Learning Objectives

Probability and Statistics At the end of this chapter, the student-teacher should be able to:
1. Define statistics and explain its importance in everyday life and in teaching
Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics secondary mathematics.
A Learning Module for Teacher-Education Students 2. Distinguish between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics and give examples
of each.
3. Differentiate between a population and a sample, and explain why samples are
commonly used in research.
4. Identify and describe the different probability and non-probability sampling
techniques.
5. Define and distinguish among the basic statistical terms: element, variable, and data.
Table of Contents
6. Classify variables as quantitative (discrete or continuous) or qualitative.
Learning Objectives 7. Identify and apply the four levels of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and
1. What is Statistics? ratio.
2. Types of Statistics 8. Differentiate between primary and secondary sources of data.
3. Population vs. Sample 9. Use and interpret summation notation (Σ) in statistical computations.
4. Sampling Techniques 10. Apply statistical concepts in designing classroom activities and assessments for
5. Basic Terms: Element, Variables, and Data secondary learners.
6. Types of Variables
7. Levels of Measurement
8. Sources of Data
9. Summation Notation
Activities
Assessment
Answer Key
1. What is Statistics? 2. Types of Statistics
Statistics is all around us. Every time you read a news headline about survey results, watch The field of statistics is broadly divided into two branches: descriptive statistics and
a weather forecast, or look at a student's grade report, you are encountering statistics. For inferential statistics. Understanding the distinction between these two is fundamental to
future mathematics teachers, a solid understanding of statistics is essential — not only to any statistical study.
teach the subject well, but also to model data-informed thinking in the classroom.

2a. Descriptive Statistics

Statistics
Statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, summarizing, analyzing, and Descriptive Statistics
drawing conclusions from data. It provides tools and methods for making sense of Descriptive statistics involves the collection, organization, summarization, and
numerical information in a world full of uncertainty. presentation of data. It describes what the data show without going beyond the data
collected.

The word "statistics" comes from the Latin word status, meaning "state" or "statesman,"
reflecting its early use by governments to collect information about populations, land, and Descriptive statistics answers the question: "What does the data look like?" It uses
resources. Today, statistics is used in virtually every field — education, medicine, business, numerical measures (such as mean, median, mode, range) and visual displays (such as
sports, social sciences, and more. tables, charts, and graphs) to summarize and present data in a meaningful way.

Why should a future mathematics teacher study statistics? Examples of descriptive statistics:
• To read and understand research studies relevant to education. • The average score of a class of 35 students on a long exam is 78.
• To design and conduct classroom-based research or action research. • A bar graph showing the number of students enrolled per grade level in a school.
• To make data-driven decisions about student learning and instructional strategies. • A table listing the frequency of each grade (A, B, C, D, F) in a statistics class.
• To teach statistics effectively at the secondary level.
• To become a critical consumer of information in a data-rich society.
2b. Inferential Statistics
Teacher's Note: When introducing statistics to secondary students, start with real-life Inferential Statistics
examples they can relate to — sports statistics, social media trends, or school enrollment
Inferential statistics involves making generalizations, predictions, or decisions about
data. This makes the subject immediately relevant and engaging.
a population based on information obtained from a sample. It uses probability to
draw conclusions beyond the data at hand.

Example 1.1 — Statistics in Everyday Life

Inferential statistics answers the question: "What can we conclude about the larger group
Identify whether each situation involves the use of statistics: based on what we observed in a smaller group?" It includes techniques such as hypothesis
1. The Department of Education reports that the national passing rate in the testing, estimation, and regression analysis.
2023 National Achievement Test (NAT) for Grade 10 is 52.8%.
2. A teacher records the quiz scores of her 40 students and computes the class Examples of inferential statistics:
average.
• Based on a survey of 1,000 Filipino voters, a researcher concludes that 60% of all
3. A researcher surveys 500 high school students to determine the average
registered voters support a particular candidate.
number of hours they spend on social media per day.
• A medical researcher tests a new teaching method on 50 students and concludes that
Solution: it is more effective than the traditional method for all secondary students.
All three situations involve statistics. In (1), data from a national examination are • A school administrator uses last year's enrollment data to predict next year's
summarized and reported. In (2), the teacher collects and analyzes classroom data. enrollment.
In (3), a sample is used to draw conclusions about a larger group of students.
 Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics 3. Population vs. Sample
One of the most important distinctions in statistics is between a population and a sample.
Describes data already collected Makes predictions or generalizations
This distinction determines the type of statistical analysis to be used and the conclusions
Uses the entire data set (population or Uses sample data to draw conclusions about that can be drawn.
sample) a population

Tools: tables, graphs, averages, percentages Tools: hypothesis tests, confidence intervals, Population
regression A population is the complete set of all individuals, objects, or measurements that
"The average grade of the class is 85." "Based on the sample, we estimate the
share a common characteristic and are of interest in a statistical study.
national average is 85."

Sample
Example 1.2 — Descriptive or Inferential? A sample is a subset or portion of the population selected for study. A well-chosen
sample should be representative of the population from which it is drawn.
Classify each statement as descriptive or inferential statistics:
a. The average monthly allowance of the 50 Grade 11 students surveyed in
Rizal High School is ₱1,250. Census
b. Based on a sample of 200 public school teachers, it is estimated that 70% of A census is a study that collects data from every member of the population. While a
all public school teachers in the Philippines use technology in their lessons. census provides complete information, it is often impractical due to cost, time, and
c. In the 2022 PISA results, Filipino students scored an average of 347 in logistical constraints.
mathematics.
d. A researcher concludes that students who study at least 2 hours a day are
likely to pass the board exam, based on a study of 300 education graduates. In most research situations, it is not feasible to study an entire population. Researchers
Solution: therefore select a sample and use the results to make inferences about the population. The
key is that the sample must be representative — meaning it should reflect the
a. Descriptive — it summarizes data from the 50 students surveyed (no
characteristics of the population as closely as possible.
generalization beyond the group).
b. Inferential — a conclusion about all public school teachers is drawn from a
sample of 200. A sample is said to be biased if it does not accurately represent the population. Biased
c. Descriptive — the PISA score is a summary of actual test results from samples lead to incorrect conclusions.
participating students.
d. Inferential — a generalization about all education graduates is made from a
sample of 300. Example 1.3 — Population and Sample

Identify the population and sample in each situation:

a. A school principal wants to know the average study time of all Grade 10
students in the school. She surveys 80 randomly selected Grade 10 students.
b. A researcher wants to determine the proportion of Filipino high school
students who experience math anxiety. She administers a questionnaire to
1,500 high school students from 10 different provinces.
c. A teacher records the scores of all 35 students in her class on a unit test.
Solution:
a. Population: All Grade 10 students in the school. Sample: The 80 randomly
selected Grade 10 students.
b. Population: All Filipino high school students. Sample: The 1,500 students from 10
provinces.
c. This is a census — the teacher collected data from every member of the class (the 4. Sampling Techniques
population is the class itself).
Selecting a good sample is critical to the validity of any statistical study. There are two
broad categories of sampling techniques: probability sampling and non-probability sampling.

4a. Probability Sampling Techniques

In probability sampling, every member of the population has a known, non-zero chance of
being selected. This reduces bias and allows for statistical inference.

i. Simple Random Sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. This can be done
using a lottery method or a random number generator.
Example: Writing the names of all 500 students on slips of paper, placing them in a bowl,
and drawing 50 names.

ii. Systematic Sampling

Members are selected from a list at regular intervals. A starting point is chosen randomly,
and then every k-th member is selected, where k = population size ÷ sample size.
Example: From a list of 1,000 students, selecting every 10th student after a random start.

iii. Stratified Sampling

The population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on a shared characteristic (e.g.,
grade level, gender), and a random sample is drawn from each stratum proportionally.
Example: A school has 200 Grade 9, 180 Grade 10, 160 Grade 11, and 160 Grade 12
students. To get a sample of 70, select proportional numbers from each grade level.

iv. Cluster Sampling

The population is divided into clusters (usually geographic or organizational units). Some
clusters are randomly selected, and all members within the chosen clusters are studied.
Example: Randomly selecting 5 barangays from a city and surveying all households in those
barangays.

4b. Non-Probability Sampling

In non-probability sampling, not every member of the population has a known chance of
being selected. These methods are easier and cheaper but may introduce bias.

i. Convenience Sampling
Subjects are selected based on ease of access. Example: Surveying students in the school
canteen during lunch break.
 5. Basic Terms: Element, Variables, and Data
ii. Purposive (Judgmental) Sampling
The researcher selects subjects based on specific criteria or judgment. Example: Selecting
only honor students to study the effect of advanced coursework. 5a. Element
Element
iii. Quota Sampling An element (also called a subject or unit) is a single member of the population or
sample. It is the entity about which data are collected.
The researcher sets quotas for specific subgroups and selects subjects until the quota is
filled. Example: Interviewing exactly 20 male and 20 female teachers.
Example: If a researcher is studying the academic performance of Grade 11 students in a
school, each individual Grade 11 student is an element.
iv. Snowball Sampling
Existing subjects recruit future subjects from their acquaintances. Useful for hard-to-reach
populations. Example: Studying out-of-school youth by asking one participant to refer
5b. Variables
others.
Variable
A variable is a characteristic or attribute of an element that can take on different
Example 1.4 — Identifying Sampling Techniques
values. Variables are what we observe or measure in a statistical study.
Identify the sampling technique used in each situation:
a. A researcher assigns numbers to all 800 teachers in a division and uses a In the example above, the variables might include: final grade, gender, number of absences,
random number table to select 80 teachers. and study hours per week. Each of these can take on different values for different students.
b. A researcher divides the student population by year level and randomly
Variables whose values are determined by chance are called random variables.
selects 25 students from each year level.
c. A researcher surveys the first 50 students who arrive at school in the
morning.
d. A researcher randomly selects 4 sections from a school and surveys all 5c. Data
students in those sections.
Data
e. A researcher selects every 5th name from an alphabetical list of 500 students.
Data are the actual values or measurements collected for the variables. A collection
Solution: of data values forms a data set. Each individual value is called a datum.
a. Simple Random Sampling — each teacher has an equal chance of selection.
b. Stratified Sampling — the population is divided into strata (year levels) and
samples are drawn from each. Example: If the variable is "quiz score" and the scores of five students are 18, 15, 20, 17,
c. Convenience Sampling — subjects are selected based on availability. and 19, then these five numbers constitute the data set.
d. Cluster Sampling — sections (clusters) are randomly selected and all members are
included.
Example 1.5 — Identifying Elements, Variables, and Data
e. Systematic Sampling — every 5th member is selected from a list.
A researcher collects the following information from 5 Grade 10 students:
Student Gender Age Math Grade Study Hrs/Day

Ana F 16 92 3

Ben M 15 85 2

Carla F 16 88 2.5

Dan M 17 78 1
 Eva F 15 95 4 6. Types of Variables
Identify: (a) the elements, (b) the variables, and (c) a specific datum. Variables can be classified into two major types: quantitative and qualitative. This
classification is important because it determines the appropriate statistical methods to use.
Solution:
a. Elements: Ana, Ben, Carla, Dan, and Eva (the five students).
b. Variables: Gender, Age, Math Grade, and Study Hours per Day.
6a. Quantitative Variables
c. A specific datum: Eva's Math Grade is 95.
Quantitative Variable
A quantitative variable is a variable that can be measured numerically. The values
represent amounts or counts and can be used in arithmetic operations.

Quantitative variables are further classified into two subtypes:

i. Discrete Variables
Discrete Variable
A discrete variable is a quantitative variable that can only take on a countable
number of values, usually whole numbers. The values are obtained by counting.

Examples of discrete variables:

• Number of students in a class (e.g., 35, 40, 42)
• Number of correct answers on a 50-item test
• Number of books in a library
• Number of siblings a student has

ii. Continuous Variables

Continuous Variable
A continuous variable is a quantitative variable that can take on any value within a
given range, including fractions and decimals. The values are obtained by
measuring.

Examples of continuous variables:

• Height of students (e.g., 162.5 cm, 170.3 cm)
• Weight of a newborn baby (e.g., 3.2 kg)
• Time to finish an exam (e.g., 45.7 minutes)
• Temperature in a classroom (e.g., 28.4°C)

6b. Qualitative Variables

Qualitative Variable
 A qualitative variable (also called a categorical variable) is a variable that classifies 7. Levels of Measurement
or categorizes elements into groups or categories. The values are labels or names, Beyond classifying variables as qualitative or quantitative, statisticians also classify data
not numbers. according to their level of measurement. The level of measurement determines what
mathematical operations are meaningful and what statistical techniques can be applied.
Examples of qualitative variables: There are four levels of measurement, arranged from lowest to highest: Nominal, Ordinal,
Interval, and Ratio. A helpful acronym is NOIR.
• Gender (Male, Female, Non-binary)
• Civil status (Single, Married, Widowed)
• Favorite subject (Math, Science, English, Filipino)
7a. Nominal Level
• Blood type (A, B, AB, O)
• Region of origin (NCR, Region I, Region VII, etc.) Nominal Level
The nominal level of measurement classifies data into mutually exclusive categories
in which no order or ranking can be imposed. The categories are simply labels or
Teacher's Note: A common misconception is that any variable with numbers is
names.
quantitative. Remind students that zip codes, student ID numbers, and phone numbers are
qualitative — the numbers are labels, not measurements.

Key characteristics:
• Data are classified into categories.
Example 1.6 — Classifying Variables
• No natural order or ranking among categories.
Classify each variable as qualitative, discrete quantitative, or continuous • Only counting (frequency) is meaningful.
quantitative:
a. The number of absences of a student in a semester Examples: Gender, blood type, nationality, religion, color of school uniform, type of school.
b. The religion of a student
c. The body temperature of a patient
d. The number of text messages sent in a day 7b. Ordinal Level
e. The monthly salary of a teacher
Ordinal Level
f. The type of school (public or private)
The ordinal level of measurement classifies data into categories that can be ranked
Solution:
or ordered. However, the differences between ranks are not necessarily equal or
a. Discrete quantitative — counted in whole numbers. meaningful.
b. Qualitative — religion is a category, not a number.
c. Continuous quantitative — temperature is measured and can take decimal values.
d. Discrete quantitative — counted in whole numbers. Key characteristics:
e. Continuous quantitative — salary can include centavos (decimal values). • Data can be ranked or ordered.
f. Qualitative — type of school is a category. • Differences between ranks are not uniform.
• Median and mode are appropriate measures.

Examples: Letter grades (A, B, C, D, F), performance ratings (Excellent, Satisfactory,

Needs Improvement), class rank, Likert scale responses.

7c. Interval Level

Interval Level
 The interval level of measurement has all the properties of the ordinal level, plus the c. The temperature of a room in degrees Celsius
differences between values are meaningful and equal. However, there is no true zero d. The weight of students in kilograms
point — zero does not mean the absence of the characteristic. e. The performance level of a teacher (Outstanding, Very Satisfactory,
Satisfactory, Unsatisfactory)
f. The number of years of teaching experience
Key characteristics:
Solution:
• Data can be ranked.
a. Nominal — sections are labels with no inherent order.
• Differences between values are equal and meaningful.
b. Ordinal — rankings can be ordered, but the difference between 1st and 2nd is not
• No true zero — zero is arbitrary. necessarily the same as between 2nd and 3rd.
• Addition and subtraction are meaningful; ratios are not. c. Interval — differences are meaningful, but 0°C does not mean "no temperature."
d. Ratio — weight has a true zero (0 kg means no weight) and ratios are
Examples: Temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit (0°C does not mean "no temperature"), IQ meaningful.
scores, standardized test scores, year (e.g., 2020, 2021). e. Ordinal — performance levels can be ranked, but differences between levels are
not equal.
f. Ratio — years of experience has a true zero (0 years = no experience) and ratios
7d. Ratio Level are meaningful.

Ratio Level
The ratio level of measurement has all the properties of the interval level, plus a
true zero point that represents the complete absence of the characteristic. Ratios
between values are meaningful.

Key characteristics:
• Data can be ranked.
• Differences between values are equal and meaningful.
• True zero exists — zero means none of the characteristic.
• All arithmetic operations are meaningful.

Examples: Height, weight, age, number of students, income, distance, time elapsed.

Level Classify Rank Equal Intervals True Zero

Nominal ✓ ✗ ✗ ✗

Ordinal ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗

Interval ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗

Ratio ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Example 1.7 — Identifying Levels of Measurement

Identify the level of measurement for each variable:

a. The section of a student (e.g., Section A, Section B, Section C)
b. The ranking of students in a class (1st, 2nd, 3rd, ...)
8. Sources of Data Classify each as primary or secondary data:
Before collecting data, a researcher must determine where the data will come from. Data a. A teacher administers a pre-test to her students to assess their prior
can be obtained from two main sources: primary sources and secondary sources. knowledge before a new unit.
b. A researcher uses the 2020 Census data from the Philippine Statistics
Authority to study population trends.
8a. Primary Data c. A student conducts a survey among her classmates to find out their preferred
learning modality.
Primary Data d. A researcher reads published studies about the effectiveness of flipped
Primary data are data collected directly by the researcher for a specific purpose. classroom instruction.
The researcher is the original source of the data. Solution:
a. Primary — the teacher collects the data herself through a pre-test.
b. Secondary — the Census data was collected by the PSA, not the researcher.
Methods of collecting primary data:
c. Primary — the student directly collects data from her classmates.
• Surveys and questionnaires — asking respondents to answer a set of questions.
d. Secondary — the researcher uses data from published studies by other
• Interviews — gathering information through direct conversation.
researchers.
• Observation — recording behavior or events as they occur.
• Experiments — manipulating variables under controlled conditions.
• Tests and measurements — administering standardized instruments.

Advantages of primary data: accurate, specific to the research purpose, up-to-date.

Disadvantages: time-consuming, expensive, requires expertise.

8b. Secondary Data

Secondary Data
Secondary data are data that have already been collected by someone else for a
different purpose. The researcher uses existing data.

Sources of secondary data:

• Government publications (e.g., Philippine Statistics Authority, DepEd reports)
• Academic journals and research papers
• Books and textbooks
• Newspapers and magazines
• Online databases and websites
• School records and administrative data

Advantages of secondary data: readily available, less expensive, saves time.

Disadvantages: may be outdated, may not perfectly fit the research purpose, reliability
depends on the original source.

Example 1.8 — Primary or Secondary Data?

9. Summation Notation Example 1.10 — Summation with Two Variables
In statistics, we frequently need to add up a set of values. Summation notation provides a
compact and efficient way to express the sum of a series of values using the Greek capital Given: x₁=3, x₂=5, x₃=7 and y₁=2, y₂=4, y₃=6. Find Σ(2xᵢ + yᵢ).
letter sigma (Σ). Solution:
Σ(2xᵢ + yᵢ) = (2·3 + 2) + (2·5 + 4) + (2·7 + 6)
= (6 + 2) + (10 + 4) + (14 + 6) = 8 + 14 + 20 = 42
Summation Notation (Σ)
The summation notation Σ (sigma) is used to represent the sum of a set of values. If
x₁, x₂, x₃, ..., xₙ are n values of a variable X, then the sum is written as Σxᵢ = x₁ +
x₂ + x₃ + ... + xₙ, where i is the index of summation starting from i = 1 and ending
at i = n.

Σ xᵢ (i = 1 to n) = x₁ + x₂ + x₃ + ⋯ + xₙ

Properties of Summation
The following properties are useful when working with summation notation:

Property Formula Meaning

Constant Σc = nc Sum of a constant c, n times

Constant Factor Σcxᵢ = cΣxᵢ Factor out a constant

Sum Rule Σ(xᵢ + yᵢ) = Σxᵢ + Σyᵢ Distribute over addition

Difference Rule Σ(xᵢ − yᵢ) = Σxᵢ − Σyᵢ Distribute over subtraction

Example 1.9 — Evaluating Summation Expressions

Given the data set: x₁ = 4, x₂ = 7, x₃ = 2, x₄ = 9, x₅ = 5. Find:

a. Σxᵢ (sum of all values)
b. Σxᵢ² (sum of squares)
c. Σ(xᵢ − 3) (sum after subtracting 3 from each value)
d. (Σxᵢ)² (square of the sum)
Solution:
a. Σxᵢ = 4 + 7 + 2 + 9 + 5 = 27
b. Σxᵢ² = 4² + 7² + 2² + 9² + 5² = 16 + 49 + 4 + 81 + 25 = 175
c. Σ(xᵢ − 3) = (4−3) + (7−3) + (2−3) + (9−3) + (5−3) = 1 + 4 + (−1) + 6 + 2
= 12
d. (Σxᵢ)² = (27)² = 729
Important: Σxᵢ² ≠ (Σxᵢ)². Always compute the sum of squares and the square of the
sum separately!
Activities Variable Qualitative / Discrete / Level of Measurement
Quantitative Continuous (if
quantitative)

Activity 1: Statistics Around Us Performance rating (1–5

stars)
Teacher's Note: This activity helps students connect statistical concepts to real-world
contexts. Encourage them to use local Philippine data sources such as PSA, DepEd, or Monthly income in pesos
DOH reports.
Mother tongue / first
language
Directions: Read each situation carefully and answer the questions that follow. Score on a 100-item test

Year of birth
The Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) reported that in 2023, the national poverty
incidence among Filipinos was 15.5%. This figure was based on a survey of approximately Number of siblings
50,000 households selected from all regions of the Philippines. The survey used a stratified
multi-stage sampling design. Civil status

1. What is the population of this study?

2. What is the sample?
3. What sampling technique was used? Explain why this technique is appropriate for a
national survey.
Activity 3: Summation Notation Practice
4. Is the 15.5% poverty incidence an example of descriptive or inferential statistics?
Explain. Directions: Given the following data, evaluate each summation expression. Show your
complete solution.
5. If the PSA wanted to determine the exact poverty incidence by surveying every
Filipino household, what would this be called?
6. Identify at least two variables that the PSA likely measured in this survey. Classify Data: The scores of 6 students on a 20-item quiz are as follows:
each as qualitative or quantitative. x₁ = 14, x₂ = 18, x₃ = 12, x₄ = 20, x₅ = 16, x₆ = 15
1. Find Σxᵢ
2. Find Σxᵢ²
3. Find (Σxᵢ)²
4. Find Σ(xᵢ − 15)
Activity 2: Variable Classification Challenge 5. Find Σ(xᵢ − 15)²
Directions: For each variable listed in the table below, complete all columns. Write your 6. Is Σxᵢ² equal to (Σxᵢ)²? What does this tell you?
answers in the spaces provided.

Variable Qualitative / Discrete / Level of Measurement

Quantitative Continuous (if
quantitative)
Activity 4: Teaching Statistics — Lesson Planning Task
Number of books read per Directions: As a future mathematics teacher, you will be asked to teach Chapter 1 of
month Statistics to Grade 11 students. Answer the following questions to help you plan your
lesson.
Favorite color

Height in centimeters 1. Choose ONE topic from Chapter 1 (e.g., Levels of Measurement, Sampling
Techniques, Types of Variables). Write a brief lesson objective for that topic
appropriate for Grade 11 students.
2. Design ONE classroom activity (not a quiz) that will help Grade 11 students
understand the topic you chose. Describe the activity in 5–8 sentences.
3. Identify a real-life Philippine context or dataset that you can use to make the topic
more relevant and engaging for secondary students.
4. What common misconceptions do students have about your chosen topic? How will
you address these in your lesson?