ANSWER KEY

PART A

1. ADVANTAGES OF TRIAC OVER SCR

TRIACs differ from SCRs in that they allow current flow in both directions, whereas an SCR can
only conduct current in a single direction. Most TRIACs can be triggered by applying either a
positive or negative voltage to the gate (an SCR requires a positive voltage).

2. CIRCUIT TURN OFF TIME OF SCR

Circuit turn off time of an SCR is defined as the time. Required for the SCR current to become
zero. For which the SCR is reverse biased by the commutation circuit. For which the SCR is
reverse biased to reduce its current below the holding current.

3. OUTPUT EQUATION OF THREE PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED

RECTIFIER
4. DIAGRAM OF FULLY CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

5. SECONDARY BREAKDOWN OF BJT

Secondary breakdown is a failure mode in bipolar transistors in which negative resistance (current
concentration) occurs under high-voltage and high-current conditions. Current concentration
causes local heating, resulting in a small hotspot.

6. PHASE CONTROL

In a phase controlled rectifier circuit we use a high current and a high power thyristor device
(silicon controlled rectifier; SCR) for conversion of ac input power into dc output power . Phase
controlled rectifier circuits are used to provide a variable voltage output dc and a variable dc
(average) load current.
 7. APPLICATION S OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

lighting control, domestic and industrial heating, speed control of fan, pump or hoist drives, soft
starting of induction motors,

8. TRIAC

A TRIAC (triode for alternating current; also bidirectional triode thyristor or bilateral triode
thyristor) is a three-terminal electronic component that conducts current in either direction when
triggered.

9. LIST FIRING SCHEMES OF CONTROLLER

There are two methods for firing SCR power controllers: Zero cross and phase angle.

10. WHAT IS AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

AC voltage controllers (ac line voltage controllers) are employed to vary the RMS value. of the
alternating voltage applied to a load circuit. An ac voltage controller is a type of thyristor. power
converter which is used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac input supply to. obtain a
variable voltage ac output

PART B

11. [Link] OF HALF CONVERTER

Introduction

Single phase fully controlled bridge converters are two quadrant converters having unidirectional
current with both positive and negative voltage polarity. Thus they can be operated either as a
controlled rectifier or an inverter. But for some applications that do not utilize the inverter mode
operation, a fully controlled converter with four thyristors and their associated control and gate
drive circuit makes the system unnecessarily complicated. In such situations, two of the thyristors
of a single phase fully controlled converter has to be replaced by diodes. The resulting converters
are called single phase semi-converter or single phase half controlled converters. Semi-convertors
are single quadrant converters having one polarity of voltage and current at the DC terminals.

1. Single Phase Semi-Converter - R Load

Fig. 1 Single Phase Semi-converter with R Load

Fig. 2 Waveforms of Single Phase Semi-converter with R Load

In the figure, shows the circuit diagram of single phase semiconverter bridge rectifier with R
load. In this rectifier two SCRs and two diodes are connected in symmetrical configuration.
The operation of this converter mainly consists of three modes:

Mode 1: (α to π)
During positive half-cycle of AC input voltage, thyristor T 1 diode D1 conduct and thyristor
T1 is fired at ωt = α. Therefore the average output voltage is equal to the instantaneous
supply voltage and load current flows through T1, R, D1 and back supply again.

Mode 2: (π to π + α)
At instant ωt = π, the supply goes through zero and after π supply voltage reverses its
polarity. Due to reverse supply across conducting devices T 1 and D1, they turned off at ωt =
π and this type of turn-off is called as "natural" or "line commutation". Therefore, the
average output voltage is zero and load current is also zero.

Mode 3: (π + α to 2π)
At instant ωt = π + α, the supply voltage becomes completely negative i.e., during negative
half cycle of AC input voltage, thyristor T 2 and diode D2 are forward biased, thyristor T2 is
fired at ωt = π + α. Thus the average output is equal to instantaneous supply voltage because
due to conduction of T2 and D2, the load is directly connected to supply. The load current
flows through T2, R, D2. Thyristor T2 and diode D2 conduct upto 2π, at ωt = 2π commutation
takes place due to natural zero appears across supply.
The average and rms value of output voltage and current are,

11.B CONSTRUCTION WORKING AND OPERATION OF POWER DIODE

A diode is a semiconductor device that comprises a p-n junction formed by the combination of p-type
and n-type semiconductor materials. The p-type material contains an excess of holes or a deficiency
of electrons, while the n-type material contains an excess of electrons, which restricts the flow of
current through the junction in one direction only. The two terminals of a diode are the anode, which
is connected to the p-type layer, and the cathode, which is connected to the n-type layer, as depicted in
Figure 1.
The depletion region, which is the interface between the p-type and n-type materials, is devoid of
charge carriers and plays a critical role in the diode's operation.

Figure 1: Diode pn-junction

Figure 2: Diode Symbol

The common symbol used for diodes is shown in Figure 2.

Diode Operation
The operation of a diode can be understood by examining the behavior of the p-n junction under
different voltage conditions. When a positive voltage is applied to the anode with respect to the
cathode (forward bias), the depletion region narrows, allowing current to flow through the diode. In
the forward-biased state, the diode exhibits low resistance to current flow and allows current to pass
through it with minimal voltage drop.
On the contrary, when a negative voltage is applied to the anode with respect to the cathode (reverse
bias), the depletion region widens, effectively blocking current flow through the diode.
In the reverse-biased state, the diode exhibits very high resistance to current flow, allowing only
negligible leakage current to flow (in the range of micro- or milliamperes). However, when the
reverse voltage exceeds the diode's breakdown voltage, the diode starts conducting current in the
reverse direction. This may permanently damage the device if the current is not properly limited.
Sometimes, requirements in certain applications require higher voltage and current ratings, which can
be catered to by a single diode. It is possible to increase the voltage rating by connecting multiple
diodes in series. Similarly, to increase the current rating, diodes can be connected in parallel.
However, it is important to choose diodes with similar characteristics to avoid any damage to the
deployed diodes.
Diode Characteristics
Understanding diode characteristics is crucial for engineering power electronic circuits. The primary
characteristics of diodes include the following:
Forward Voltage Drop (Vf)
The forward voltage drop (Vf) refers to the voltage drop across the diode terminals at a defined
current level when it is forward-biased (when the anode has a higher potential compared to the
cathode). When a diode is forward-biased, the applied voltage must overcome the built-in potential
barrier at the p-n junction for the current to flow. The forward voltage drop is typically between 0.6V
and 0.7V for silicon diodes and around 0.2V to 0.3V for Schottky diodes.
Reverse Breakdown Voltage (Vbr)
The reverse breakdown voltage (Vbr) is a crucial parameter that characterizes the maximum reverse
voltage that a diode can endure before it initiates the conduction of current to a specified level when
reverse biased. In the reverse-bias mode, the diode permits only a minimal leakage current until the
reverse voltage attains the reverse breakdown voltage, at which point it enters the breakdown region,
allowing a substantial current to flow.
The V-I characteristics of a typical power diode are illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3. V-I characteristics of diode

Other Diode Characteristics

Other characteristics include: junction capacitance, temperature coefficients, and reverse recovery
time.

Figure 4. Diode reverse recovery characteristics

The reverse recovery characteristics of a diode, specifically the reverse recovery time (trr), are
depicted in Figure 4.
The trr is the sum of two time intervals, ta and tb. Ta represents the time between the zero crossing of
the diode current and when it reaches the value of IR, while tb refers to the time interval between the
maximum reverse recovery current and when it reaches approximately 0.25 of IR. The time constant
ta is attributed to the storage of charges in the depletion region of the junction, while tb is due to the
storage of charges in the bulk semiconductor material. A small trr is desirable, particularly for high-
frequency applications, and ideally, it should approach zero. However, this can lead to increased
manufacturing expenses. In contrast, the forward recovery time of a diode is characterized by the turn-
on time, which is the duration it takes for a diode to switch o
12. [Link] AND WORKING OF SCR
An SCR is a three-terminal, three-junction, and four-layer semiconductor device that is used to
perform switching functions in power circuits.

Sometimes the SCR is also called as Thyristor.

Constructional Details of SCR

The SCR has three pn – junctions, and four layer of p and n type semiconductor joined alternatively
to get pnpn device. The three terminals are taken – one from outer p – type layer called anode (A),
second from the outer n – type layer called cathode (K) and the third from the internal p –type layer
called gate (G).

Working of SCR

In a SCR, the load is connected in series with the anode. The anode is always kept positive with
respect to cathode.

When Gate is Open Circuited

When no voltage applied to gate terminal, junction J2, is reverse biased and the junctions J1 and J3
are forward biased. Since one of the three junctions is reverse biased so there is no current can flow
through the load, hence the SCR is OFF. However if the applied voltage is gradually increased, a
stage is reached, when reverse biased junction (J2) breaks down. The SCR now, starts conducting and
become ON. The value of applied voltage at which the reverse biased junction breaks down and the
SCR becomes ON is known as Breakover Voltage.
When Gate is Positive with Respect to Cathode

The SCR can be turned ON at smaller applied voltage by the application of a small positive voltage at
the gate terminal. When gate voltage is applied the junction J3 is forward biased and junction J2 is
reverse biased. Thus, the electrons from n – type layer starts moving across the junction J3 toward p –
type material and the holes from p –type material towards the n – type material. Due to the movement
of holes and electrons across the junction J3 the gate current starts flowing. Because of gate current
the anode current increases. The increased anode current makes the more electrons available at the
junction J2. As a result of this process, in a small time, the junction J2 breaks down and the SCR is
turn ON.

Even if the voltage at the gate terminal is removed, the SCR the anode current does not decrease. The
SCR can only be turned off by reducing the applied voltage to zero.

Parameters of SCR
  Break Over Voltage − It is the minimum value of the applied voltage at which the SCR is
turned ON, provided the gate voltage is not applied. For commercially available SCRs the
range of break over voltage is 50 V to 500 V.
 Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV) − It is the maximum reverse voltage (i.e. cathode made
positive with respect to the anode) that can be applied to the SCR without conducting in the
reverse direction. The commercially available SCRs have PRV up to 2.5 kV.
 Holding Current − With gate being open, it is the maximum value of anode current at which
SCR is turned OFF from ON state.
 Forward Current Rating − It is maximum value of the anode current that an SCR can pass
through it without destruction.
 Circuit Fusing Rating − It indicates the maximum forward surge current capability of the
SCR. It is defined as the product of square of forward surge current and the time duration of
the surge.

If the circuit fusing rating is exceeded in the SCR circuit, the device is destroyed by excessive power
dissipation.

CircuitFusingRating=I2tCircuitFusingRating=I2t

I–V Characteristics of SCR

It is the curve plotted between the anode – cathode voltage (V) and anode current (I) of the SCR at
constant gate current.

 Forward Characteristics − When the anode is made positive with respect to the cathode,
then the curve between V and I is called as forward characteristics of the SCR. If the supply
voltage is increased from zero, a point is reached (Point A, the voltage is called breakover
voltage) when the SCR starts conducting. Under this condition, the voltage across SCR
decreases suddenly (shown by dotted line in the curve) and the most of the supply voltage
appears across the load.
 Reverse Characteristics − When anode is made negative with respect to the cathode, the
curve plotted between V and I is called as reverse characteristics. If the reverse voltage is
increased gradually, at first the anode current remains small (called leakage current) and at
some reverse voltage, the avalanche breakdown occurs and the SCR starts conducting in the
reverse direction (Shown by the curve in third quadrant). The maximum reverse voltage at
which the SCR starts conducting in the reverse direction is called as Reverse Breakdown
Voltage
[Link] CIRCUIT WITH TWO TRANSISTOR ANALOGY OF SCR

Two Transistor Analogy of SCR

The two transistor analogy or two transistor model of SCR expresses the easiest
way to understand the working of SCR by visualizing it as a combination of two

transistors. The collector of each transistor is connected to the base of the other

transistor.

The two transistor analogy or two transistor model of SCR expresses the easiest

way to understand the working of SCR by visualizing it as a combination of two

transistors as shown in figure. The collector of each transistor is connected to the base

of the other transistor.

Assume that load resistance is connected between the anode and cathode

terminals and a small voltage is applied at the gate and cathode terminals. When there

is no gate voltage, the transistor 2 is in cut-off mode due to zero base current.

Therefore, no current flows through the collector and hence the base of transistor T1.

Hence, both transistors are open circuited and thereby no current flows through the

[Link] hence the base current at the transistor T1 drives the transistor into

saturationvmode. and thus load current will flow from anode to

Figure 4.1.1 Two Transistor Model

From the above figure the base current of transistor T2 becomes the collector

current of transistor T1 and vice-versa.

Hence

Ib2 = Ic1 and Ic2 = Ib1

Also current through the cathode terminal, Ik = Ig + Ia ......(1)

For a transistor,
Ib1 = Ie1 – Ic1 ......(2)

and Ic1 = α1Ie1 + Ico1......(3)

Where Ico1 is the leakage current.

Substituting equation 3 in equation 2 we get

Ib1 = Ie1 (1 – α1) – Ico1 .......(4)

From the figure anode current is the emitter current of transistor T1,

Ia = Ie1

Then Ib1 = Ia (1 – α1) – Ico1

And also for transistor T2

Ic2 = α2Ie2 + Ico2

But Ik = Ie2

Therefore Ic2 = α2Ik + Ico2

Ic2 = α2 (Ig + Ia) + Ico2 .....(5)

But Ib1 = Ic2 .....(6)

Substituting the equations 4 and 5 in equation 6 we get

Ia (1 – α1) – Ico1 = α2 (Ig + Ia) + Ico2

Ia = [α2 Ig + Ico1 + Ico2] / [1- (α1 + α2)]

By assuming the leakage currents are negligible in both transistors we get

Ia = [α2 Ig] / [1- (α1 + α2)]

where α1 and α2 are the respective gains of the two transistors

13. [Link] OF FULL CONVERTER WITH RLE LOAD

This type of converter utilizes a bridge circuit made purely of thyristors to convert
alternating signal input to direct signal output. Due to the utilization of the silicon-controlled
rectifiers only in its circuitry, the converter is wholly owned, and the advantage of this is
that it offers a more significant margin of control over the output signal levels.

Circuit Diagram of the Single-Phase Full-Converter connected to the RLE load

Figure 1:Circuit Diagram of the Single-Phase Full-Converter connected to the RLE load

The circuit utilizes T1, T2, T3, and T4 thyristors. The load connected to the converter is an
RLE load type where L stands for an inductor, R stands for a resistor, and E represents the
emf load, which might be from a connected battery source or maybe due to the DC motor
back emf.

Single-Phase Full-Converter Operation

The convert works following a principle of triggering two thyristors at once. In the circuit,
thyristors T1 and T2 are activated simultaneously, and after a period that is π radian, the
thyristor par of T3 and T4 are also simultaneously triggered. The operation is continuous.
Since a load is connected to the converter circuit, the load is assumed to be in a constant
mode.

Single-Phase Full-Converter Waveforms

Figure 2:Single-Phase Full-Converter Waveforms

The figure above is representative of the single-phase full-converter connected to an RLE

load. The current i0 represents the load current, which is in continuous mode.

Between ωt = 0 and ωt = α
In the period between ωt = 0 and ωt=α, thyristors T1 and T2 operate in the forward-biased
mode. At the same period, T3 and T4 are in the conducting method.

Between ωt = α and ωt = π + α
At the period ωt = α, the T1 and T2 SCRs are triggered and conducted. The two thyristors
are in conduction mode. At the instant when thyristors T1 and T2 begin to work, there is an
appearance of Vm sin α voltage across thyristors T3 and T4. This voltage is in reverse bias
mode. The turning on of T3 and T4 is known as a line or natural commutation. At this point,
the current of the load, i0, is transferred from thyristors T3 and T4 to thyristors T1 and T2.

Thyristors T1 and T2 can only be turned on when Vm sin α > E. At this mode of operation,
thyristors T1 and T2 are in conduction mode for a period of π radian that is at the range
ωt=α to ωt=π+α.
Between ωt = π + α to ωt = 2π + α
At ωt=π+α, thyristors T3 and T4 are forward-biased. At this point, the two thyristors get
triggered, as thyristors T1 and T2 are turned off by line or natural commutation. The load
current is now transferred from thyristors T1 and T2 to thyristors T3 and T4, and this
triggers thyristors T3 and T4 to be in conduction mode for a period of π radian that is at the
range ωt=π+α to ωt=2π+α.

Voltage, Power, and Current Flow

Across the thyristors occurs maximum reverse voltage labeled as Vm. During the interval of
0 to α, the voltage from the supply VS is positive, while the current from the collection is
positive. This makes some energy from the load return to the power supply.

During the interval period α to π, the system’s supply current and voltage are positive. This
makes the power supplied positive and, thus, is the supply load source. From the discussion
above, we can note that sometimes, power flows from the source towards the load start;
other times, the power flows from the lower energy towards the load. We cannot forget to
state that the net power flows toward the point in the power supply as the positive power
duration is greater than the negative power duration, which is α to π more significant than 0
to α.

Average and RMS output DC Voltage

The average DC output voltage equation can be discussed as follows;

 In this type of converter, the RMS output voltage is equal to the source voltage.

14. OPERATION OF SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER

When the rectifier is connected to a resistive load (R load), the output voltage across the load directly
correlates with the input AC voltage, albeit rectified. This simplicity makes the Single Phase Full
Wave Controlled Rectifier with resistive load a fundamental configuration, crucial for understanding
more complex load scenarios.

This circuit primarily consists of thyristors and a transformer, instrumental in converting AC voltage
into a controllable DC output. The rectifier circuit can be designed using either a center-tap
transformer setup or a bridge configuration, each having its unique advantages and application areas.

The circuit diagram of single phase full wave controlled rectifier with resistive load is given below

Fig- single phase full wave controlled rectifier circuit diagram

single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier (also known as a converter) utilizes a center-tapped

transformer and two thyristors (semiconductor devices that act as switches). The center-tapped
transformer serves a dual purpose: it adapts the input AC voltage to the required level and provides
two phases of output, each 180° out of phase with the other. That is why it is also known as single
phase full wave controlled rectifier with center tap transformer

The thyristors are connected such that each one is responsible for rectifying one half-cycle of the AC
input. The center tap of the transformer acts as a common return path for the circuit, creating a
complete electrical path for current during each half-cycle operation.

Principle of Operation

The operation works on the alternation of the AC supply, where each half-cycle sees a different
thyristor being triggered into conduction at a controlled firing angle (α).

The control in firing angle allows modulation of the output characteristics (i.e., output voltage and
current) by effectively delaying the point within the AC cycle at which the thyristor starts conducting.

o Positive Half-cycle Operation: When terminal A of the transformer secondary winding is

positive with respect to the midpoint (N), thyristor TH1 is triggered at a specific angle α. This
allows current to flow from A, through TH1, the load, and back to N until the AC supply
 reaches its zero crossing. The flow of current through the load generates a voltage across it,
which can be observed as the first pulse of the output waveform.
o Negative Half-cycle Operation: As the AC supply enters the negative half-cycle, terminal B
becomes positive relative to N, and thyristor TH2 is triggered at the same controlled angle α.
This results in a second pulse of current and voltage across the load, following a similar path
from B, through TH2, the load, and back to N.

Characteristics of Load Current with Pure Resistive Load

o Load Current: With a purely resistive load, the current directly follows the voltage applied
across the load without any phase shift since resistors do not store electrical energy. However,
due to the nature of controlled rectification, the load current is inherently discontinuous,
meaning it only flows during the portions of the AC cycle when each thyristor is conducting.
o Ripple Frequency: As each half of the AC supply cycle results in a pulse of current across
the load, the resulting ripple frequency (the frequency of the voltage and current fluctuations
seen at the output) is twice the frequency of the input AC supply. This is because, within one
complete cycle of the input (360°), two pulses of current are delivered to the load.

Fig- single phase full wave controlled rectifier waveform

The configuration of a single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier with a purely resistive load gives a
fundamental application of power electronics in controlling AC power. By adjusting the firing angles
of the thyristors, one can control the output characteristics, catering to various application needs.
However, the discontinuous nature of the load current and the increased ripple frequency are essential
considerations in the design and application of these circuits, particularly in scenarios requiring
smooth and continuous power delivery.

Get Pass ProNEW

Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier Formula

The output DC voltage for the resistive load is

The average load current will be

15. [Link] OF TRIAC

The acronym TRIAC stands for Triode for Alternating Current. A TRIAC is a
semiconductor device with three terminals that control the flow of current, thus the name
Triac. Unlike SCR, TRIAC is bi-directional while SCR is bi-directional. It is ideal for
operation utilizing AC power for switching purposes since it can control current flow for
both halves in an alternating current cycle. This explained clearly in the diagram below.

TRIAC Symbol

The circuit diagram for a TRIAC is shown below. It resembles two thyristors placed back to
back.
TRIAC Structure

The TRIAC Structure is regarded as a DIAC having an extra gate contact incorporated to
ensure device control. Similar to other power devices, the TRIAC is manufactured from
silicon. Consequently, the process of fabricating the silicon leads to the production of
cheaper devices. As indicated below, the TRIAC has a six areas namely; four N-type
regions and two P-type regions.

TRIAC Operation

The operation of the TRIAC is based on the thyristor. It facilitates the switching function in
AC electrical components and systems. They are widely used in light dimmers because they
allow both halves of the AC cycle to be utilized. As a result, this makes them more efficient
in power usage. As much as it is possible to use thyristors to function as TRIAC, it is not
cost efficient for operations that require low power. It is possible to view a TRIAC in terms
of two thyristors.
 TRIACs are normally used in applications that do not require very high power because they
exhibit non-symmetrical switching in their operation. This is disadvantageous for
applications utilizing high power as it causes electromagnetic interference. As a result,
TRIACs are used in motor controls, light residential light dimmers and small electric fans to
control speed.

15.b. MODED OF OPERATION OF TRIAC

To understand how TRIACs work, consider the triggering in each of the four possible combinations
of gate and MT2 voltages with respect to MT1. The four separate cases (quadrants) are illustrated in
Figure 1. Main Terminal 1 (MT1) and Main Terminal 2 (MT2) are also referred to as Anode 1 (A1)
and Anode 2 (A2) respectively.[2]

The relative sensitivity depends on the physical structure of a particular triac, but as a rule, quadrant I
is the most sensitive (least gate current required), and quadrant 4 is the least sensitive (most gate
current required).[clarification needed Why is Q-IV the least sensitive? See discussion]

In quadrants 1 and 2, MT2 is positive, and current flows from MT2 to MT1 through P, N, P and N
layers. The N region attached to MT2 does not participate significantly. In quadrants 3 and 4, MT2 is
negative, and current flows from MT1 to MT2, also through P, N, P and N layers. The N region
attached to MT2 is active, but the N region attached to MT1 only participates in the initial triggering,
not the bulk current flow.

In most applications, the gate current comes from MT2, so quadrants 1 and 3 are the only operating
modes (both gate and MT2 positive or negative against MT1). Other applications with single polarity
triggering from an IC or digital drive circuit operate in quadrants 2 and 3, where MT1 is usually
connected to positive voltage (e.g. +5V) and gate is pulled down to 0V (ground).

Quadrant 1
Figure 3: Operation in quadrant 1

Figure 4: Equivalent electric circuit for a TRIAC operating in quadrant 1

Quadrant 1 operation occurs when the gate and MT2 are positive with respect to MT1. Figure 1

The mechanism is illustrated in Figure 3. The gate current makes an equivalent NPN transistor switch
on, which in turn draws current from the base of an equivalent PNP transistor, turning it on also. Part
of the gate current (dotted line) is lost through the ohmic path across the p-silicon, flowing directly
into MT1 without passing through the NPN transistor base. In this case, the injection of holes in the p-
silicon makes the stacked n, p and n layers beneath MT1 behave like a NPN transistor, which turns on
due to the presence of a current in its base. This, in turn, causes the p, n and p layers over MT2 to
behave like a PNP transistor, which turns on because its n-type base becomes forward-biased with
respect to its emitter (MT2). Thus, the triggering scheme is the same as an SCR. The equivalent
circuit is depicted in Figure 4.

However, the structure is different from SCRs. In particular, TRIAC always has a small current
flowing directly from the gate to MT1 through the p-silicon without passing through the p-n junction
between the base and the emitter of the equivalent NPN transistor. This current is indicated in Figure
3 by a dotted red line and is the reason why a TRIAC needs more gate current to turn on than a
comparably rated SCR.[3]

Generally, this quadrant is the most sensitive of the four. This is because it is the only quadrant where
gate current is injected directly into the base of one of the main device transistors. [4]

Quadrant 2
[edit]
 Figure 5: Operation in quadrant 2

Quadrant 2 operation occurs when the gate is negative and MT2 is positive with respect to MT1. Figure 1

Figure 5 shows the triggering process. The turn-on of the device is three-fold and starts when the
current from MT1 flows into the gate through the p-n junction under the gate. This switches on a
structure composed by an NPN transistor and a PNP transistor, which has the gate as cathode (the
turn-on of this structure is indicated by "1" in the figure). As current into the gate increases, the
potential of the left side of the p-silicon under the gate rises towards MT1, since the difference in
potential between the gate and MT2 tends to lower: this establishes a current between the left side and
the right side of the p-silicon (indicated by "2" in the figure), which in turn switches on the NPN
transistor under the MT1 terminal and as a consequence also the pnp transistor between MT2 and the
right side of the upper p-silicon. So, in the end, the structure which is crossed by the major portion of
the current is the same as quadrant-I operation ("3" in Figure 5).[3]

Quadrant 3
[edit]

Figure 6: Operation in quadrant 3

Quadrant 3 operation occurs when the gate and MT2 are negative with respect to MT1. Figure 1

The whole process is outlined in Figure 6. The process happens in different steps here too. In the first
phase, the pn junction between the MT1 terminal and the gate becomes forward-biased (step 1). As
forward-biasing implies the injection of minority carriers in the two layers joining the junction,
electrons are injected in the p-layer under the gate. Some of these electrons do not recombine and
escape to the underlying n-region (step 2). This in turn lowers the potential of the n-region, acting as
the base of a pnp transistor which switches on (turning the transistor on without directly lowering the
base potential is called remote gate control). The lower p-layer works as the collector of this PNP
transistor and has its voltage heightened: this p-layer also acts as the base of an NPN transistor made
up by the last three layers just over the MT2 terminal, which, in turn, gets activated. Therefore, the red
arrow labeled with a "3" in Figure 6 shows the final conduction path of the current. [3]

Quadrant 4
[edit]

Figure 7: Operation in quadrant 4

Quadrant 4 operation occurs when the gate is positive and MT2 is negative with respect to MT1. Figure 1

Triggering in this quadrant is similar to triggering in quadrant III. The process uses a remote gate
control and is illustrated in Figure 7. As current flows from the p-layer under the gate into the n-layer
under MT1, minority carriers in the form of free electrons are injected into the p-region and some of
them are collected by the underlying n-p junction and pass into the adjoining n-region without
recombining. As in the case of a triggering in quadrant III, this lowers the potential of the n-layer and
turns on the PNP transistor formed by the n-layer and the two p-layers next to it. The lower p-layer
works as the collector of this PNP transistor and has its voltage heightened: this p-layer also acts as
the base of an NPN transistor made up by the last three layers just over the MT2 terminal, which, in
turn, gets activated. Therefore, the red arrow labeled with a "3" in Figure 6 shows the final conduction
path of the current.[3]

Generally, this quadrant is the least sensitive of the four. [2] In addition, some models of TRIACs
(three-quadrant high commutation triacs named by different suppliers as "logic level", "snubberless"
or "Hi-Com" types) cannot be triggered in this quadrant but only in the other three.

14.a. THREE PHASE FULL CONVERTER

A three phase full wave controlled rectifier consists of three single phase full wave controlled
rectifiers connected in such a way that all the three phase voltages are used for DC power production.
Each single phase full wave controlled rectifier contains two thyristors or transistors which act as
electrically controlled switches. When gate pulses are applied to thyristors, it starts conducting
immediately and allows current to flow in one direction only.

Full-wave Three-phase Rectification working

Let's understand the working with the help of conduction cycle:

The thyristors are numbered in the circuit diagram corresponding to the order in which they are
triggered. The trigger sequence (firing sequence) of the thyristors is 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, 61, 12, 23, and
so on.

Fig-Circuit Diagram Of Three phase Full Wave Rectifier

This ensures that the load receives the positive half of all the three phase voltages successively,
thereby obtaining a continuous unidirectional DC output.

The Average Output Voltage Of Three phase Full Wave Rectifier is calculated as

The RMS value of the output voltage is

-pts

Three Phase Full wave Rectifier Conduction Waveform

The following waveforms illustrate one cycle of conduction:

Fig-three phase full

wave controlled rectifier waveforms
As seen in the diagram, the load voltage VLoad is the continuous summation of the three phase
voltages which is a smoothened waveform without any discontinuities.
[Link] PHASE FULLY CONTROLLED CONVERTER

In a Single Phase Full Wave Controlled Rectifier circuit with midpoint configuration two
thyristors and a single phase transformer with centre-tapped secondary windings are used.
These converters are sometimes called the two pulse converters because two triggering
pulses or two sets of triggering pulses are to be produced during every cycle of the supply to
trigger the different thyristors. Such circuits are generally used for low rating outputs.
1. With Resistive Load: The circuit of a mid-point converter with resistive load is shown in
Fig. 27.7. In this circuit, two thyristors are connected to the centre-tapped secondary of a
transformer, as depicted in Fig. 27.7. The input signal is coupled through the transformer to
the centre-tapped secondary. The circuit operation is explained below.

When terminal A shown in the circuit is positive w.r.t. midpoint N of the transformer
secondary, point B will have negative polarity w.r.t. mid-point. Under this condition the
thyristor TH1 conducts when it is fired at an angle α. The current through and voltage across
the load are shown by the waveforms in Fig. 27.8. The current continues to flow up to angle
π radians or 180° when the supply voltage reverses its polarity and thyristor TH 1 gets turned
off by natural commutation. During the negative half cycle of ac supply, the terminal B of
the transformer secondary is positive w.r.t. to mid-point N. Thyristor TH 2 gets turned on
when it is gated. Usually the firing angles for the two thyristors are taken to be equal so as to
avoid unequal distribution of load current in the two halves of input cycle.

Each half of the input wave is applied across the load. Thus, across the load, there are two
pulses of current in the same direction. Hence the ripple frequency across the load is twice
that of the input supply frequency. It is clear from Fig. 27.8 that with pure resistive load, the
load current is always discontinuous.
 The voltage and current relations are derived as follows.

The output dc voltage across the resistive load is given by

Average load current is given by

The expression for rms value of load voltage for a given firing angle α is

RMS value of load current is given by

PART C

[Link] CIRCUIT AND EXPLANATION OF SCR

Snubber Circuit is a circuit consisting of series combination of resistance and capacitance in parallel
with SCR. This article describes the purpose, design and working principle of Snubber Circuit in
detail.
Purpose of Snubber Circuit
The main purpose of Snubber Circuit is to prevent the unwanted triggering of SCR or thyristor due to
high rate of rise of voltage i.e. dv/dt. We already know that if the rate of rise of anode to cathode
voltage of SCR is high then it may lead to false triggering. This is commonly known as dv/dt
triggering. Thus we need to have some arrangement to protect SCR from such undesirable turning.
Application of Snubber Circuit prevents from such spurious triggering of SCR. Thus it is basically
dv/dt protection of SCR.
Design and Working Principle of Snubber Circuit
As we need to limit the rate of rise of anode to cathode voltage of SCR during its turn on process, this
means we should use a capacitor the SCR terminals. Why? This is because a capacitor limits the rate
of rise of voltage whereas an inductor limits the rate of rise of current. Thus a capacitor when
connected across the SCR terminals, when limit dv/dt. Lets us now connect the capacitor across the
SCR terminals and see how this affects the dv/dt.
As you can see, we have connected capacitor C in parallel with SCR. When switch S is closed, a
sudden voltage appears across the circuit. Initially capacitor C behaves like a shorted path and hence
the voltage across SCR is zero. But as time passes, voltage starts building up across capacitor C with a
slow rate. Thus the rate of rise of voltage dv/dt across SCR terminals will also be slow and less than
the specified dv/dt rating of SCR.
But the above circuit design has one problem. Let us go deep into the above circuit to make
improvement. As you can see, before SCR is fired or triggered by applying gate pulse, the capacitor C
is fully charged up to supply voltage Vs. As soon as SCR is turned on by gate pulse, this charged
capacitor C discharges through SCR. Hence a current having magnitude (Vs/Resistance of loop
formed by SCR and Capacitor C) flows in the local path formed by SCR and capacitor C. Since the
value of resistance of this local path is quite small, the magnitude of discharge current will be quite
higher. This will lead to high value of di/dt which may exceed the specified di/dt rating of SCR. In
order to limit the magnitude of the discharge current, a resistance should be connected in series with
the capacitor C. This is shown below.
The above circuit is the actual Snubber Circuit. Thus, a snubber circuit comprises of series
combination of resistance and capacitance in parallel with SCR or thyristor. Generally, resistance R,
capacitance C and load parameters are so chosen that the dv/dt during charging of capacitor C is less
than the specified dv/dt rating of SCR and the discharge current at the turn on of SCR is less than the
specified di/dt rating. Normally, R, C and load parameter forms an underdamped circuit so that dv/dt
is limited to acceptable value as provided by the SCR rating.
16.b. Applications of scr
Power Controls or Phase Controls by SCR
We know that an SCR is most commonly used as a phase control or power control device. In other
words, SCR is normally used for controlling AC power supplied to lamp dimmers, electric heaters,
electric motors, etc. In figure 6.22, a half-wave variable resistance phase control circuit has been
illustrated. AC power is supplied parallel to its A and B terminals. In this figure, R1 means load
resistance (e.g. heater element or lamp filament). R1 is a current limiting resistor while R2 is a
potentiometer or a variable resistance, changing the value of which the trigger level of an SCR can be
revised or set. Remember that SCR can be triggered at any point between zero and 90ᵅ in positive half
cycle of AC waveform. The process of phase control via R2 is as follows.
Figure 6.22 Half-wave variable resistance phase-control circuit

ON-OFF Control of Current

In figure 6.24, an ON-Off control circuit of an SCR has been demonstrated. In which load is supplied
current via turning SW1 switch on momentarily. And at times of need, the flow of current to load can
be suspended through closing switch SW2.
Figure 6.24 On-off SCR control circuit

Figure 6.24
Suppose that SCR is off in beginning. Now if the SW 1 switch is pressed and closed momentarily, a
current pulse is received on the SCR gate due to which SCR turns on. Thus, the flow of current
through load R1 also starts (i.e. SCR conduction starts by providing a pulse on its gate and the load
starts receiving current). Remember that now if the gate pulse of SCR is abolished by turning off
SW1, SCR will still remain in its conduction mode (i.e. still pass current or remain on). Whenever low
current to the load is desired to be stopped, the SW 2 switch mounted on the circuit is momentarily
closed, due to which current shunts around SCR (i.e. divided between two parallel paths as is evident
from the figure). Thus, SCR anode current value gets less as compared to its holding value (I H). As a
result, SCR turns off. The value of load current also becomes zero when SCR turns off (i.e. flow of
current towards the load stops)

Emergency Lighting System

Another example of SCR application is the restoration of light through a lighting system as a result of
power failure. In this system, SCR is used in circuits in which a backup battery is used in order to
restore light continuously.
In figure 6.25, a center-tapped full-wave rectifier circuit has been demonstrated which is used to
provide AC power to a low voltage lamp. So long as power is available on the circuit (i.e. as long as
external AC power remains restored), till that point battery fitted in the circuit keeps on charging
through diode D3 and resistor R1. In case of AC power is on, capacitor C charges till full-wave
rectified AC voltages’ peak value (i.e. 12.4×1.414=17.5 volts). The same cathode voltages are found
on cathode K. As battery voltages (i.e. 12 volts) are present on SCR‘s anode A, which are less
compared to SCR’s cathode voltages. Therefore, an anode is less positive as compared to a cathode.
Thus, SCR does not conduct. Voltages are received on the SCR gate through a voltage divider
consisting of R2 and R3. Under this situation, the lamp gets illuminated via AC supply and SCR
remains off, as demonstrated in figure (a).
Whenever AC power fails (or AC power is obstructed) capacitor C gets discharged via closed paths
R1, D3, and R3 (as denoted via the dotted arrow sign in figure b). Thus, cathode voltages diminish as a
result of the discharge of the capacitor and the cathode becomes less positive compared to the anode.
As a result of this action, triggering starts on SCR and SCR starts to conduct. Resultantly, current
flows through the battery via SCR and lamp and thus, the lamp illuminates, as is evident from figure
b. Remember that the capacitor restarts charging as soon as AC power is restored and SCR turns off.
As SCR turns off, the battery starts charging again.

An over-voltage protection circuit

Some loads (particularly loads comprising digital ICs) cannot withstand even a momentary high
supply voltage. Thus, special care has to be exercised in order to protect such delicate and expensive
loads from fluctuations in power supply. For overvoltage protection circuits are mounted with these
loads which safeguard them completely against excessive voltages above their allowed rated ratings.
In figure 6.26, simple and overvoltage protection circuits have been displayed, which are also known
as SCR crowbar circuits occasionally. (Remember, crowbar means a heavy iron rod through which a
large weight can be lifted)
Figure 6.26 A basic SCR over-voltage protection circuit.

Figure 6.26
Under normal circumstances, when regulators’ output voltages are lower than Zener diodes’
breakdown voltages, SCR does not conduct (Remember Zener diode D1 and resistive voltage divider
(R1 and R2) monitors DC output voltages accrued through DC power supply or regulator. Further, the
extreme limit of the output voltage is set by means of Zener voltage). Thus, regulators’ complete
output voltages are received on load. When supply voltages increase due to any reason, the Zener
diode starts working (i.e. Zener diode tends to break down). As the Zener diode begins to conduct, the
voltage divider causes a trigger voltage or trigger pulse on the SCR gate, due to which SCR (which is
mounted parallel to line voltage) gets fired (i.e. SCR starts conduction). Fuse melts as a result of SCR
current flow as soon as SCR fires. Thus, the load fitted on the DC power supply’s output immediately
gets protected as a result of detachment from line voltage.
For further elaboration, a simple SCR curve has been shown in figure 6.27. According to this circuit,
output voltages VCC are provided from the power supply to the protected load (i.e. load which requires
protection). Under normal circumstances, the V CC value is less as compared to the breakdown voltage
of a Zener diode. In such a situation, no voltages are found parallel to R. Thus, SCR remains opened
(i.e. it does not conduct) and the load keeps on receiving VCC voltages.
Figure 6.27 SCR crowbar

Figure 6.27
Now suppose that supply voltages increase due to some reason. When the value of V CC increases, the
Zener diode tends to break down. Thus, voltages parallel to “R” are being received. If the value of
voltages parallel to R exceeds SCR’s gate trigger voltage, SCR gets fired and starts behaving like a
closed latch. Thus, maximum current transmits through SCR when it gets fired. As a result, the fuse
fitted in the power supply melts. Consequently, load detaches from the power supply and thus gets
protected from the unpleasant impacts of overvoltage.