Hazards and Earthquake Hazards

Unit 3: Hazards
Definition of Hazards

Hazards are potential threats to human life and property. They are the trigger events in a disaster.

Origins of Hazards

Hazards can originate from two main sources:

Natural Events:
These are events that occur due to natural processes.
Geologic: Originate from the Earth's crust movements. Examples include earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, and landslides.
Hydrometeorologic: Originate from atmospheric conditions. Examples include cyclones
and storm surges.
Biologic: Originate from living organisms. Examples include bacteria and viruses.

Man-made Events:
These are events caused by human activities.
Environmental Degradation: Human activities that damage the environment can lead to
hazards.
Technological Hazards: These are hazards related to technology, such as industrial
accidents or nuclear meltdowns.

Quasi-Natural Hazards

When there is an interaction between natural events and human activities, it is referred to as a
quasi-natural hazard. Human activities can influence the occurrence and impact of natural
hazards. For example, mining activities can lead to landslides.

Hazard as an Element of Disaster Risk

Hazards are one of the three key elements that contribute to disaster risk, alongside vulnerability
and exposure.

Hazard: The potential threat.

Exposure: The presence of people, property, and infrastructure in harm's way.
Vulnerability: The susceptibility of exposed elements to the impact of a hazard.
Risk: The probability of harmful consequences or successful, sustainable development,
resulting from the interaction between hazards, exposure, and vulnerability.
Describing Hazards

Hazards can be described and quantified based on their characteristics and impacts:

Magnitude:
Refers to the strength and power of a hazard.
Examples: Richter Magnitude Scale for earthquakes, Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) for
volcanic eruptions.

Intensity:
Measures the severity or the level of impact a hazard causes in a specific area.
Examples: Fujita Scale for hurricanes, Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale for
earthquakes.

Onset of Hazards: The timing of when a hazard begins.

Duration: The length of time a hazard persists.
Frequency: How often a hazard occurs.

The magnitude of a hazard does not solely define its impact. The size of the population, the type
and number of structures, and their proximity to the hazard all influence the overall impact.

Impacts of Hazards on Exposed Elements

The impact of hazards can be categorized into several types:

Physical Impact: Destruction or damage to infrastructure (facilities, transport systems,

communication systems, utilities), housing, and tangible assets. This also includes mortality,
human injuries, and health impacts.
Sociocultural Impact: Disruption of human and community activities, leading to loss of
cultural identity, conflicts, and human stress. This can force migration and adaptation to new
environments and cultures.
Economic Impact: Loss of livelihood, disruption of economic activities, harm to investments
and economic opportunities, reduced production capacities, and impaired flow of resources
and services. This can lead to increased poverty.
Environmental Impact: Changes to the physical features of land and water forms, land
subsidence, increased pressure on marginal lands, saltwater intrusion into freshwater
sources, and disruption of biodiversity, ecosystem balance, and sustainability. These can also
trigger other hazards.
Biological Impact: The spread of diseases, such as epidemics caused by viral or bacterial
exposure. For instance, an explosion at a nuclear reactor due to an earthquake can increase
radiation levels, causing chronic illnesses.

Unit 4: Earthquake Hazards

Causes of Earthquakes
Earthquakes are caused by the sudden and rapid movement of large volumes of rock along
fractures on the Earth's surface called faults. These movements are a result of the friction
between the Earth's tectonic plates. The energy stored in the rocks is released as seismic waves.

Types of Seismic Waves

There are two main categories of seismic waves:

Body Waves:
Travel through the Earth's interior.
P Wave (Primary Wave): Compressions and expansions of the medium. These are the
fastest seismic waves.
S Wave (Secondary Wave): Undulations perpendicular to the direction of travel. These
waves are slower than P waves and cannot travel through liquids.

Surface Waves:
Travel along the Earth's surface.
Rayleigh Wave: Rolling motion that causes the ground to move up and down and forward
and backward.
Love Wave: Horizontal shearing motion of the ground. These are typically the most
destructive surface waves.

Quantifying Seismic Waves

Magnitude: Measures the total energy released by an earthquake at its source. The Richter
Magnitude Scale is a common example.
Intensity: Measures the effect of an earthquake on people and man-made structures at a
specific location. The Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale is an example.

Earthquake Hazards

Earthquakes can trigger various secondary hazards:

Ground Shaking: The direct shaking of the ground caused by seismic waves. This is often the
most immediate and widespread effect of an earthquake.

Ground Rupture:
The visible displacement of the ground surface along a fault line. This occurs when the fault
breaks at the surface.
Strike-slip Faults:
Characterized by horizontal movement.
Sinistral (left-lateral) strike-slip fault: Movement is to the left when facing the fault.
Dextral (right-lateral) strike-slip fault: Movement is to the right when facing the fault.

Normal Faults: The hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall, typically due to
tensional forces.
Reverse (Thrust) Faults: The hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall, typically due
 to compressional forces.

Liquefaction:
Occurs when saturated soil or sediment loses its stiffness and behaves like a liquid in
response to earthquake shaking. This is caused by increased pore water pressure that
reduces the soil's shear strength.
Factors Affecting Liquefaction: Intensity of shaking, duration of shaking, geology of the
soil, density of infrastructure, and proximity to the fault.
Effects of Liquefaction: Can cause buildings to tilt or sink, ground settlement, and the
formation of sand boils (where liquefied soil and water are ejected onto the surface). It
can also lead to flooding.

Earthquake-Induced Landslides (Mass Wasting):

The downslope movement of rocks or sediments under the influence of gravity, triggered by
earthquake shaking.
Factors Affecting Earthquake-Induced Landslides: Strength of the earthquake, distance
from the fault, topography, climate, and the characteristics of the soil or rocks.
Landslide Warning Signs: Cracks or bulges in the ground, increased soil content in
streams, leaning poles or walls, rumbling sounds, and unusual sounds like cracking trees.

Tsunamis:
A series of giant or large waves generated by large-scale displacements of water, usually
triggered by earthquakes or major submarine landslides.
Tsunami Generation: Typically occurs at subduction zones where one tectonic plate slides
beneath another, causing a sudden vertical displacement of the seafloor.
Types of Tsunamis:
Local Tsunami: Affects areas near the earthquake source.
Regional Tsunami: Affects areas within a few hours of travel time from the earthquake
source.

Natural Signs of an Impending Tsunami:

Prolonged, severe ground shaking.
Receding sea level or retreating ocean, exposing the seafloor.
A loud "roaring" sound.
A huge incoming wall of water.

Tsunami Prediction and Detection: Involves sensors, buoys, tide gauges, and monitoring
of earthquakes.

Building Codes

Building codes are sets of rules that establish standards for building construction. Properly
implemented building codes, especially those designed for earthquake resistance, can help
ensure that buildings can withstand earthquakes with minimal damage and without endangering
occupants.