problems with overall
participation.
VIII. Framework for Solutions
○​ Securing funds for activities
The 5 Components to Solve hinders achieving goals.
Environmental Problems:
1.​ Assessment: Scientific analysis,
3. What Can Students Do? (Action Plan)
gathering information, modeling, and
experimentation. ●​ Environmental Education:
2.​ Risk Analysis: Using scientific "Knowledge is power." Read about
analysis to determine adverse effects current issues and discuss with
a plan of action might create. friends.
●​ Reduce Consumption:
○​ Buy less, use less.
 ○​ 4Rs: Re-use, Reduce, ●​ Forests: Man said, "Let us cut the
Recycle, & Redesign. trees and build things for ourselves."
○​ Refuse plastic items. The forest grew thin. Man said, "It
●​ Eco-Friendly Transportation: is good."
○​ Walk or use a bicycle for ●​ Animals: Man said, "Let us trap the
short distances. animals for money and shoot them
○​ Take public transport for for sport." The animals became
distant places. scarce. Man said, "It is good."
○​ Advocate for carpooling. ●​ Air: Man said, "Let us burn our
●​ Save Energy: Use LED lights. refuse..." The air became dense with
●​ Plant Trees: To absorb carbon smoke and carbon. Man said, "It is
dioxide. good."
●​ War: Man said, "Let us make bombs
4. Specific Student Campaigns and missiles..." Missile sites
checkered the landscape. Man said,
●​ Environmental Exhibits / Poster
"It is good."
Making.
●​ The End: On the seventh day, man
●​ Essay Writing Contests.
rested. The earth was quiet and
●​ "Clean As You Go" Campaign.
deathly still. For man was no more.
●​ Youth Ecological Camp (3 days).
And it was good.
●​ "Bring Your Own Bag" Campaign
(Linked to Waste Disposal Problems
Final Lesson:
-> R.A. 9003 -> No Plastics Policy).
"In the end, we will conserve only what we
love, we will love only what we understand,
X. Reflection: "Genesis in Reverse" (The we will understand only what we are
Destructive Cycle) taught."
A metaphorical story contrasting the
Biblical creation with human destruction:
I. Introduction to Community Ecology
●​ Beginning: The earth was beautiful.
●​ Community Defined: A group of
Man said, "Let us build skyscrapers
organisms of different species that
and expressways."
live in a particular area.
●​ Impact: Man covered the earth with
●​ Ecosystem Defined: Consists of a
steel and concrete. Man said, "It is
community and the physical
good."
environment.
●​ Water: Man said, "Let us dump
●​ Coevolution: Occurs when
sewage and wastes into the waters."
populations of different species
The waters became dark and murky.
affect each other's evolution.
Man said, "It is good."
 ●​ Community Structure Models: IV. Species Interactions
The presentation notes both the Species organize a community through
Individualistic model and the various interactions:
Interactive model of community
structure.
Intera Nature of Expected
ction Relationshi Outcome
II. Community Composition and
p
Diversity
Two main characteristics are used to
describe a community: Comp Species Abundance
●​ Species Richness: The variety of etition compete for of both
different plant species (and other the same species
organisms) in a community. resource. decreases
●​ Diversity: Includes both the species (-,-).
richness and the relative abundance
(number of individuals) of each
species. Predat One species Predator
ion preys upon increases;
III. The Ecological Niche another. prey
●​ Habitat: The spatial location where decreases
a species is found. (+,-).
●​ Ecological Niche: The combination
of a species' role in a community, its
habitat, and its interactions with Parasi One species Parasite
other organisms. tism is a parasite increases;
●​ Niche Components: on another. host
○​ Resources: Necessities of decreases
life such as water, food, (-,-).
light, or space.
○​ Physical Aspects: Abiotic
(non-living) factors required
Comm One One
for survival.
ensalis benefits; the increases;
○​ Biological Aspects: Biotic
m other is other is
(living) factors, including
unaffected. neutral (+,
food sources, hunting
0).
methods, and reproduction.
 ●​ Ecological Succession: The ordered
Mutua Both species Abundance
process of change in a community
lism benefit. of both
over time.
species
●​ Climax-Pattern Model: The idea
increases
that an area's climate leads to a
(+,+).
stable, final climax community.
●​ Two Types of Succession:
Symbiosis 1.​ Primary Succession: Occurs
where soil has not yet formed
●​ Definition: Any relationship where (e.g., on bare rock).
two species live closely together. 2.​ Secondary Succession:
●​ Types: Includes mutualism, Occurs on a disturbed site
parasitism, and commensalism. with soil already present
●​ Example: Bacteria in a cow's (e.g., an old agricultural
stomach break down cellulose, field).
helping the cow and gaining
nutrients—this is mutualism
because both benefit.
I. Levels of Ecological Organization
V. Dynamics of Competition
●​ Niche Influence: Competition for
limiting resources shapes the niche
of species and community structure.
●​ Competitive Exclusion Principle:
No two species can occupy the same
niche; one will eventually die out or
be excluded.
●​ Resource Partitioning: Species
utilize different aspects of a niche so
both can survive.
●​ Character Displacement:
Organisms evolve different physical
characters to adapt to niche aspects
(e.g., varying beak depths in
finches).

VI. Community Stability and Succession

●​ Keystone Species: One or more
species that stabilize the entire
structure of a community.
Ecology is organized from the largest scale 4.​ Population Dispersion: The spatial
down to the molecular level: pattern in a habitat. Populations rely
●​ Biosphere: The part of Earth that on living (biotic) and non-living
contains all ecosystems. (abiotic) resources, and their
distribution affects density and
●​ Ecosystem: A community and its
range.
nonliving (abiotic) surroundings.
○​ Clumped: Grouped together
●​ Community: Populations that live
(e.g., Chamguava schippii).
together in a defined area.
○​ Random: Unpredictably
●​ Population: A group of organisms
spaced (e.g., Brosimum
of one type that live in the same
alicastrum).
area.
○​ Uniform: Evenly spaced out
●​ Organism: An individual living
(e.g., Coccoloba coronata).
thing.
●​ Groups of Cells: Tissues, organs,
and organ systems (e.g., nervous
tissue -> brain -> nervous system).
III. Human Population Demographics &
●​ Cells: The smallest functional unit of
Age Structure
life (e.g., nerve cell).
●​ Molecules: Groups of atoms; the More-Developed vs. Less-Developed
smallest unit of most chemical Countries:
compounds (e.g., Water, DNA). ●​ More-Developed Countries
(MDCs): Have modest population
growth rates largely due to decreased
II. Characteristics of a Population birthrates. Their age structure is
Population Dynamics refers to population stable (column-shaped) because the
change due to interactions with the abiotic birthrate provides replacement
and biotic environment, which affect size reproduction.
and distribution. ●​ Less-Developed Countries (LDCs):
Have higher population growth rates
Four primary characteristics define a because birthrates remain high. Their
population: age structure has a pyramid shape
with a large dependency group
1.​ Population Size: The total number
(youth), indicating population
of individuals.
growth will continue to expand.
2.​ Population Density: The population
size in a certain space at a given
time. Environmental Impact (E.I.):
3.​ Age Structure: The proportion of
When populations grow, they exert pressure
individuals in each age group in a
on Earth's resources. E.I. equals the
population.
pollution per unit of resource used. There
are two causes of overpopulation: 2.​ Logistic Growth (S-Shape): Shows
Population size and Resource a stabilization of population size
consumption. because most populations face
limited resources (disease, food,
predators, climate, space, mates).
IV. Survivorship Curves
Survivorship is tracked using life tables and Carrying Capacity (K): The
survivorship curves. greatest number of individuals
●​ Type I: There is high survival to old an environment can maintain
age (e.g., humans, Dall sheep, over an indefinite period of
elephants). time. There are concerns the
human population may
●​ Type II: Death is spread evenly
someday reach its carrying
across all age groups (e.g., birds,
capacity due to rapid increases.
rodents, Hydra).
●​ Type III: Massive death occurs at an
early age; few survive to adulthood
(e.g., oysters, fish, insects). VI. Factors That Regulate Population
Growth
●​ Density-Independent Factors:
V. Population Growth Models Affect population growth regardless
Future population growth rate depends on of population size.
two primary factors: Resource availability ○​ Examples: Weather and
and Biotic Potential. natural disasters (e.g., a flash
flood causing a 60% fatality
Biotic Potential is the maximum rate in a mouse population).
reproductive capacity of a population. It ●​ Density-Dependent Factors: The
depends on: effects are highly dependent on
●​ The number of offspring per population size.
reproduction. ○​ Competition: Occurs when
●​ Chances of survival until more than one population
reproductive age. uses the same resource (e.g.,
●​ Frequency of reproduction. birds competing for nesting
●​ Age at which reproduction begins. holes in trees).
○​ Predation: Occurs when one
Two Patterns of Population Growth: organism preys upon another.
○​ Predator-Prey
1.​ Exponential Growth (J-Shape): Relationships: Can create
Characteristic of a rapidly growing specific, predictable cycles of
population. population growth (e.g., the
 historical tracking of
individu
Snowshoe Hare and Lynx
al
populations from 1845 to
1935).

Number Many Few

of
offsprin
g
VII. Life History Patterns
The life history of a population consists of
the variation in its characteristics. Species Timing Early Late (with
generally fall into two categories: of much
maturat parental
Trait Opportuni Equilibriu ion care)
stic m
Population Populations
s (K-selection Life Short Long
(r-selection ) expecta
) ncy

Environ Unstable Stable Lifetime One More than

ment environme environment reprodu one
type nt, density , density ctive
independen dependent events
t interactions

Survivo Type III Type I or II

Organis Small Large rship
m size curve

Energy Low High Growth Shows Shows

used Pattern exponential logistic
per growth growth, size
near
 ●​ Tissue: A group of specialized cells
carrying
working together for a particular
capacity
function.
●​ Organ: A distinct structure made of
different tissues with a specific
function .
I. Fundamentals of Ecology ●​ Organ System: A collection of
organs carrying out specific
●​ Definition: Ecology is the scientific functions.
study of interactions among ●​ Organism: A living thing that
organisms and between organisms carries out all of life's functions.
and their physical environment.
●​ Etymology: Derived from the
Scales of Ecological Organization:
Greek word oikos, meaning "house".
Ecology is essentially the study of ●​ Organism: An individual living
nature's houses and the organisms thing.
residing within them. ●​ Population: A group of organisms
●​ Ecology in Action: The basic of one type that live in the same
principles can guide us toward a area.
sustainable future by: ●​ Community: Populations that live
1.​ Recognizing environmental together in a defined area.
problems. ●​ Ecosystem: The community and its
2.​ Researching the cause. nonliving surroundings.
3.​ Using scientific ●​ Biosphere: The part of Earth that
understanding to change contains all ecosystems, including
behavior and create a land, sea, air, and all organisms.
positive impact.
III. Ecological Methods
Ecologists use three primary methods to
II. The Hierarchy of Life and Ecological
study the environment:
Organization
1.​ Observation: Used to answer basic
Biological organization scales from
questions.
microscopic functional units to the entire
2.​ Experimentation: Involves testing
planet.
a hypothesis in a lab or natural
The Hierarchy of Life: setting.
3.​ Modelling: The use of
●​ Cell: The basic, smallest functional mathematical or conceptual models
unit of life. to answer questions about complex
ecological phenomena.
IV. The Environment and Limiting ●​ Autotrophs (Producers): Produce
Factors their own food.
The environment refers to all conditions or ○​ Photoautotrophs: Use light
factors surrounding an organism. energy to make
carbohydrates.
●​ Biotic Factors: Any living part of ○​ Chemoautotrophs: Obtain
the environment with which an energy by oxidizing
organism might interact (e.g., plants, inorganic compounds (e.g.,
predators, bacteria). hydrogen sulfide) .
●​ Abiotic Factors: The physical, ●​ Heterotrophs (Consumers): Must
nonliving components of an consume nutrients synthesized by
ecosystem (e.g., sunlight, heat, autotrophs.
humidity, soil type). Abiotic factors ○​ Herbivores: Graze on plants.
act as: ○​ Carnivores: Kill and eat
○​ Resources: Physical other animals.
material constantly altered or ○​ Omnivores: Eat both plants
exchanged among and animals.
organisms. ○​ Scavengers: Consume
○​ Regulators: Physical carcasses of animals that
conditions of the ecosystem. have already died.
●​ Decomposers vs. Detritivores:
○​ Decomposers: (Bacteria,
Tolerance and Limiting Factors: fungi) Chemically break
●​ Limiting Factor: A resource or down dead organic matter
environmental condition that externally to absorb
controls populations and restricts the nutrients, creating detritus .
abundance and distribution of an ○​ Detritivores: (Earthworms,
organism. mites, crabs) Actually eat
●​ Organisms thrive in an Optimum dead organic matter and
tolerance range. detritus, digesting it
●​ Outside this range are the Zones of internally.
Stress (where organisms are few)
and Zones of Intolerance (where
organisms are absent). Food Chains and Webs:
●​ Energy flow is illustrated as a food
V. Energy Flow in Ecosystems web or chain. A grazing food web
Populations are often described by their food begins with plants, while a detrital
source, creating a flow of energy and food web begins with detritus .
nutrients.
 ●​ Trophic Level: The feeding level of VII. Biogeochemical Cycles (Chemical
one or more populations in a food Cycling)
web. Nutrients move through ecosystems via
●​ Thermodynamics in Ecology: * 1st biogeochemical cycles. A large fraction of
Law: Energy cannot be created or nutrients may reside in unavailable
destroyed (ecosystems need a reservoirs (e.g., fossil fuels, deep minerals),
continual outside energy source). while organisms acquire nutrients from
○​ 2nd Law: With every accessible exchange pools (e.g.,
transformation, energy is atmosphere, soil, water) .
degraded into heat. As
energy moves up trophic ●​ Sedimentary Cycles: Nutrients
levels, about 90% is lost, originate in soils/sediments and
meaning only ~10% cycle from autotrophs to
transfers successfully . heterotrophs (e.g., Phosphorus
Cycle) .
●​ Gaseous Cycles: Nutrients originate
VI. Ecological Pyramids in and return as a gas.
○​ Nitrogen Cycle: Producers
Ecological pyramids show the relative
use Ammonium NH4 or
amount of energy or matter at each trophic
Nitrate NO3 Nitrification is
level.
counterbalanced by
1.​ Pyramid of Energy: Shows the denitrification and nitrogen
relative amount of energy available fixation .
at each level. It is always upright ○​ Carbon Cycle: Primary
because energy is constantly lost as sources are
heat . gaseous/dissolved carbon
2.​ Pyramid of Biomass: Illustrates the dioxide and inorganic
total dry weight of living organic carbonate .
matter available at each level. It is
generally upright in terrestrial
ecosystems but can be inverted in
aquatic ecosystems.
3.​ Pyramid of Numbers: Shows the
relative number of individual 1. The Phosphorus Cycle (Sedimentary
organisms at each trophic level. Cycle)

Phosphorus cycles primarily through rock,

soil, and water (it does not have a gaseous
phase in the atmosphere).
 ●​ Natural Events: Weathering of ●​ Denitrification: Denitrifying
mineable rock and geological uplift bacteria convert nitrates back into
release phosphates into the soil and atmospheric N2 gas, completing the
water. cycle.
●​ Human Activities: Phosphate
mining, the use of fertilizers, and 3. The Carbon Cycle (Gaseous Cycle)
runoff from sewage treatment plants
Carbon cycles through the atmosphere,
add excess phosphates to the
oceans, and living organisms.
environment.
●​ The Biotic Pathway: Plants ●​ Photosynthesis & Respiration:
(producers) take up phosphates from Plants take in CO2 from the
the soil. Consumers (biota) eat the atmosphere for photosynthesis. Both
plants. When organisms die or plants and animals release CO2
produce waste, decomposers break back into the atmosphere through
them down into detritus, returning cellular respiration.
phosphates to the soil or water . ●​ Aquatic Exchange: CO2diffuses
●​ Long-term Storage: In aquatic into the ocean, where it forms
systems, detritus undergoes bicarbonate (HCO3 This is used by
sedimentation to form new rock marine life and can eventually form
over time. calcium carbonate CaCO3 in shells.
●​ Decomposition & Fossilization:
2. The Nitrogen Cycle (Gaseous Cycle) Dead organisms and animal waste
undergo decay. Over millions of
Nitrogen must be converted from years, some of this organic matter
atmospheric gas into usable forms for living undergoes sedimentation and turns
things. into fossil fuels .
●​ Nitrogen Fixation: N2in the ●​ Human Impact: Human activities,
atmosphere is converted into primarily the combustion (burning)
ammonium NH4 by nitrogen-fixing of fossil fuels, release massive
bacteria located in the soil and in the amounts of stored carbon back into
root nodules of certain plants. the atmosphere as CO2
●​ Nitrification: Nitrifying bacteria
convert ammonium into nitrates
NO3 which plants can easily absorb I. The Basics of Biodiversity
to build proteins.
●​ Biodiversity (Biological
●​ Consumption & Decay: Animals
Diversity): The sum of an area's
eat plants to get these proteins.
organisms, encompassing the
When plants and animals die,
diversity of species, their genes,
decomposers break down their
their populations, and their
waste and bodies, returning
communities.
ammonium to the soil.
 ●​ Biodiversity Defined Further: The III. The 5 Primary Causes of Biodiversity
variability among living organisms Loss
from all sources, including All five of these causes are heavily
terrestrial, marine, and aquatic influenced by human population growth and
ecosystems, including diversity rising consumption:
within and between species.
●​ Ecosystem Defined: Consists of ●​ Habitat Alteration: The greatest
complex sets of relationships cause of extinction today,
between living resources, habitats, accounting for about 85% of
and human communities. population declines in birds and
mammals because organisms are
specifically adapted to existing
II. The Three Levels of Biodiversity
habitats. Major causes include forest
Biodiversity exists on several distinct levels: clearing, agriculture, and urban
●​ Species Diversity: The number or development .
variety of species within a particular ●​ Invasive Species: Accidental or
region. A species is a population intentional introductions of exotic
whose members share species to new areas that become the
characteristics, can freely breed, and second-worst threat to native biota.
produce fertile offspring. This They thrive because they are
includes species richness (number of released from limitations imposed
species) and evenness (extent to by native predators and parasites .
which numbers are equal or skewed) ●​ Pollution: Includes air and water
. pollution, agricultural runoff, and
●​ Genetic Diversity: Includes the industrial chemicals. It does
differences in DNA composition widespread harm but is generally
among individuals within a given considered less threatening than
species. Populations benefit from habitat alteration or invasive species
this diversity to avoid inbreeding .
and disease epidemics, though ●​ Overharvesting: Usually,
adaptation may weed out overharvesting alone will not pose a
unsuccessful variants . complete threat of extinction,
●​ Ecosystem Diversity: Refers to though the Siberian tiger is a notable
diversity above the species level, exception to this rule .
categorized in several ways ●​ Climate Change: Emissions of
including community diversity, greenhouse gases are warming
habitat diversity, and landscape temperatures worldwide, causing an
diversity . increased frequency of extreme
weather events .
IV. The Benefits of Preserving subconscious human love for and
Biodiversity attachment to other living things and
Conserving biodiversity preserves nature .
ecosystem services and provides things of
pragmatic value to humanity: V. Conservation Biology

●​ Ecosystem Functions: Provides ●​ Conservation Biology Defined:

food, fuel, fiber, shelter, and The scientific discipline devoted to
building materials while purifying understanding the factors, forces,
air/water and stabilizing the climate. and processes that influence the
High levels of biodiversity actively loss, protection, and restoration of
increase the stability and resilience biological diversity within and
of ecological communities . among ecosystems.
●​ The Keystone Factor: Losing even ●​ Discipline Origins: Arose in recent
one species matters heavily if it is a decades as biologists grew alarmed
keystone species (like sea otters or at the rapid degradation of natural
top predators like tigers), as their systems they had spent their lives
removal changes the system studying.
drastically. Top predators are often ●​ Goal-Oriented Nature: It is an
the most endangered types of applied scientific field where
organisms . conservation biologists specifically
●​ Food Security: Genetic diversity intend to prevent species extinction.
within crop species provides
insurance against the loss of VI. Ecosystems and Their Services
prevalent strains of staple crops. Ecosystems are divided into natural
Many currently unused species hold (regenerated through natural processes) and
great potential for food, such as man-made (maintained by human
Amaranths, Maca, and the Capybara intervention):
.
●​ Medicine: Every extinct species ●​ Terrestrial Ecosystems:
represents a lost opportunity to find Characterized by an abundance of
novel medicines and cures. Natural vegetation in a relatively small
sources currently provide treatments space with high species richness.
like Taxol from the Pacific yew They are classified further by
(anticancer) and Colchicine from the climate type and include forests,
Autumn crocus . deserts, mountains, and grasslands .
●​ Economic and Psychological ●​ Aquatic Ecosystems: Account for
Benefits: Includes ecotourism, the largest part of the biosphere.
which is a major economic They include freshwater systems
contributor for developing nations, (lakes, rivers), estuarine systems
and biophilia, which is the (mangrove swamps), and
 saltwater/marine systems (oceans, little rain, while the desert is hot
coral reefs) . with little rain .
●​ Man-Made Ecosystems: Include
agricultural systems (rural croplands I. Species and Species Diversity
cultivated by humans) and urban
●​ Species Defined: A set of
ecosystems (cities that depend
individuals having the same distinct
heavily on fossil fuels for survival
characteristics and able to mate and
inputs) .
produce fertile offspring .
●​ Ecosystem Services: Categorized
●​ Species Diversity Defined: The
into supporting services (nutrient
number and variety of life forms
cycling, soil formation),
present in a biological community.
provisioning services (food, water,
There are about 8.7 million
raw materials), regulating services
organisms in our diversity .
(climate moderation, water
●​ Species Richness: The total number
purification), and cultural services
of different kinds of species in a
(spiritual enrichment, recreation) .
particular area or community .
●​ Species Evenness (Relative
VII. Climate and Biomes
Abundance): The abundance of the
●​ Climate Defined: The prevailing individual members within a
weather conditions in a specific particular species; it is the
region over time, primarily made up proportion each species represents
of temperature, water, sunlight, and of the total individuals in the
wind . community .
●​ Climate Determinants: ●​ Community Stability: Knowledge
Determined heavily by the input of of species diversity is important in
solar energy, the planet's movement community organization because it
in space, and topography. Polar enables scientists to infer if a
regions receive less direct sunlight community is stable. The higher the
(and less heat) compared to tropical species diversity, the more complex
regions due to the Earth's tilt . and stable the community becomes.
●​ Biomes Defined: The major types If only a few species are abundant,
of ecological associations that species diversity is considered low .
occupy broad geographic regions of
land or water. II. Quantifying Biodiversity (Diversity
●​ Biome Distribution: Average Indices)
temperature and rainfall are the
To quantify biodiversity, ecologists use
principal determinants of where
mathematical expressions called diversity
different terrestrial biomes are found
indices.
on the surface of the Earth. For
example, the tundra is cold with
●​ Shannon-Wiener Function ○​ Inverse Relationship: The
(Shannon Index): A measurement higher the value of $D$, the
of species diversity that uses both lower the diversity. It is
species richness and relative often expressed as $1/D$ to
obtain increasing index
values with increasing
diversity.
○​ Disadvantage of Simpson's
Index: It is heavily weighted
toward the most abundant
species. Adding many rare
species (e.g., trees with only
one individual) will
effectively contribute zero to
abundance (heterogeneity) .
the calculation and fail to
○​ Formula: .
change the index. Thus, it is
○​ Heterogeneity Principle:
of limited value in
Heterogeneity increases in a
conservation biology for
community when there are
areas with many rare species.
more species present and
when those species are
equally abundant . III. Types of Species Based on General
●​ Simpson's Index: A measurement Ecological Niche
of dominance and diversity that uses
the number of species and their ●​ Ecological Niche Defined: The sum
relative abundance . total of the way of life of a species,
○​ Formula for Probability: including its survival, feeding, and
reproductive abilities .
●​ Generalist Species: Organisms that
have a broad way of life. They can
live in a variety of environments, eat
many kinds of different foods,
tolerate a wide range of
environmental conditions, and often
produce more young. Examples
○​ Formula for Dominance include cockroaches, rats, and
Index: humans .
●​ Specialist Species: Organisms that
live in a narrow niche. They are able
to live in only one habitat, eat
specific foods, are sensitive to
 environmental changes, and usually ●​ Keystone Species: Species that
produce fewer offspring. They are exist only in limited numbers but
highly vulnerable to extinction. have a massive effect on the
Examples include Panda bears (eat environment. They control the
only specific bamboo) and population of other species by eating
Flamingos (eat specific crustaceans) the sick and old. Examples include
. sharks and alligators .
●​ Foundation Species: Organisms
IV. Types of Species Based on Specific that help create and reshape habitats
Ecological Niche and ecosystems. An example is the
beaver, which builds dams that
●​ Native Species (Endemic or
create protected habitats that also
Local): Organisms that can only be
house birds, fish, and insects .
found in one specific place and
nowhere else. Examples include the
Philippine tamaraw, the Philippine V. Importance and Threats to Species
Tarsier (smallest primate in the Diversity
world), and the Philippine bamboo ●​ Ecosystem Resilience: Species
bat (smallest bat in the world) . richness makes an ecosystem able to
●​ Nonnative Species (Exotic, respond to catastrophes (e.g., plants
Invasive, or Alien): Species that with smaller roots absorb from
migrate accidentally or are shallow soil, while deeper roots tap
deliberately introduced into a new deeper soil) .
ecosystem. Examples include the ●​ Human Survival: Rich diversity
Golden Apple Snail (Golden provides humans with fruits, cereals,
Kuhol), which was introduced meat, wood, fiber, resins, dyes,
deliberately to help farmers but medicines, and antibiotics.
became a perennial pest in rice Furthermore, unique roles like
paddies, and Tilapia, which pollinators, decomposers, and
originated from Africa . symbiotic relationships are
●​ Indicator Species: Species that act irreplaceable.
as "biological smoke alarms" ●​ The "Evil Quartet" (Threats): The
because they give out warning world is facing an accelerated
signals to other species regarding extinction rate due to human
damage to an ecosystem. Birds and activities. The four major causes of
frogs are excellent indicators. (e.g., diversity loss are:
70% of the world's 10,000 bird 1.​ Habitat Loss and
species are declining due to human Fragmentation
activity, and frog declines are 2.​ Over Exploitation
suspected to be linked to global 3.​ Alien species invasions
warming) . 4.​ Co-extinctions .
VI. Conservation of Species Diversity ●​ The Two Strict Criteria
Conservation is vital because once a species (Conservation International): To
is extinct, it cannot be brought back. There qualify as a hotspot, a region must:
are two main conservation strategies: 1.​ Have at least 1,500 endemic
vascular plants (plant life
●​ In-situ Conservation (On-site): found nowhere else,
Protecting species in their natural representing <0.5% of the
habitats. This is done through a world's total).
Protected Area Network, which 2.​ Have 30% or less of its
includes: original natural vegetation
○​ Sacred groves and Sacred remaining .
lakes ●​ Top 10 Hotspots: As of 2005, 34
○​ Biosphere reserves hotspots were recognized. The top 10
(Terrestrial and Marine) richest and most threatened are:
○​ National parks and Wildlife 1.​ Atlantic Forest of tropical
sanctuaries . South America
●​ Ex-situ Conservation (Off-site): 2.​ Cape Floristic Region, South
Protecting species outside of their Africa
natural habitats. This includes: 3.​ Cerrado, Brazil
○​ Sacred plants and Home 4.​ Coastal Forests of Eastern
gardens Africa
○​ Seed banks, Field gene 5.​ Himalaya
banks, and Cryopreservation 6.​ Indo-Burma
○​ Botanical gardens, Arborata, 7.​ Madrean Pine-Oak
Zoological gardens, and Woodlands, Mexico and
Aquaria . Southern US
8.​ Mesoamerica
9.​ Polynesia-Micronesia
VII. Hotspots for Species Diversity 10.​Philippines .
●​ Tropical Rainforests: The "hottest
spots" for species diversity. They
make up only 7% of Earth's land but VIII. The IUCN Red List Categories
are home to nearly 50% of all ●​ IUCN Defined: The International
Earth's species . Union for Conservation of Nature is
●​ Biodiversity Hotspot Defined: A the global authority on the natural
place on Earth that is biologically world's conservation status.
rich but deeply threatened by ●​ Purpose: The Red List categorizes
human-induced habitat loss . endemic species at high risk of
extinction to help set conservation
priorities. There are 9 categories :
 ○​ Extinct (EX): No reasonable mammals, birds, reptiles, and
doubt that the last individual amphibians, 711 are endemic.
has died. ●​ Geographic Factors: High
○​ Extinct in the Wild (EW): diversity is supported by its tropical
Known to survive only in location, heterogeneous/complex
captivity, cultivation, or topography, isolated islands, and
outside its natural range. rugged terrain .
○​ Critically Endangered ●​ Hotspot Status: The Philippines is
(CR): Facing extremely high simultaneously a biodiversity
risk of extinction in the wild. hotspot because continuous resource
○​ Endangered (EN): Facing a destruction has magnified the
very high risk of extinction devastating effects of natural
in the wild. disasters like earthquakes and
○​ Vulnerable (VU): Facing a typhoons.
high risk of extinction in the ●​ Threatened Status: Based on DAO
wild. 2017-11, there are 984 threatened
○​ Near Threatened (NT): wild flora species in the country.
Close to qualifying or likely
to qualify for a threatened
category soon.
○​ Least Concern (LC):
Population is stable enough;
unlikely to face extinction
soon.
○​ Data Deficient (DD): Not
enough information on
abundance/distribution to
estimate risk.

IX. Philippine Biodiversity Profile

●​ Mega-Diverse Status: The
Philippines is one of the 17
mega-diverse countries globally
regarding ecosystems, species, and
genetics.
●​ Endemism: The country hosts over
52,177 described species, with more
than half found nowhere else in the
world . Out of 1,437 terrestrial