ECEP1004

Principles of
Communications
BS Electronics Engineering | 2 nd year
Engr. Christopher V. Maglaque, PECE, MEM, AE
Associate Professor III
Allocation:
Entry in the Table of Frequency Allocations of a given frequency
band for the purpose of its use by one or more terrestrial or space radio
communication services or the radio astronomy service under specified
conditions.
Allotment:
Entry of a designated frequency channel in the agreed plan,
adopted by the ITU, for use by one or more nations for a terrestrial or
space radio communication services in one or more identified countries
or geographic areas and under specified conditions.
Assignment:
Authorization given by a nation for a radio station to use a radio-
frequency channel under specified conditions.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum illustrates the range of frequencies applicable to
electronic communication.
Figure 1.9a shows the entire electromagnetic spectrum and Figure 1.9b shows
the description of each spectrum. The electromagnetic waves are signals that oscillates.
It consists of electric field and magnetic field. It is also characterized by its amplitude,
frequency or phase.

Figure 1.9a: Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic Spectrum
FREQUENCY RANGE DESIGNATIONS

30 Hz to 300 Hz ELF (Extremely Low Frequencies)

300 Hz to 3 kHz VF (Voice Frequencies)
3 kHz to 30 kHz VLF (Very Low Frequencies)
30 kHz to 300 kHz LF (Low Frequencies)
300 kHz to 3 MHz MF (Medium Frequencies)
3 MHz to 30 MHz HF (High Frequencies)
30 MHz to 300 MHz VHF (Very High Frequencies)
300 MHz to 3 GHz UHF (Ultra High Frequencies)
3 GHz to 30 GHz SHF (Super High Frequencies)
30 GHz to 300 GHz EHF (Extremely High Frequencies)
300 GHz to 300 THz Infrared Light
300 THz to 3 PHz Visible Light
3 PHz to 30 PHz Ultraviolet Light
30 PHz to 300 PHz X Rays
300 PHz to 3 EHz Gamma Rays
3EHz to 30 EHz Cosmic rays
 It can be observed that the range of the electromagnetic spectrum is
defined by its frequency and wavelength.
Frequency is the number of cycles that occur in one second (Hertz) while
wavelength is the length travelled by one cycle in meters. Figure 1.10a and
Figure 1.10b shows an illustration of frequency and wavelength.

Figure 1.10a: Frequency of a wave Figure 1.10b: Wavelength of a wave

WAVEFORM REPRESENTATION
1. Time Domain Representation
A standard oscilloscope is used to display the amplitude versus time
representation of the input signal
i. Frequency (f)
The number of times a particular phenomenon occurs in a given
period of time expressed in Hertz.
ii. Wavelength (λ)
Wavelength is the distance between two points of similar cycles of a
periodic wave or the distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave during
the time of one cycle typically expressed in meters.
iii. Period (T)
The time required for one complete cycle of a repetitive system, or
simply the reciprocal of frequency.
Relation between Wavelength, Frequency, and Period

where:
λ=wavelength in meters
c=speed of light (3x108) m/s
f=frequency in Hz
T=period in sec
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. Determine the wavelength of radio waves propagated using a frequency
of 30 MHz.

2. If the measured wavelength is 6m, calculate the frequency in MHz.

Example:
Find the wavelength of the following frequency:
a. 97.1 MHz
b. 590 kHz
c. 107.5 MHz
d. 2.2 GHz
Solutions:
𝑐
The relationship between wavelength (λ) to frequency is 𝜆 =
𝑓
2. Frequency Domain Representation
A spectrum analyzer is used to display the amplitude versus frequency
representation of the input signal.

The time and frequency domain representation of three sine waves

Bandwidth (BW)
Bandwidth refers to the range of frequency in an electromagnetic spectrum. It is the
difference between the highest frequency available in the spectrum to the lowest frequency.
𝑩𝑾 = 𝒇𝟐 − 𝒇𝟏
A channel bandwidth refers to the portion of electromagnetic spectrum occupied by the
modulated signal. Commonly it refers to the sidebands of the modulated signal. Figure 1.11
illustrate the bandwidth of the voice frequency (VF) spectrum.

Figure 1.11: Bandwidth of voice frequency spectrum

Example:
1. Determine the bandwidth of high frequency spectrum.

2. Television has a 6 MHz bandwidth. Determine the lower side frequency of

channel 2 if the higher frequency is 60 MHz
TRANSMISSION FACILITIES
In terms of bandwidth, and in a contemporary digital context, transmission
facilities can be categorized as narrowband, wideband, or broadband.
1. Narrowband
A single channel (64 Kbps) or some number of 64 Kbps channels (N ×64
Kbps), but less than wideband.
2. Wideband
Wideband is a multi-channel capacity that is between 1.544 Mbps and 45
Mbps according to U.S. standards (2.048 Mbps-34 Mbps according to
European/international standards.)
3. Broadband
Broadband is a multi-channel capacity which is 45 Mbps according to U.S.
standards and 34 Mbps according to European/international standards.
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS.
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The
imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that the signal at the
beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the
medium. What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of impairment are
attenuation, distortion, and noise.
1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3. Noise
1. Attenuation
Type of transmission impairment in which the signal loses strength
due to the resistance and length of the transmission medium.
2. Distortion
The alteration of information in which the original proportions are
changed, resulting from a defect in communication system
3. Noise
Type of transmission impairment in which an outside source such as
crosstalk corrupts a signal.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATIONS
1. Distress
A mobile station in distress is in-need of immediate assistance.
2. Urgency
Radio messages with an urgency classification refer to a situation
that requires immediate attention and might conceivably become distress
in nature.
3. Safety
Radio communications with a safety classification refer to
meteorological information, particularly about storms, hurricanes, etc.
MESSAGE PRIORITIES
1. Distress calls, messages, and traffic
2. Communications preceded by the urgency signal
3. Communications preceded by the safety signal
4. Communications relative to radio direction finding
5. Message relative to navigation of aircraft
6. Message relative to navigation, movements, and needs of ships
and official weather-observation messages
OPERATIONAL WORDS
CODE MEANING
Roger I received your message.
I have completed transmitting and await your
Over reply.
Go ahead Same as over.
I have completed my communication and
Out do not expect to transmit again.
I have no further traffic. (Sometimes
Clear used in place of Out)
Wait for another call or further
Stand by instructions.
I am changing from one part of the
message to another. (Also used to
request the received operator to indicate
Break
if he has received the portion of the
message transmitted thus far.)

Copy Respond to Break

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QUESTIONS???
THANK YOU
GOD BLESS!