Human Reproduction

Class 12 Biology — Chapter Notes

1. Introduction
Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous organisms. Reproduction occurs through the fusion of a
male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete (ovum), forming a zygote that develops into a new individual.
Human reproduction requires a well-coordinated interplay between the male reproductive system, the
female reproductive system, and hormonal control.

• Humans attain the ability to reproduce (puberty) around 11–13 years of age.
• Male and female reproductive systems consist of primary sex organs (gonads) and accessory
ducts/glands.

2. Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system is located in the pelvis region and consists of a pair of testes along with
accessory ducts, glands, and the external genitalia (penis).

2.1 Testes
• Paired, oval organs located outside the abdominal cavity in a pouch called the scrotum.
• The scrotum keeps testicular temperature about 2–2.5°C lower than body temperature, essential for
spermatogenesis.
• Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules, each containing 1–3 tightly coiled
seminiferous tubules where sperm are produced.

Seminiferous tubule — cell types

• Male germ cells (spermatogonia): undergo meiosis to eventually form sperm.
• Sertoli cells: provide nutrition to germ cells; regulated by FSH.
• Leydig cells (interstitial cells): present outside seminiferous tubules; synthesise and secrete
testicular hormones called androgens (mainly testosterone).

2.2 Male Accessory Ducts

• Rete testis: network of tubules within the testis into which seminiferous tubules open.
• Vasa efferentia: lead from rete testis to the epididymis.
• Epididymis: long coiled tube along the testis; site of sperm maturation and storage.
• Vas deferens: arises from epididymis, ascends and loops over the urinary bladder, joins the duct of
the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct.

2.3 Accessory Glands

• Seminal vesicles (paired): secrete seminal plasma rich in fructose, which nourishes sperm.
• Prostate gland (single): secretes a milky fluid that contributes to seminal plasma.
• Bulbourethral / Cowper's glands (paired): secretion helps in lubrication of the penis.
Note: Semen = sperm + secretions of seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands. It is alkaline,
providing a favourable medium for sperm survival and motility.
2.4 External Genitalia
The penis is the male copulatory organ, made of erectile tissue that fills with blood during sexual arousal,
causing erection. Its enlarged tip is called the glans penis, covered by a loose fold of skin called the
foreskin/prepuce. The urethra also passes through the penis.

3. Female Reproductive System

Located in the pelvic region, consisting of a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts (fallopian tubes), a uterus, a
cervix, a vagina, and external genitalia, along with a pair of mammary glands.

3.1 Ovaries
• Paired, primary female sex organs that produce the female gamete (ovum) and secrete female sex
hormones (oestrogen and progesterone).
• Each ovary is covered by a thin epithelium enclosing the ovarian stroma, divided into a peripheral
cortex and inner medulla.
• The cortex contains numerous ovarian follicles at different developmental stages.

3.2 Female Accessory Ducts

Fallopian tubes (Oviducts)
• Extend from the periphery of each ovary to the uterus.
• Parts (from ovary to uterus): Infundibulum (funnel-shaped, with finger-like fimbriae that help collect
the ovum after ovulation) → Ampulla (wider part; usual site of fertilisation) → Isthmus (narrow part
joining the uterus).

Uterus
• Single, pear-shaped organ, also called the womb, where the embryo implants and develops.
• Supported by ligaments attached to the pelvic wall.
• Wall has three layers: Perimetrium (outer thin membrane), Myometrium (middle thick smooth muscle
layer, responsible for contractions during delivery), and Endometrium (inner glandular layer that lines
the uterine cavity and undergoes cyclic changes during the menstrual cycle).

Cervix and Vagina

• The uterus opens into the cervix, which leads to the vagina; the cervical canal, along with the vagina,
forms the birth canal.

3.3 External Genitalia (Vulva)

• Mons pubis: cushion of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair.
• Labia majora: fleshy folds of tissue extending from the mons pubis.
• Labia minora: paired folds beneath the labia majora.
• Hymen: membrane partially covering the vaginal opening; can be broken by factors other than
intercourse (e.g., physical activity).
• Clitoris: tiny finger-like structure that lies at the upper junction of the labia minora, homologous to the
penis.

3.4 Mammary Glands

 • Paired glands, considered modified sweat glands; each contains 15–20 mammary lobes with alveoli
that secrete milk.
• Milk is stored in mammary/lactiferous ducts, which open through the nipple.

4. Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis refers to the process of formation of male and female gametes — sperm
(spermatogenesis) and ova (oogenesis) — through mitotic and meiotic divisions.

4.1 Spermatogenesis
• Occurs in the seminiferous tubules; begins at puberty due to significant rise in
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).
• Spermatogonia (2n) multiply by mitosis and increase in number.
• Some spermatogonia (primary spermatocytes) undergo meiosis I to form two secondary
spermatocytes (n).
• Each secondary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis II to form two spermatids (n) — total 4 spermatids
per primary spermatocyte.
• Spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa (sperm) by the process of spermiogenesis.
• After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in Sertoli cells and are finally released from
the seminiferous tubule by spermiation.

Hormonal control of spermatogenesis

• GnRH (hypothalamus) → stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete LH and FSH.
• LH acts on Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of androgens (testosterone), which
stimulate the process of spermatogenesis.
• FSH acts on Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of factors that help in spermiogenesis.

Structure of a Sperm
• Microscopic structure divided into head, neck, middle piece, and tail.
• The head contains an elongated haploid nucleus, the anterior portion covered by the acrosome (a
cap-like structure with enzymes that help fertilisation).
• The middle piece has numerous mitochondria producing energy for tail movement, enabling sperm
motility.
• Sperm are covered by a plasma membrane throughout the body.
Note: A human male ejaculates about 200–300 million sperm during coitus, of which at least 60% must
have normal shape/size and at least 40% must show vigorous motility for fertility.

4.2 Oogenesis
• The process of formation of a mature female gamete, begins during embryonic development itself.
• At this stage, millions of oogonia form within each foetal ovary; oogonia multiply by mitosis and enter
meiosis I, getting arrested at prophase-I, called primary oocytes.
• Each primary oocyte gets surrounded by granulosa cells to form a primary follicle.
• A large number of these follicles degenerate; at birth, only about 1–2 million primary follicles remain in
each ovary.
• Primary follicles get surrounded by more granulosa cells and a new theca layer to form secondary
follicles, which transform into a tertiary follicle with a fluid-filled cavity (antrum).
• The theca layer differentiates into an inner theca interna and outer theca externa.
• The primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows and completes meiosis I, forming a large haploid
secondary oocyte and a tiny first polar body.
• The tertiary follicle changes into the mature Graafian follicle. The secondary oocyte forms a new
membrane called the zona pellucida.
• The Graafian follicle ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary — this is
ovulation.
 5. Menstrual Cycle
The reproductive cycle in female primates (humans, apes, monkeys) is called the menstrual cycle. The
first menstruation begins at puberty and is called menarche. Each cycle lasts about 28/29 days on
average, and continues till about 50 years of age, when it ceases (menopause).

5.1 Phases of the Menstrual Cycle

Phase Days (approx.) Key events

Menstrual phase 1–5 Breakdown of endometrial lining (if fertilisation does not occur); shedding as me

Follicular / Proliferative phase 5–13 Primary follicles grow to become a fully mature Graafian follicle; endometrium re

Ovulatory phase ~14 Rapid rise in LH (LH surge) induces rupture of the Graafian follicle, releasing th

Luteal / Secretory phase 15–28 Remaining follicle transforms into the corpus luteum, secreting progesterone es

If fertilisation does not occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, causing disintegration of the endometrium
and initiating the next menstrual phase. If fertilisation does occur, menstrual cycles stop and the corpus
luteum is maintained throughout pregnancy.

6. Fertilisation and Implantation

6.1 Fertilisation
• Fusion of a sperm with an ovum, typically occurring in the ampulla of the fallopian tube.
• Sperm undergo capacitation in the female reproductive tract, enabling them to fertilise the ovum.
• The acrosome releases enzymes that help the sperm penetrate the corona radiata and zona pellucida
of the ovum.
• This triggers changes in the zona pellucida that block entry of additional sperm, ensuring only one
sperm fertilises one ovum.
• Fusion of sperm and ovum nuclei (karyogamy) results in a diploid zygote.
• The sex of the child is determined by whether the fertilising sperm carries an X or Y chromosome: XX
→ female, XY → male.

6.2 Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation

• The zygote undergoes rapid mitotic divisions called cleavage as it moves through the isthmus towards
the uterus.
• This forms a solid ball of cells called the morula, which continues to divide to form the blastocyst.
• Blastocyst cells are arranged into an outer layer (trophoblast) and an inner cell mass, which is
attached to the trophoblast at one side.
• The trophoblast layer later attaches to the endometrium, and the inner cell mass differentiates to form
the embryo.

6.3 Implantation
The blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium of the uterus — this process is called
implantation, leading to the beginning of pregnancy (gestation).

7. Pregnancy and Embryonic Development

7.1 Placenta
• After implantation, finger-like projections called chorionic villi develop around the embryo,
surrounded by maternal blood-filled spaces.
• Chorionic villi and adjoining uterine tissue combine to form a structural and functional unit called the
placenta, connected to the embryo via the umbilical cord.

Functions of the placenta

• Facilitates supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo, and removal of carbon dioxide and
excretory/waste material produced by the embryo, via diffusion.
• Acts as an endocrine tissue, producing several hormones including human Chorionic Gonadotropin
(hCG), human Placental Lactogen (hPL), oestrogens, progestogens, and relaxin (relaxin mainly late in
pregnancy).
Note: hCG detection in urine forms the basis of common pregnancy tests.

7.2 Hormonal Changes During Pregnancy

• Levels of oestrogen, progesterone, cortisol, prolactin, and thyroxine increase substantially in maternal
blood during pregnancy — essential for supporting foetal growth, metabolic changes, and preparing
mammary glands for lactation.

7.3 Embryonic Development (overview)

• Human pregnancy lasts for about 9 months (average gestation period ~ 40 weeks from the last
menstrual period).
• By the end of the first trimester, most major organ systems have formed.
• Limb and digit development occurs during the second month.
• First movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on the head are usually observed during the fifth
month.
• By the end of the term (9 months), the foetus is fully developed and ready for delivery.

8. Parturition
Parturition (childbirth) refers to the process of delivery of the foetus at the end of pregnancy, induced by
complex neuroendocrine mechanisms.

• Signals for parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the placenta, which induce mild
uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex.
• This triggers release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary.
• Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle, causing stronger contractions, which in turn stimulates further
oxytocin release — a positive feedback mechanism resulting in rhythmic contractions that lead to
expulsion of the baby.
• Following childbirth, the placenta is also expelled from the uterus.

9. Lactation
Mammary glands undergo differentiation during pregnancy and start producing milk towards the end of
pregnancy, under the influence of hormones (mainly prolactin).

• The initial milk produced during the first few days after delivery is called colostrum, which contains
several antibodies essential to develop resistance (immunity) in the newborn.
• Breastfeeding, especially during the initial period, is recommended by doctors for the proper growth
and development of the child.

End of Chapter Notes — Human Reproduction (Class 12 Biology)