Chemistry

Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 — Topics 1 to 6 Complete Notes

1 States of Matter

1.1 Solids, Liquids and Gases

State the distinguishing properties

Property Solid Liquid Gas

Shape Fixed Takes shape of container No fixed shape

Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed

Compressibility Cannot compress Slightly compressible Easily compressed

Motion Vibrates only Slides past each other Random rapid motion

Describe structures in terms of particles

Solid

 Particles very close together.

 Regular arrangement.

 Strong attractive forces.

 Vibrate about fixed positions.

Liquid

 Particles close together.

 Irregular arrangement.

 Weaker attractive forces.

 Move around each other.

Gas

 Particles far apart.

 Random arrangement.

 Very weak attractive forces.

 Move rapidly in all directions.

Changes of state
Process Change

Melting Solid → liquid

Freezing Liquid → solid

Boiling Liquid → gas

Evaporation Liquid → gas at surface

Condensation Gas → liquid

Important differences

Boiling

 Happens throughout liquid.

 Fixed temperature.

Evaporation

 Happens only at surface.

 Can occur at any temperature.

Effect of temperature and pressure on gas volume

Temperature increase

 Gas particles gain kinetic energy.

 Move faster.

 Spread out more.

 Volume increases.

Pressure increase

 Particles forced closer.

 Volume decreases.

Kinetic particle theory explanations

Heating

 Particles gain kinetic energy.

 Move faster.
Cooling

 Particles lose kinetic energy.

 Move slower.

Melting

 Particles gain enough energy to overcome some attractive forces.

Boiling

 Particles gain enough energy to completely overcome forces.

Freezing

 Particles lose energy and become fixed.

Condensation

 Gas particles lose energy and come closer together.

Heating and cooling curves

During change of state

 Temperature remains constant.

 Energy used to break/form intermolecular forces.

1.2 Diffusion

Definition

Diffusion = movement of particles from higher concentration to lower concentration.

Explanation using particle theory

 Particles move randomly.

 They spread until evenly distributed.

Factors affecting diffusion

Temperature

Higher temperature:

 particles move faster

State

 Fastest in gases

 Slowest in solids

Relative molecular mass and diffusion

Lower relative molecular mass

 particles lighter

 diffuse faster

Higher relative molecular mass

 diffuse slower

2 Atoms, Elements and Compounds

2.1 Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

Element

 Contains one type of atom only.

 Cannot be chemically broken down.

Examples:

 oxygen

 iron

 sulfur

Compound

 Two or more elements chemically combined.

 Fixed composition.

 Can only be separated chemically.

Examples:

 water

 sodium chloride
Mixture

 Two or more substances not chemically combined.

 No fixed composition.

 Can be separated physically.

Examples:

 air

 salt water

Differences

Feature Element Compound Mixture

One type of atom Yes No No

Chemically combined No Yes No

Fixed ratio — Yes No

Separation method — Chemical Physical

2.2 Atomic Structure and Periodic Table

Structure of atom

 Central nucleus contains protons and neutrons.

 Electrons arranged in shells around nucleus.

Relative charges and masses

Particle Charge Relative mass

Proton +1 1

Neutron 0 1

Electron -1 1/1836

Proton number / atomic number

Mass number / nucleon number

Number of protons + neutrons.

Electronic configurations

Examples:

 H=1

 He = 2

 Li = 2,1

 C = 2,4

 Na = 2,8,1

 Cl = 2,8,7

Group and period relationships

Noble gases

 Full outer shell.

Group number

 Number of outer shell electrons.

Period number

 Number of occupied electron shells.

2.3 Isotopes

Definition

Atoms of same element with:

 same number of protons

 different number of neutrons

Important facts
  Same chemical properties.

 Same electronic configuration.

 Different masses.

Symbols

Example:

 Carbon-12 = ¹²₆C

 Chloride ion = ³⁵₁₇Cl⁻

Relative atomic mass calculation

A_r=\frac{(\text{isotope mass}\times\text{abundance})+...}{\text{total abundance}}

2.4 Ions and Ionic Bonds

Positive ions (cations)

 Formed by loss of electrons.

Example:
Na → Na⁺ + e⁻

Negative ions (anions)

 Formed by gain of electrons.

Example:
Cl + e⁻ → Cl⁻

Ionic bond

Strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

Ionic bonding example

Sodium chloride

 Sodium loses 1 electron.

 Na⁺ and Cl⁻ formed.

Properties of ionic compounds

High melting/boiling points

 Strong electrostatic forces.

Electrical conductivity

Conduct when:

 molten

 aqueous

Reason:

 ions free to move

Do not conduct when solid

 ions fixed in position

Giant ionic lattice

 Regular arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions.

2.5 Simple Molecules and Covalent Bonds

Covalent bond

Pair of electrons shared between atoms.

Molecules required

Hydrogen

H₂

Chlorine

Cl₂

Water

H₂O
Methane

CH₄

Ammonia

NH₃

Hydrogen chloride

HCl

Methanol

CH₃OH

Ethene

C₂H₄

Oxygen

O₂

Carbon dioxide

CO₂

Nitrogen

N₂

Properties of simple molecular compounds

Low melting and boiling points

 Weak intermolecular forces.

Poor electrical conductivity

 No free ions/electrons.

2.6 Giant Covalent Structures

Diamond

Structure

 Each carbon bonded to 4 others.

 Giant covalent lattice.

 Very hard.

 High melting point.

 Does not conduct electricity.

Uses

 Cutting tools.

Graphite

Structure

 Each carbon bonded to 3 others.

 Layers structure.

 One delocalised electron per carbon atom.

Properties

 Conducts electricity.

 Soft/slippery.

 High melting point.

Uses

 Lubricant.

 Electrodes.

Silicon(IV) oxide (SiO₂)

Structure

 Giant covalent structure.

Properties

 Hard.

 High melting point.

Definition

Electrostatic attraction between positive metal ions and delocalised electrons.

Properties of metals

Good electrical conductivity

 Delocalised electrons move freely.

Malleability and ductility

 Layers slide over each other.

3 Stoichiometry

3.1 Formulae

Molecular formula

Shows actual number and type of atoms.

Examples:

 H₂O

 CO₂

Empirical formula

Simplest whole number ratio.

Examples:

 CH₂ from C₂H₄

Deduce ionic formulae

Rules

 Total charge = zero.

Examples:

 Mg²⁺ + 2Cl⁻ → MgCl₂

Equations

Word equation

magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

Symbol equation

2Mg + O₂ → 2MgO

State symbols

Symbol Meaning

(s) solid

(l) liquid

(g) gas

(aq) aqueous

Ionic equations

Only include ions taking part.

Example:

H^+(aq)+OH^-(aq)\rightarrow H_2O(l)

3.2 Relative Masses

Relative atomic mass (Ar)

Average mass of isotopes compared with 1/12 mass of carbon-12 atom.

Relative molecular mass (Mr)

Sum of all relative atomic masses.

Example:
H₂O:
= (2 × 1) + 16
= 18

Reacting masses

Use balanced equations and relative masses.

3.3 Mole and Avogadro Constant

Mole definition

1 mole contains 6.02 × 10²³ particles.

Formula

n=\frac{m}{M}

Where:

 n = moles

 m = mass

 M = molar mass

Molar gas volume

At r.t.p.:
1 mole gas = 24 dm³

Concentration

c=\frac{n}{V}

 c = concentration

 n = moles

 V = volume in dm³

Unit conversions

cm³ to dm³
Divide by 1000.

dm³ to cm³

Multiply by 1000.

Percentage yield

\text{Percentage yield}=\frac{\text{actual yield}}{\text{theoretical yield}}\times100

Percentage purity

\text{Percentage purity}=\frac{\text{mass of pure substance}}{\text{total mass}}\times100

4 Electrochemistry

4.1 Electrolysis

Definition

Decomposition of ionic compound by electricity.

Electrolytic cell terms

Anode

Positive electrode.

Cathode

Negative electrode.

Electrolyte

Molten/aqueous ionic substance.

Transfer of charge

External circuit

Electrons move through wires.

Electrolyte

Ions move.
Cathode reactions

 Reduction.

 Gain of electrons.

 Metals/hydrogen formed.

Anode reactions

 Oxidation.

 Loss of electrons.

 Non-metals formed.

Molten lead(II) bromide

Cathode

Pb²⁺ + 2e⁻ → Pb

Anode

2Br⁻ → Br₂ + 2e⁻

Observations:

 Grey lead formed.

 Brown bromine gas.

Concentrated sodium chloride solution

Cathode

Hydrogen gas.

Anode

Chlorine gas.

Dilute sulfuric acid

Cathode

Hydrogen.

Anode
Oxygen.

Copper(II) sulfate with inert electrodes

Cathode

Copper formed.

Anode

Oxygen formed.

Copper electrodes in copper sulfate

Cathode

Copper deposited.

Anode

Copper dissolves.

Electroplating

Used to:

 improve appearance

 resist corrosion

4.2 Hydrogen–Oxygen Fuel Cells

Facts

 Hydrogen reacts with oxygen.

 Produces electricity.

 Water only product.

Advantages

 No carbon dioxide.

 Less pollution.
Disadvantages

 Hydrogen difficult to store.

 Explosive.

 Expensive.

5 Chemical Energetics

5.1 Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

Exothermic reactions

Definition

Transfer thermal energy to surroundings.

Temperature

Increases.

ΔH

Negative.

Examples:

 combustion

 neutralisation

Endothermic reactions

Definition

Take thermal energy from surroundings.

Temperature

Decreases.

ΔH

Positive.

Examples:

 photosynthesis

 thermal decomposition
Activation energy

Definition:
Minimum energy needed for successful collision.

Reaction pathway diagrams

Must show:

 reactants

 products

 activation energy

 enthalpy change

Bond energies

Bond breaking

 Endothermic.

Bond making

 Exothermic.

6 Chemical Reactions

6.1 Physical and Chemical Changes

Physical change

 No new substance.

 Usually reversible.

Examples:

 melting

 boiling

Chemical change

 New substance formed.

 Usually irreversible.
Examples:

 rusting

 burning

6.2 Rate of Reaction

Factors affecting rate

Concentration

Higher concentration:

 more particles

 more collisions

 faster reaction

Pressure

Higher pressure:

 particles closer

 more collisions

 faster reaction

Surface area

Larger surface area:

 more exposed particles

 faster reaction

Temperature

Higher temperature:

 particles move faster

 collisions more frequent

 more particles exceed activation energy

 Increases reaction rate.

 Unchanged at end.

 Lowers activation energy.

Collision theory

Reaction occurs when particles:

 collide

 have enough energy

 correct orientation

Investigating rate

Methods

 change in mass

 gas volume produced

Graph interpretation

Steeper graph

Faster reaction.

Plateau

Reaction finished.

6.3 Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium

Reversible reaction

Can go both directions.

⇌
Symbol:

Hydrated and anhydrous compounds

 Hydrated = blue

 Anhydrous = white

Cobalt(II) chloride

 Hydrated = pink

 Anhydrous = blue

Equilibrium

At equilibrium

 forward rate = reverse rate

 concentrations constant

Effect of changing conditions

Temperature

 Increase temperature favours endothermic direction.

Pressure

 Higher pressure favours side with fewer gas molecules.

Concentration

 System opposes change.

Catalyst

 Speeds both reactions equally.

 Does not change equilibrium position.

Haber process

Equation:

N_2(g)+3H_2(g)\rightleftharpoons2NH_3(g)

Conditions

 450°C
  200 atm

 iron catalyst

Sources

 Nitrogen from air.

 Hydrogen from methane.

Why these conditions?

Low temperature

 higher yield

 slower rate

High temperature

 faster rate

 lower yield

450°C = compromise.

High pressure

 increases yield

 expensive/dangerous if too high

Contact process

Equation:

2SO_2(g)+O_2(g)\rightleftharpoons2SO_3(g)

Conditions

 450°C

 2 atm

 vanadium(V) oxide catalyst

Sources
  SO₂ from burning sulfur or roasting sulfides.

 Oxygen from air.

6.4 Redox

Oxidation

 Gain of oxygen.

 Loss of electrons.

 Increase in oxidation number.

Reduction

 Loss of oxygen.

 Gain of electrons.

 Decrease in oxidation number.

Redox reaction

Oxidation and reduction occur together.

Oxidising agent

Oxidises another substance and is reduced.

Reducing agent

Reduces another substance and is oxidised.

Oxidation number rules

Element alone

Oxidation number = 0

Monatomic ion

Oxidation number = ion charge

Compound
Total oxidation number = 0

Ion

Total oxidation number = ion charge

Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 — Topics 7 to 12 Complete Notes

7 Acids, Bases and Salts

7.1 Characteristic Properties of Acids and Bases

Acids

Reactions of acids

Acid + metal

Produces:

 salt

 hydrogen

Example:
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl₂ + H₂

Acid + base

Produces:

 salt

 water

Example:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O

Acid + carbonate

Produces:

 salt

 water

 carbon dioxide

Example:
CaCO₃ + 2HCl → CaCl₂ + H₂O + CO₂
Indicators

Indicator Acid Alkali

Litmus Red Blue

Methyl orange Red Yellow

Thymolphthalein Colourless Blue

Universal indicator pH colours pH colours

Bases and alkalis

Base

Metal oxide or hydroxide.

Examples:

 CuO

 MgO

Alkali

Soluble base.

Examples:

 NaOH

 KOH

Reactions of bases

Base + acid

Produces:

 salt

 water

Alkali + ammonium salt

 ammonia gas

 water

 salt

Example:
NH₄Cl + NaOH → NH₃ + H₂O + NaCl

Hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions

Acids

Contain H⁺ ions in aqueous solution.

Alkalis

Contain OH⁻ ions in aqueous solution.

pH scale

pH Meaning

0–3 Strong acid

4–6 Weak acid

7 Neutral

8–10 Weak alkali

11–14 Strong alkali

Neutralisation

H^+(aq)+OH^-(aq)\rightarrow H_2O(l)

Acids and bases definitions

Acid

Proton donor.

Base

Proton acceptor.
Strong and weak acids

Strong acid

Completely dissociated.

Example:
HCl(aq) → H⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq)

Weak acid

Partially dissociated.

CH₃COOH(aq) ⇌ H⁺(aq) + CH₃COO⁻(aq)

7.2 Oxides

Acidic oxides

Usually non-metal oxides.

Examples:

 CO₂

 SO₂

Basic oxides

Usually metal oxides.

Examples:

 CaO

 CuO

Amphoteric oxides

React with:

 acids

 bases
Examples:

 Al₂O₃

 ZnO

7.3 Preparation of Salts

Soluble salts

By titration

Used when:

 acid + alkali

Method:

1. Pipette alkali.

2. Add indicator.

3. Add acid from burette.

4. Repeat without indicator.

5. Evaporate solution.

6. Crystallise.

Acid + excess metal

Method:

1. Add excess metal.

2. Filter excess metal.

3. Evaporate.

4. Crystallise.

Acid + excess insoluble base

Method:

1. Add excess base.

2. Filter excess.

3. Evaporate.
 4. Crystallise.

Acid + excess carbonate

Method:

1. Add excess carbonate.

2. Filter excess.

3. Evaporate.

4. Crystallise.

Insoluble salts

Precipitation

Mix two soluble salts.

Example:
AgNO₃ + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO₃

Solubility rules

Always soluble

 sodium salts

 potassium salts

 ammonium salts

 nitrates

Chlorides soluble except

 silver chloride

 lead chloride

Sulfates soluble except

 barium sulfate

 calcium sulfate
  lead sulfate

Carbonates insoluble except

 sodium

 potassium

 ammonium

Hydroxides insoluble except

 sodium

 potassium

 ammonium

 calcium slightly soluble

Hydrated and anhydrous

Hydrated substance

Contains chemically combined water.

Anhydrous substance

Contains no water.

Water of crystallisation

Water molecules present in crystals.

Examples:

 CuSO₄·5H₂O

 CoCl₂·6H₂O

8 The Periodic Table

8.1 Arrangement of Elements

Periodic table
Elements arranged:

 by increasing atomic number

 in periods and groups

Trends across a period

 metallic → non-metallic

Group number

Equals:

 number of outer shell electrons

Period number

Equals:

 number of occupied shells

Similarities in group

Elements in same group:

 same outer electrons

 similar chemical properties

Predicting properties

Position in periodic table predicts:

 reactivity

 bonding

 ion charge

8.2 Group I Properties

Elements

 lithium
  sodium

 potassium

General properties

 soft metals

 low density

 reactive

Trends down group

Melting point

Decreases.

Density

Increases.

Reactivity

Increases.

Reactions with water

Produces:

 metal hydroxide

 hydrogen

Example:
2Na + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + H₂

8.3 Group VII Properties

Halogens

 chlorine

 bromine

 iodine
General properties

 diatomic

 non-metals

Trends down group

Density

Increases.

Reactivity

Decreases.

Appearance

Halogen Appearance

Chlorine Pale yellow-green gas

Bromine Red-brown liquid

Iodine Grey-black solid

Displacement reactions

More reactive halogen displaces less reactive halide.

Example:
Cl₂ + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br₂

8.4 Transition Elements

Properties

 high density

 high melting point

 coloured compounds

 catalysts

 variable oxidation numbers

 Fe²⁺

 Fe³⁺

8.5 Noble Gases

Properties

 unreactive

 monatomic gases

 full outer shell

Reason:

 stable electronic configuration

9 Metals

9.1 Properties of Metals

Physical properties

Property Metals Non-metals

Conductivity Good Poor

Malleability Malleable Brittle

Ductility Ductile Not ductile

Melting point Usually high Usually low

Chemical properties

With acids

Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen

With water

Potassium/sodium/calcium

React with cold water.

Reacts with steam.

With oxygen

Metal + oxygen → metal oxide

9.2 Uses of Metals

Aluminium

Aircraft

 low density

Overhead cables

 good conductor

 low density

Food containers

 corrosion resistant

Copper

Electrical wiring

 good conductor

 ductile

9.3 Alloys and Their Properties

Alloy

Mixture of metal with other elements.

Examples

Brass

Copper + zinc

Stainless steel
Iron + chromium + nickel + carbon

Properties of alloys

 harder

 stronger

 more useful

Why alloys harder

Different sized atoms:

 distort layers

 prevent sliding

9.4 Reactivity Series

Reactivity series

Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Hydrogen
Copper
Silver
Gold

Reactions with water

Potassium/sodium/calcium

React with cold water.

Magnesium

Reacts slowly with cold water, faster with steam.

Metal Reaction

Magnesium Fast

Zinc Moderate

Iron Slow

Copper No reaction

Silver No reaction

Gold No reaction

Displacement reactions

More reactive metal displaces less reactive metal ion.

Example:
Zn + CuSO₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu

Aluminium

Appears unreactive because:

 oxide layer protects surface

9.5 Corrosion of Metals

Rusting conditions

Need:

 oxygen

 water

Rust

Hydrated iron(III) oxide.

Barrier methods

 painting
  greasing

 plastic coating

Purpose:

 stop oxygen/water reaching iron

Galvanising

Coating iron with zinc.

Sacrificial protection

More reactive metal corrodes instead.

9.6 Extraction of Metals

Extraction and reactivity

More reactive metals:

 harder to extract

Less reactive metals:

 easier to extract

Iron extraction

Ore

Hematite (Fe₂O₃)

Blast furnace reactions

Coke burns

C+O_2\rightarrow CO_2

Carbon monoxide forms

C+CO_2\rightarrow2CO
Iron oxide reduced

Fe_2O_3+3CO\rightarrow2Fe+3CO_2

Limestone decomposes

CaCO_3\rightarrow CaO+CO_2

Slag formation

CaO+SiO_2\rightarrow CaSiO_3

Aluminium extraction

Ore

Bauxite.

Method

Electrolysis of aluminium oxide.

Cryolite

 lowers melting point

 reduces energy costs

Carbon anodes

Need replacement because:

 oxygen reacts with carbon

10 Chemistry of the Environment

10.1 Water

Tests for water

Cobalt(II) chloride paper

Blue → pink
Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate

White → blue

Purity of water

Pure water has:

 fixed melting point

 fixed boiling point

Distilled water

Used because:

 fewer impurities

Substances in natural water

 dissolved oxygen

 metal compounds

 plastics

 sewage

 microbes

 nitrates

 phosphates

Beneficial substances

Dissolved oxygen

Needed for aquatic life.

Some metal compounds

Provide essential minerals.

Harmful substances
Toxic metal compounds

Poisonous.

Plastics

Harm aquatic life.

Sewage

Contains disease-causing microbes.

Nitrates/phosphates

Cause deoxygenation.

Water treatment

Sedimentation

Solids settle.

Filtration

Removes solids.

Carbon

Removes tastes and odours.

Chlorination

Kills microbes.

10.2 Fertilisers

Fertilisers

Contain:

 ammonium salts

 nitrates

NPK fertilisers

Element Purpose

Nitrogen Leaf growth

Phosphorus Root growth

Potassium Flower/fruit growth

10.3 Air Quality and Climate

Composition of clean dry air

Gas Percentage

Nitrogen 78%

Oxygen 21%

Others including CO₂ Remaining

Pollutants

Carbon dioxide

Source:

 complete combustion

Effect:

 global warming

Carbon monoxide

Source:

 incomplete combustion

Effect:

 toxic gas

Methane

Source:

 decomposition

 animals
Effect:

 global warming

Oxides of nitrogen

Source:

 car engines

Effects:

 acid rain

 smog

 respiratory problems

Sulfur dioxide

Source:

 sulfur fuels

Effect:

 acid rain

Particulates

Source:

 incomplete combustion

Effects:

 respiratory disease

 cancer

Reducing environmental problems

Climate change

 plant trees

 reduce fossil fuels

 renewable energy
  hydrogen fuel

 reduce livestock farming

Acid rain

 catalytic converters

 low sulfur fuels

 flue gas desulfurisation

Greenhouse gases

How they work

 absorb thermal energy

 re-radiate energy

 reduce heat loss to space

Photosynthesis

Word equation:
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen

Symbol equation:

6CO_2+6H_2O\rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6+6O_2

Catalytic converters

Example reaction:

2CO+2NO\rightarrow2CO_2+N_2

11 Organic Chemistry

11.1 Formulae, Functional Groups and Terminology

Displayed formula

Shows:
  all atoms

 all bonds

General formulae

Series Formula

Alkanes CₙH₂ₙ₊₂

Alkenes CₙH₂ₙ

Alcohols CₙH₂ₙ₊₁OH

Carboxylic acids CₙH₂ₙ₊₁COOH

Functional group

Atom/group causing chemical properties.

Homologous series

Family with:

 same functional group

 same general formula

 similar chemical properties

 gradual change in physical properties

 differ by CH₂

Saturated compound

Only single carbon-carbon bonds.

Unsaturated compound

Contains double bond.

Structural isomers
Same molecular formula but different structures.

Examples:

 butane

 methylpropane

11.2 Naming Organic Compounds

Must know names

Alkanes

 methane

 ethane

 propane

 butane

Alkenes

 ethene

 propene

 but-1-ene

 but-2-ene

Alcohols

 ethanol

 propan-1-ol

 propan-2-ol

 butan-1-ol

 butan-2-ol

Carboxylic acids

 methanoic acid

 ethanoic acid
Suffixes

Ending Type

-ane Alkane

-ene Alkene

-ol Alcohol

-oic acid Carboxylic acid

Esters

Made from:

 alcohol

 carboxylic acid

11.3 Fuels

Fossil fuels

 coal

 natural gas

 petroleum

Methane

Main constituent of natural gas.

Hydrocarbon

Contains only hydrogen and carbon.

Petroleum

Mixture of hydrocarbons.
Fractional distillation

Fractions and uses

Fraction Use

Refinery gas Heating/cooking

Petrol Cars

Naphtha Chemical feedstock

Kerosene Jet fuel

Diesel Diesel engines

Fuel oil Ships/heating

Lubricating oil Lubricants

Bitumen Roads

Trends up column

 shorter chains

 lower boiling points

 lower viscosity

 more volatile

11.4 Alkanes

Properties

 saturated hydrocarbons

 single covalent bonds

 relatively unreactive

Combustion

Produces:

 carbon dioxide

 water
Substitution reaction

One atom replaced by another.

Chlorination

 requires UV light

 photochemical reaction

11.5 Alkenes

Properties

 unsaturated

 double bond

Cracking

Large alkanes broken into:

 smaller alkanes

 alkenes

 hydrogen

Conditions:

 high temperature

 catalyst

Reasons for cracking

 more useful fuels

 make alkenes

Bromine water test

Alkene

Orange → colourless
Alkane

No change

Addition reactions

With bromine

Forms dibromo compound.

With hydrogen

Forms alkane.

With steam

Forms alcohol.

11.6 Alcohols

Ethanol manufacture

Fermentation

Conditions:

 25–35°C

 yeast

 no oxygen

Hydration of ethene

Conditions:

 300°C

 60 atm

 acid catalyst

Combustion

Produces:

 carbon dioxide

 water
Uses

 fuel

 solvent

Fermentation vs hydration

Fermentation

Advantages:

 renewable

 lower temperature

Disadvantages:

 slow

 dilute ethanol

Hydration

Advantages:

 fast

 pure ethanol

Disadvantages:

 non-renewable

 high temperature/pressure

11.7 Carboxylic Acids

Reactions

With metals

Salt + hydrogen

With bases

Salt + water

With carbonates
Salt + water + carbon dioxide

Oxidation of ethanol

Forms ethanoic acid.

Vinegar production

Bacterial oxidation.

Esterification

Carboxylic acid + alcohol → ester + water

Needs:

 acid catalyst

11.8 Polymers

Polymer

Large molecule made from monomers.

Addition polymerisation

Ethene → poly(ethene)

Plastics problems

 landfill accumulation

 ocean pollution

 toxic gases when burned

Addition polymerisation

 one product formed

 from alkenes
Condensation polymerisation

 small molecule also produced

 water often formed

Nylon

Polyamide.

PET

Polyester.

PET recycling

Can be depolymerised and reused.

Proteins

Natural polyamides made from amino acids.

12 Experimental Techniques and Chemical Analysis

12.1 Experimental Design

Apparatus

Apparatus Use

Stopwatch Time

Thermometer Temperature

Balance Mass

Burette Accurate variable volume

Pipette Accurate fixed volume

Measuring cylinder Approximate volume

Gas syringe Gas volume

Solvent

Dissolves solute.

Solute

Substance dissolved.

Solution

Solute dissolved in solvent.

Saturated solution

Maximum dissolved solute.

Residue

Solid left after filtration.

Filtrate

Liquid passing through filter.

12.2 Acid–Base Titrations

Apparatus

 burette

 pipette

 indicator

End-point

Indicator changes colour.

12.3 Chromatography

Uses

 separate substances

 identify substances

 test purity
Pure substance

One spot.

Impure substance

More than one spot.

Rf value

Rf=\frac{\text{distance travelled by substance}}{\text{distance travelled by solvent}}

12.4 Separation and Purification

Methods

Filtration

Separates insoluble solid.

Crystallisation

Obtains dissolved solid.

Simple distillation

Separates solvent.

Fractional distillation

Separates liquids with different boiling points.

Purity

Pure substances:

 sharp melting point

 sharp boiling point

12.5 Identification of Ions and Gases

Anion tests

Carbonate

Test:

 add dilute acid

 CO₂ formed

 limewater milky

Chloride, bromide, iodide

Method:

1. Acidify with nitric acid.

2. Add silver nitrate.

Results:

 chloride = white ppt

 bromide = cream ppt

 iodide = yellow ppt

Nitrate

Method:

 aluminium foil

 sodium hydroxide

Result:

 ammonia gas

Sulfate

Method:

 nitric acid

 barium nitrate

Result:

 white precipitate

Sulfite

Result:
  acidified KMnO₄ decolourised

Cation tests using NaOH and NH₃

Must know precipitate colours and solubility.

Gas tests

Gas Test Result

Ammonia Damp red litmus Turns blue

Carbon dioxide Limewater Milky

Chlorine Damp litmus Bleaches

Hydrogen Lighted splint Squeaky pop

Oxygen Glowing splint Relights

Sulfur dioxide Acidified KMnO₄ Decolourises

Flame tests

Ion Colour

Lithium Crimson

Sodium Yellow

Potassium Lilac

Calcium Brick red

Barium Apple green

Copper(II) Blue-green