CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Water is essential for man’s existence, it is needed in large quantities and in all
wholesomeness despite the requirements for potable supply, water is needed for power
generation, irrigation, recreation, industrial production processes and in waste disposal. The
importance of water made it possible for nature to distribute it all over the regions of the
earth. The planet earth contains about 70% water in form of oceans, seas, rivers, lakes and
ground water. Water provided for human consumption should receive minimum possible
treatment, though the best supply is one which needs no treatment at all. Public health is
vulnerable to the danger of incidence of diseases, mainly through water borne, water related
and water washed diseases. These diseases include cholera, typhoid and para-typhoid fever,
malaria, yellow fever, schistosomosois and guinea worm. Consequent to the incidence of
disease, water treatment processes become a preciosity that require careful while handling.
For an acceptable quality of water supply the international standard for drinking water
established by World Health Organization (2007) states that water intended to human
consumption must be free from organisms and from concentration of chemical substances
that may be hazardous to health. Supplies of drinking water should be pleasant to drinking as
circumstance permit. The quality of water must be wholesome and palatable. Wholesome
water must be free from organisms, poisonous and excessive amount of mineral, turbidity,
taste, odour, and must be well aerated.

Water quality monitoring is necessary in present day society, especially for water bodies
affected by urban effluents. Studies on water quality in the aquatic environment are still
popular in the evaluation and management of rivers ecosystems in many countries (Njenga,
2004). This is due to the changes in water chemistry of river and drainages can be the results
of domestic, industrial or agricultural discharges which may in turn lead to aquatic ecosystem
degradation, Pereira et al.,(2007) such as deterioration of water quality in the rivers and
drainages.

Therefore, the determination of physicochemical and bacteriological parameters of the water

samples can act as indicators of water pollution due to both natural and anthropogenic inputs
(Amadi et al, 2010; Yisa and Jimoh, 2010). According to Tahri et al., (2005), the importance
of the provision of potable water supply in any nation cannot be over emphasized. With

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increasing population, wealth and economic activities generally, there is a corresponding
increase in the demand for water supply globally (Lakhan et al., 2003).

In the last few decades, there has been a tremendous increase in the demand for water due to
rapid growth of population and the accelerated pace of industrialization (Ramakrishnaiah et
al., 2009). Human health is threatened by most of the agricultural development activities
particularly in relation to excessive application of fertilizers and unsanitary conditions. In
most towns in Nigeria with rivers passing through them, such rivers have been converted into
dump sites or latrines, with the consequence adverse effects on the health of the downstream
users. Most houses, public offices, schools does not have latrines causing individuals to
excrete anyhow in the bushes, rivers and open spaces is a pointer to the fact the Nigerian
environment has been deteriorated. This is in addition to the poor sanitation culture exhibited
by Nigerian populace. In addition, once the surface water is contaminated, its quality cannot
be restored by stopping the pollutants from the source (Ramakrishnaiah et al., 2009). It
therefore becomes imperative to regularly monitor the quality of the water and to device ways
and means to protect it.

The quality of Ibimi stream is been studied because they are the source of water for domestic,
and agricultural purposes in Amawom region. The anthropogenic activities around the stream
location pose a serious threat not only to organisms in the stream but also the downstream
water users.

Water quality assessment can be defined as the overall process of evaluation of the physical,
chemical and biological status of water in relation to natural quality, human effects and
intended uses, particularly uses which may affect human health and the health of the aquatic
system itself, (Bartram and Ballance, 2000). It includes the use of monitoring to define the
condition of the water, to provide the basis for detecting trends and to provide the information
enabling the establishment of cause-effect relationships. Important aspects of an assessment
are the interpretation and reporting of the results of monitoring and the making of
recommendations for future actions

According to Ibeh and Mbah (2007), the quality of any body of surface or ground water is a
function of either or both natural influences and human activities. Without human influences,
water quality would be determined by the weathering of bedrock minerals, by the

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atmospheric processes of evapotranspiration and the deposition of dust and salt by wind, by
the natural leaching of organic matter and nutrients from soil, by hydrological factors that
lead to runoff, and by biological processes within the aquatic environment that can alter the
physical and chemical composition of water, (Akaishi et al., 2004). As a result, water in the
natural environment contains many dissolved substances and non-dissolved particulate
matter. Dissolved salts and minerals are necessary components of good quality water as they
help maintain the health and vitality of the organisms that rely on this ecosystem service,
(Stark et al., 2000).

Providing safe and secure water to people around the world, and promoting sustainable use of
water resources are fundamental objectives of the Millennium Development Goals. The
international community has recognized the important links between ecosystem and human
health and well-being, particularly as human populations expand and place ever greater
pressures on natural environments.

Typically, water quality is determined by comparing the physical and chemical characteristics
of a water sample with water W.H.O quality guidelines or standards. Drinking water quality
guidelines and standards are designed to enable the provision of clean and safe water for
human consumption, thereby protecting human health.

Water Quality Index (WQI) is one of the most effective tools to communicate information on
the quality of water to the concerned citizens and policy makers. It thus, becomes an
important parameter for the assessment and management of surface water. WQI is a scale
used to estimate an overall quality of water based on the values of the water quality
parameters.

It is a rating reflecting the composite influence of different water quality parameters. WQI is
calculated from the point view of the suitability of surface water for human consumption.

1.2 Statement of the problem

The effect of anthropogenic activities on Ibimi stream as a result of the increasing rate of
population is of a great concern to study the quality of the stream, due to the fact that water
from this stream is the source of water distributed for public use. For the majority of the
people in communities living along the banks and catchment area of Ibimi stream, the major

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source of water for drinking and other beneficial uses, is the stream. And so, it becomes
necessary to examine the water quality in relation to acceptable limits of the general variables
present/absent as specified by organizations concerned with standard guidelines, such as
W.H.O.

1.3. Aim and objectives

The aim of the study is to assess the water quality of Ibimi stream for its suitability for
domestic and agricultural uses. The following objectives were applied to achieve this aim:

i. To obtain information on the selected physical, chemical and biological

characteristics of the stream.
ii. Determination of the temporal water quality variations of the stream at different
depths.
iii. Determine the effects of natural and man-made activities and the effects in both time
and space.
iv. Discuss the suitability of the water for human consumption based on the water quality
index value.

1.4 Significance of the study

This project provides information on the water quality of the Ibimi stream along the reaches
of the stream. This study will be of a great benefit to the residents of Amawom community.

1.5 Scope of the study

The scope of this project is the assessment of Ibimi stream water quality for agricultural and
domestic uses. As well as the study methodology, decision on quality parameters for analysis.

1.6 Limitation of the study

i. The study is limited only to five (5) selected water parameters (PH, DO, TSS,
TDS and Total Coli form).
ii. The analysis of the water quality is limited to four (4) sample period of four
months (March, April, May and June).

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iii. The analysis of the temporal water quality trends was limited only to two
parameters.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. WATER QUALITY

Water quality is a term used to express the suitability of water to sustain various uses or
processes. Any particular use will have certain requirements for the physical, chemical or
biological characteristics of water, for example limits on the concentrations of toxic
substances for drinking water use, or restrictions on temperature and pH ranges for water.

Therefore, water quality can be defined by a range of variables which limit water use.
Although many uses have some common requirements for certain variables, each use will
have its own demand and influences on water quality, Obunwo. (2003)

It is the condition of the water, including chemical, physical, and biological characteristics,
usually with respect to its suitability for a particular purpose such as drinking, swimming,
agriculture et cetera. Water quality is measured by several factors, such as the concentration
of dissolved oxygen, bacteria levels, the amount of salt (or salinity), or the amount of material
suspended in water (turbidity).

There is a range of chemical, physical, and biological components that affect water quality
and hundreds of variables could be examined and measured. Some variables provide a
general indication of water pollution, whereas others enable the direct tracking of pollution
sources.

The determination of water quality is typically made relative to the purpose of the water.
Poor water quality can pose a health risk for people and ecosystems. The common
standards used to assess water quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human
contact, and drinking water.

2.2. Measures of water quality

According to Montgomery (2006), Water quality may be described in a variety of

ways. A common means is to express the dilute substances, parts per billion (ppb). These
units are analogous to weight percentages (which are really “parts per hundred) but are
used for lower (more dilute) concentrations. For example, if water contains 1 weight
percent salt, it contains one gram of salt per hundred grams of water, or one ton of salt per

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hundred tons of water, or whatever unit one wants to use. Likewise, if the water contains
only 1 ppm salt, it contains one gram of salt per million grams of water (about 250gallons),
and so on. For comparison, the most abundant dissolved constituents in sea water can be
measured in parts per thousand (magnesium sulphate) or even percent (sodium chloride)

Another way to express overall water quality is in terms of total dissolved solids (TDS);
the sum of the concentrations of all dissolved solid chemicals is in the water. How low a
level of TDS is required or acceptable varies with the application. Standards might specify
a maximum of 500 or 1000 ppm TDS for drinking water; 2000ppm TDS might be
acceptable for watering livestock, industrial applications where water chemistry is
important (in pharmaceuticals or textiles, for instance) might need water even purer than
normal drinking water.

Yet describing water in terms of total content of dissolved solids does not present the
whole picture: At least as important as the quantities of impurities present is what those
impurities are. If the main dissolved component is calcite (calcium carbonate) from a
limestone aquifer, the water may taste fine and be perfectly wholesome with well over
1000 ppm TDS in it. If iron or sulfur is the dissolved substance, even a few parts per
million may be enough to make the water taste bad, though it may not be actually
unhealthy. Many synthetic chemicals that have leaked into water through improper waste
disposal are toxic even at concentrations of 1ppb or less.

According to Montgomery (2006), other parameters also may be relevant in

describing water quality. One is ph, which is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the
water. The ph of water is inversely related to acidity: the lower the ph, the more acid the
water (water that is neither acid nor alkaline has a ph of 7) for health reasons,
concentrations of certain bacteria may also be monitored in drinking water supplies.

A water quality concern that has only recently drawn close attention, is the presence, of
naturally occurring radioactive elements that may present, a radiation hazard to the water
consumer. Uranium, which can be found in most rocks, including those serving commonly
as aquifers, decays through a series of steps. Several of the intermediate decay products
pose special hazards. One- radium- behaves chemically much like calcium and therefore
tends to be concentrated in the body in bones and teeth. Another radon- is a chemically
inert gas but is radioactive itself and decays to other radioactive elements in turn. Radon

7
leaking into indoor air from water supplies contributes to indoor air pollution. High
concentrations of radium and/or radon in ground water may result from decay of uranium
in the aquifer itself or, in the case of radon, from seepage out of adjacent uranium- rich
aquitards, especially shales (Zaghloul and Elwan, 2011).

2.3 Physical and chemical parameters in water quality

2.3.1 Temperature

Temperature is a critical water quality parameter because it governs the kinds and types of
aquatic life, regulates the maximum dissolved oxygen concentration of the water and
influences the rate of chemical and biological reactions. With respect to chemical and
biological reactions, the higher the water temperature, the higher the rate of chemical and
metabolic reactions.

According to Streamkeeper's Field Guide (2001), Water Temperature is a controlling factor

for aquatic life: it controls the rate of metabolic activities, reproductive activities and
therefore, life cycles. If stream temperatures increase, decrease or fluctuate too widely,
metabolic activities may speed up, slow down, malfunction, or stop altogether.

With respect to chemical and biological reactions, the higher the water temperature, the
higher the rate of chemical and metabolic reactions. Seasonal variations in water temperature
may be caused by changing air temperature, solar angle, meterological events, and a number
of physical aspects related to the stream and water shed.

Temperature ranges for plants and animals can be affected by manmade structures such as
dams and weirs and releases of water from them. The maximum daily temperature is
usually several hours after noon and the minimum is around daybreak. Water temperature
varies seasonally with air temperature, (Eze, 2005; Ogbuagu, 2013).

2.3.2 Dissolved oxygen

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is a measure of how much oxygen is dissolved in the water-the
amount of oxygen available to living aquatic organisms. The amount of dissolve oxygen in a
river determines its water quality. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the surface water
is affected by temperature.

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The amount of any gas, including oxygen, dissolved in water is inversely proportional to
the temperature of the water; as temperature increases, the amount of dissolved oxygen
(gas) decreases, (Ogbuagu, 2013).

The amount of oxygen in water, to a degree, shows its overall health. That is, if oxygen
levels are high, one can presume that pollution levels in the water are low. Conversely, if
oxygen levels are low, one can presume there is a high oxygen demand and that the body of
water is not of optimal health. Apart from indicating pollution levels, oxygen in water is
required by aquatic fauna for survival. In conditions of no or low oxygen availability, fish
and other organisms will die (McCaffrey,2011).

Oxygen enters water mainly from the atmosphere and ground water discharge. It can also
be caused by the process of diffusion and photosynthesis.

Oxygen diffuses rapidly into water when the water turbulence is at increase and when there
is a strong wind blowing. Consequently, oxygen diffuses into cold water at a higher rate
than in warm water.
After the process of photosynthesis, the by-product which is oxygen is released into
surrounding water. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in surface water is affected by
temperature.
Oxygen is also more easily dissolved into water with low levels of dissolved or suspended
solids.

Human Activities Affecting DO:

According to Million (2008), Removal of riparian vegetation may lower oxygen

concentrations due to increased water temperature resulting from a lack of canopy shade
and increased suspended solids resulting from erosion of bare soil. Typical urban human
activities may lower oxygen concentrations. Runoff from impervious surfaces bearing salts,
sediments and other pollutants increases the amount of suspended and dissolved solids in
stream water. Organic wastes and other nutrient inputs from sewage and industrial
discharges, septic tanks and agricultural and urban runoff can result in decreased oxygen
levels. Nutrient input often leads to excessive algal growth. When the algae die, the organic
matter is decomposed by bacteria. Bacterial decomposition consumes a great deal of
oxygen.

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Usually streams with high dissolved oxygen concentrations (greater than 8 mg/L for Ozark
streams) are considered healthy streams. They are able to support a greater diversity of
aquatic organisms.

According to Rajasooriyar (2003), DO levels less than 3 mg/L are stressful to most aquatic
organisms. Most fish die at 1-2 mg/L. However, fish can move away from low DO areas.
Water with low DO from 2 – 0.5 mg/L are considered hypoxic; waters with less than 0.5
mg/L are anoxic

2.3.3. pH, acidity and alkalinity

pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water. Water pH measures the amount of

hydrogen (acid ions) in the water; whereas water alkalinity is a measure of the carbonate
and bicarbonate levels in the water.

According to Agbozu and Izidor (2004), pH affects many chemical and biological
processes in the water and different organisms have different ranges of pH within which
they flourish. The largest variety of aquatic animals prefer pH range of 6.5-8.0.

The changes in acidity can be caused by atmospheric deposition (acid rain) surrounding
rock, and waste water discharge.

It is usually measured by using a colorimetric test - litmus paper changes color with
increased acidity or alkalinity.

The Alkalinity or the buffering capacity of a stream refers to how well it can neutralize
acidic pollution and resist changes in ph. Alkalinity measures the amount of alkaline
compounds in the water, such as carbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxides. These
compounds are natural buffers that can remove excess hydrogen (H+) ions (Streamkeeper’s
Field Guide, 2011)

Extreme values of pH can cause problems for aquatic fauna. For example, fish may
develop skin irritations, ulcers and impaired gill functioning as a result of water that is too
acidic. Death of most aquatic fauna may result from extremely acid or alkaline water.

The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14:

Acidic: 0 to 6.9, Neutral: 7, Alkaline: 7.1 to 14

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A ph range of 6.5 – 8 is optimal for freshwater. A range of 8 – 9 is optimal for estuarine
and sea water

2.3.4. Turbidity

Turbidity is a measure of the relative clarity of water. It is an optical characteristic of water

and is a measurement of the amount of light that is scattered by materials in the water when
a light is shinned through it.

When the intensity of scattered light is higher, the turbidity also becomes higher. Turbidity
makes water cloudy and it is caused by clay, silt, inorganic and organic compounds, and
planktons and microscopic organisms. During the period of low flow, turbidity is low
usually less than 10 NTU (Nephlelometric Turbbidity Unit). During a rainstorm, particles
from the surrounding land are washed into the river making the water a muddy brown
colour indicating higher turbidity which is harmful to aquatic life.

Turbidity reading can serve as an indicator of potential pollution in a water body and hence
used in checking the water quality. When it is excessive, it can provide food and shelter
for pathogens and thus making water unhealthy for human consumption.

Measuring murkiness gives an estimate of suspended solids in the water. Turbidity is

measured in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU’s).

According to Zaky (2007), Turbidity may be due to organic and/or inorganic

constituents. Organic particulates may harbor microorganisms. Thus, turbid conditions may
increase the possibility for waterborne disease. Nonetheless, inorganic constituents have no
notable health effects. The series of turbidity induced changes that can occur in a water
body may change the composition of an aquatic community. First, turbidity due to a large
volume of suspended sediment will reduce light penetration, thereby suppressing
photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton, algae, and macrophytes, especially those farther
from the surface (Ezzat and Elkorashy, 2012). If turbidity is largely due to algae, light will
not penetrate very far into the water, and primary production will be limited to the
uppermost layers of water. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are favored in this situation
because they possess flotation mechanisms. Overall, excess turbidity leads to fewer
photosynthetic organisms available to serve as food sources for many invertebrates. As a

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result, overall invertebrate numbers may also decline, which may then lead to a fish
population decline.
If turbidity is largely due to organic particles, dissolved oxygen depletion may occur
in the water body. The excess nutrients available will encourage microbial breakdown, a
process that requires dissolved oxygen. In addition, excess nutrients may result in algal
growth. Although photosynthetic by day, algae respire at night, using valuable dissolved
oxygen. Fish kills often result from extensive oxygen depletion.

2.3.5. Suspended solids

Suspended Solids usually enter the water as a result of soil erosion from disturbed land or
can be traced to the inflow of effluent from sewage plants or industry. Suspended solids
also occur naturally in the water from bank and channel erosion; however, this process has
been accelerated by human use of waterways. Turbidity measurements also take into
account algae and plankton present in the water, (Adefemi et al., 2007).

Pollutants such as nutrients and pesticides may bind with suspended solids and settle
in bottom sediments where they may become concentrated. Suspended sediments can also
smother aquatic plants as they settle out in low flows, and clog mouthparts and gills of fish
and aquatic macro-invertebrates (Agbaire and Obi, 2009). High turbidity affects submerged
plants by preventing sufficient light from reaching them for photosynthesis. High turbidity
also has the capacity to significantly increase water temperature. Water temperature needs
to remain fairly constant so aquatic fauna can survive. Though high turbidity is often a sign
of poor water quality and land management, crystal clear water does not always guarantee
healthy water. Extremely clear water can signify very acidic conditions or high levels of
salinity (Muhammad et al., 2007).

2.3.6 Salinity and conductivity

Salinity is the amount of salt dissolved in a water body. Salts are compounds like sodium
chloride, magnesium sulphate, potassium nitrate and sodium bicarbonate which dissolve
into ions.

According to Streamkeeper's Field Guide (2001), salinity is a measure of the dissolved

salts in the water. Salinity is usually highest during periods of low flows and increases as

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water levels decrease. Salinity is measured as either TDS (Total Dissolved Solids), which
measures the amount of dissolved salts in the water, or as EC (Electrical Conductivity),
which is the property of a substance which enables it to serve as a channel or medium for
electricity. Salty water conducts electricity more readily than purer water.

Sea water typically has a mass salinity of about 35g/kg. Rivers and lakes have a wide range
of salinities, from less than 0.001g/kg to a few g/kg.

Conductivity is the ability of water to allow the flow of an electrical current. It is an

indirect measure of the presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as chloride, nitrate,
sulphate, phosphate, sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron and aluminium. The presence of
these substances increases the conductivity of a body of water.

Municipal, agricultural, and industrial discharges can contribute ions to receiving waters or
can contain substances that are poor conductors (organic compounds) changing the
conductivity of the receiving waters.

2.3.7. Metals

According to Chindah, Braide and Sibeudu (2004), metals are elements that readily form
positive ions (cations) and have metallic bonds.

A number of metals, such as manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) are essential to
biochemical processes that sustain aquatic life. However, these same metals, and others can
be severely toxic to aquatic organisms in high concentrations. Mercury high concentration
presents a risk to human health.

Metals occur naturally in water body due to weathering of rocks and soils, erosion and
sedimentation, effluent from wastewater treatment plants, industry and mining operations and
sewage. It can be introduced into the atmosphere through burning and ore smelting and can
be deposited in surface waters.

Metals can be toxic to humans as well as accumulate in organisms that are higher in the food
chain and are consumed by humans.

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The toxicity and bioavailability of many metals depend on their oxidation state and the form
in which they occur. Dissolved metals are more bio available and toxic than metals bond in
complexes with other molecules or absorbed to sediment particles.

These characteristics of metals- oxidation state form, solubility, and toxicity are influenced
by chemical characteristics of water such as pH, dissolved oxygen level and hardness
(CaCO3).

2.3.8 Organic matter

Organic matter is a complex and varied mixture of aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons.

Most freshwaters contain organic matter which can be measured as total organic carbon
(TOC). For comparative purposes an indication of the amount of organic matter present can
be obtained by measuring related properties, principally the biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) or the chemical oxygen demand (COD).

Organic matter is important in the cycling of nutrients, carbon and energy between
producers and consumers and back again in aquatic ecosystems. The decomposition of
organic matter by bacteria and fungi in aquatic ecosystems, inefficient grazing by
zooplankton and waste excretion by aquatic animals, release stored energy, carbon, and
nutrients, thereby making these newly available to primary producers and bacteria for
metabolism (UNEP GEMS, 2006).

Organic matter affects the biological availability of minerals and elements, and has
important protective effects in many aquatic ecosystems, by influencing the degree of light
penetration that can enter (Spaak and Bauchowitz , 2010).

2.3.9. Total organic carbon

Organic carbon in freshwaters arises from living material (directly from plant
photosynthesis or indirectly from terrestrial organic matter) and also as a constituent of
many waste materials and effluents. Consequently, the total organic matter in the water can
be a useful indication of the degree of pollution, particularly when concentrations can be
compared upstream and downstream of potential sources of pollution, such as sewage or
industrial discharges or urban areas. In surface waters, TOC concentrations are generally
less than 10 mg l-1, and in groundwater less than 2 mg l-1, unless the water receives

14
municipal or industrial wastes, or is highly coloured due to natural organic material, as in
swamps, Ibe and Mba (2007).

2.3.10. Biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand

According to Edema and Faptua (2008), biological oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of
the amount of oxygen removed from aquatic environments by aerobic micro-organisms for
their metabolic requirements during the breakdown of organic matter, and systems with high
BOD tend to have low dissolved oxygen concentrations. BOD is an approximate measure of
the amount of biochemically degradable organic matter present in a water sample. The
presence of toxic substances in a sample may affect microbial activity leading to a reduction
in the measured BOD. The BOD is an important water quality factor that is directly related to
the overall health of the water body.

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic
matter in a water sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant, such
as dichromate. The COD is widely used as a measure of the susceptibility to oxidation of
the organic and inorganic materials present in water bodies and in the effluents from
sewage and industrial plants. The most common application of COD is in quantifying the
amount of oxidizable pollutants found in surface water or wastewater.

If all oxygen is depleted, aerobic decomposition ceases and further organic breakdown is
accomplished anaerobically. Anaerobic microbes obtain energy from oxygen bound to
other molecules such as sulphate compounds. Thus, anoxic conditions result in the
mobilization of many otherwise insoluble compounds.
The various effects of the sewage fungus masses include silt and detritus entrapment, the
smothering of aquatic macrophytes, and a decrease in water flow velocities. An
accumulation of sediment allows a shift in the aquatic system structure as colonization by
silt-loving organisms occur. In addition, masses of sewage fungus may break off and float
away, causing localized areas of dissolved oxygen demand elsewhere in the water body.

Organic levels decrease with distance away from the source. In a standing water body such
as a lake, currents are generally not powerful enough to transport large amounts of
organics. In a moving water body, the saprotrophic organisms (organisms feeding on
decaying organic matter) break down the organics during transportation away from the
source. Hence, there is a decline in the oxygen demand and an increase of dissolved

15
oxygen in the water. Community structure will gradually return to ambient with distance
downstream from the source.

2.3.11 Humic and fulvic acids

According to Nweke (2000), Organic matter arising from living organisms makes an
important contribution to the natural quality of surface waters. The composition of this
organic matter is extremely diverse. Natural organic compounds are not usually toxic, but
exert major controlling effects on the hydrochemical and biochemical processes in a water
body. Some natural organic compounds significantly affect the quality of water for certain
uses, especially those which depend on organoleptic properties (taste and smell). During
chlorination for drinking water disinfection, humic and fulvic acids act as precursor
substances in the formation of tribalomethanes such as chloroform. In addition, substances
included in aquatic humus determine the speciation of heavy metals and some other
pollutants because of their high complexing ability. As a result, humic substances affect
the toxicity and mobility of metal complexes. Therefore, measurement of the
concentrations of these substances can be important for determining anthropogenic
impacts on water bodies. Humus is formed by the chemical and biochemical
decomposition of vegetative residues and from the synthetic activity of micro-organisms.
Humus enters water bodies from the soil and from peat bogs, or it can be formed directly
within water bodies as a result of biochemical transformations. It is operationally separated
into fulvic and humic acid fractions, each being an aggregate of many organic compounds
of different masses. Fulvic acid has molecular masses mostly in the range 300-5,000
whereas the dominant masses in humic acid exceed 5,000. The relative content of fulvic
acid in the dissolved humic substances present in freshwaters is between 60 and 90 per
cent. Humic and fulvic acids are fairly stable (i.e. their BOD is low). However, these
substances are chemically oxidisable and, therefore, can readily affect the results of COD
determinations. Fulvic and humic acid concentrations in river and lake waters are highly
dependent on the physico-geographical conditions and are usually in the range of tens and
hundreds of micrograms of carbon per litre. However, concentrations can reach milligrams
of carbon per litre in waters of marshy and woodland areas. In natural conditions fulvic
and humic acids can comprise up to 80 per cent of the DOC, which can be used as an
approximate estimate of their concentrations. Samples for fulvic and humic acid
determination are not usually filtered or preserved. They can be stored for some months in

16
a refrigerator (3-4° C). Total fulvic and humic acid content can be determined
photometrically and their separate determination can be made with spectrophotometric
methods.

2.3.12 Major ions

Major ions (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ , K+ , Cl- , SO4 2-, HCO3 - ) are naturally very variable in
surface and ground waters due to local geological, climatic and geographical conditions.
2.3.13 Sodium

All natural waters contain some sodium since sodium salts are highly water soluble and it
is one of the most abundant elements on earth. It is found in the ionic form (Na+ ), and in
plant and animal matter (it is an essential element for living organisms). Increased
concentrations in surface waters may arise from sewage and industrial effluents and from
the use of salts on roads to control snow and ice. The latter source can also contribute to
increased sodium in groundwaters. In coastal areas, sea water intrusion can also result in
higher concentrations. Concentrations of sodium in natural surface waters vary
considerably depending on local geological conditions, wastewater discharges and
seasonal use of road salt. Values can range from 1 mg l-1 or less to 105 mg l-1 or more in
natural brines. Many surface waters, including those receiving wastewaters, have
concentrations well below 50 mg l-1. However, ground-water concentrations frequently
exceed 50 mg l-1. Sodium is commonly measured where the water is to be used for
drinking or agricultural purposes, particularly irrigation. Elevated sodium in certain soil
types can degrade soil structure thereby restricting water movement and affecting plant
growth. The sodium absorption ratio (SAR) is used to evaluate the suitability of water for
irrigation. The ratio estimates the degree to which sodium will be absorbed by the soil.
High values of SAR imply that the sodium in the irrigation water may replace the calcium
and magnesium ions in the soil, potentially causing damage to the soil structure. The SAR
for irrigation waters is defined as follows: where the concentrations of sodium, magnesium
and calcium are expressed in milliequivalents per litre (meq l-1). Samples for sodium
analysis should be stored in polyethylene bottles to avoid potential leaching from glass
containers. Samples should be analysed as soon as possible because prolonged storage in
polyethylene containers can lead to evaporation losses through the container walls or lid.
Filtration may be necessary if the sample contains solid material. Analysis is best
performed using flame atomic emission and absorption, Okereke (2006).

17
2.3.14 Potassium

Potassium (as K+ ) is found in low concentrations in natural waters since rocks which
contain potassium are relatively resistant to weathering. However, potassium salts are
widely used in industry and in fertilizers for agriculture and enter freshwaters with
industrial discharges and run-off from agricultural land. Potassium is usually found in the
ionic form and the salts are highly soluble. It is readily incorporated into mineral structures
and accumulated by aquatic biota as it is an essential nutritional element. Concentrations
in natural waters are usually less than 10 mg l-1, whereas concentrations as high as 100
and 25,000 mg l-1 can occur in hot springs and brines, respectively. Samples for potassium
analysis should be stored in polyethylene containers to avoid potential contamination as a
result of leaching from glass bottles. However, samples should be analyzed as soon as
possible as prolonged storage in polyethylene containers can lead to evaporation losses
through the container walls or lid. Samples containing solids may require filtration prior to
storage. Analysis is best carried out using atomic absorption spectrophotometry as for
sodium, Mc Caffrey (2011)

2.3.15. Calcium

Calcium is present in all waters as Ca2+ and is readily dissolved from rocks rich in
calcium minerals, particularly as carbonates and sulphates, especially limestone and
gypsum. The cation is abundant in surface and groundwater. The salts of calcium, together
with those of magnesium, are responsible for the hardness of water. Industrial, as well as
water and wastewater treatment, processes also contribute calcium to surface waters.
Acidic rainwater can increase the leaching of calcium from soils. Calcium compounds are
stable in water when carbon dioxide is present, but calcium concentrations can fall when
calcium carbonate precipitates due to increased water temperature, photosynthetic activity
or loss of carbon dioxide due to increases in pressure. Calcium is an essential element for
all organisms and is incorporated into the shells of many aquatic invertebrates, as well as
the bones of vertebrates. Calcium concentrations in natural waters are typically < 15 mg l-
1. For waters associated with carbonate-rich rocks, concentrations may reach 30-100 mg l-
1. Salt waters have concentrations of several hundred milligrams per litre or more.
Samples for calcium analysis should be collected in plastic or borosilicate glass bottles
without a preservative. They should be analysed immediately, or as soon as possible, after
collection and filtration. If any calcium carbonate precipitate forms after filtration and

18
during storage, it must be re-dissolved with hydrochloric or nitric acid and then neutralised
before analysis. Acidification of unfiltered waters prior to analysis should be avoided since
it causes a dissolution of carbonates, calcite and dolomite. Calcium can be determined by a
titrimetric method using EDTA (ethylenediaminetetracetic acid) or by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry, Muhammed and Tan (2007).

2.3.16 Magnesium

According to Million (2008), Magnesium is common in natural waters as Mg2+, and

along with calcium, is a main contributor to water hardness. Magnesium arises principally
from the weathering of rocks containing ferromagnesium minerals and from some
carbonate rocks. Magnesium occurs in many organometallic compounds and in organic
matter, since it is an essential element for living organisms. Natural concentrations of
magnesium in fresh-waters may range from 1 to > 100 mg l-1, depending on the rock types
within the catchment. Although magnesium is used in many industrial processes, these
contribute relatively little to the total magnesium in surface waters. Samples for
magnesium analysis should be collected in plastic or borosilicate glass containers without
preservative. Samples can be analysed using the EDTA titrimetric method or by atomic
absorption spectrophotometry. The magnesium concentration in a sample can also be
estimated by calculating the difference between the total hardness and the calcium
concentration.

2.3.17. Chloride

Most chlorine occurs as chloride (Cl-) in solution. It enters surface waters with the
atmospheric deposition of oceanic aerosols, with the weathering of some sedimentary
rocks (mostly rock salt deposits) and from industrial and sewage effluents, and agricultural
and road run-off. The salting of roads during winter periods can contribute significantly to
chloride increases in groundwater. High concentrations of chloride can make waters
unpalatable and, therefore, unfit for drinking or livestock watering. In pristine freshwaters
chloride concentrations are usually lower than 10 mg l-1 and sometimes less than 2 mg l-1.
Higher concentrations can occur near sewage and other waste outlets, irrigation drains, salt
water intrusions, in arid areas and in wet coastal areas. Seasonal fluctuations of chloride
concentrations in surface waters can occur where roads are salted in the winter, Meays
(2009)

19
As chloride is frequently associated with sewage, it is often incorporated into assessments
as an indication of possible faecal contamination or as a measure of the extent of the
dispersion of sewage discharges in water bodies. Samples for chloride determination need
no preservation or special treatment and can be stored at room temperature. Analysis can
be done by standard or potentiometric titration methods. Direct potentiometric
determinations can be made with chloridesensitive electrodes.

2.3.18. Sulphate

Sulphate is naturally present in surface waters as SO4 2-. It arises from the atmospheric
deposition of oceanic aerosols and the leaching of sulphur compounds, either sulphate
minerals such as gypsum or sulphide minerals such as pyrite, from sedimentary rocks. It is
the stable, oxidised form of sulphur and is readily soluble in water (with the exception of
lead, barium and strontium sulphates which precipitate). Industrial discharges and
atmospheric precipitation can also add significant amounts of sulphate to surface waters.
Sulphate can be used as an oxygen source by bacteria which convert it to hydrogen
sulphide (H2S, HS- ) under anaerobic conditions. Sulphate concentrations in natural
waters are usually between 2 and 80 mg l-1, although they may exceed 1,000 mg l-1 near
industrial discharges or in arid regions where sulphate minerals, such as gypsum, are
present. High concentrations (> 400 mg l-1) may make water unpleasant to drink. Samples
collected in plastic or glass containers can be stored in the refrigerator for up to seven
days, although when intended for analysis soon after collection they may be stored at room
temperature. Prolonged storage should be avoided, particularly if the sample contains
polluted water. Sulphate can be determined gravimetrically after precipitation by barium
chloride in hot hydrochloric acid. Other methods are available including a titrimetric
method, Toufeek (2009).

2.3.19. Nitrogen

According to Ubuala and Ezeronye (2005), Nitrogen occurs in natural waters in various
forms, including nitrate (NO3), nitrate (NO2), and ammonia (NH3). Nitrate is the most
common form tested. Nitrogen as Ammonia. Ammonia (NH 3): It is one of the most
important pollutants in the aquatic environment because of its relatively highly toxic
nature and its ubiquity in surface water systems. It is discharged in large quantities in
industrial, municipal and agricultural waste waters. In aqueous solutions, ammonia

20
assumes two chemical forms: NH4+ - ionized (less/nontoxic) and NH 3 - unionized (toxic).
The relative concentration of ionized and unionized ammonia, in a given ammonia
solution are principally a function of pH, temperature and ionic strength of the aqueous
solution .Total ammonia is the sum of the NH3 and NH4+. Nitrogen as Nitrate

Nitrate (NO3-): Generally occurs in trace quantities in surface water. It is the essential
nutrient for many photosynthetic autotrophs and has been identified as the growth limit
nutrient. It is only found in small amounts in fresh domestic wastewater, but in effluent of
nitrifying biological treatment plants, nitrate may be found in concentrations up to 30 mg
nitrate as nitrogen/L. Nitrate is a less serious environmental problem, it can be found in
relatively high concentrations where it is relatively nontoxic to aquatic organisms. When
nitrate concentrations become excessive, however, and other essential nutrient factors are
present, eutrophication and associated algal blooms can be become a problem.

Nitrogen as Nitrite Nitrite (NO 2-): Nitrite is extremely toxic to aquatic life, however, is
usually present only in trace amounts in most natural freshwater systems because it is rapidly
oxidized to nitrate. In sewage treatment plants using nitrification process to convert ammonia
to nitrate, the process may be impeded, causing discharge of nitrite at elevated
concentrations into receiving waters.

The conversion process is affected by several factors, including pH, temperature and
dissolved oxygen, number of nitrifying bacteria and presence of inhibiting compounds.
Total ammonia in wastewater treatment systems consists of NH 3- plus NH4+. If pH of the
solution increases either naturally or by addition of a base, the concentration of unionized
NH3 increases. It impedes the conversion of nitrite to nitrate, causing nitrite to accumulate.
When the pH decreases, as NH4+ and NO2 are oxidized an increase in HNO 2 concentration
occurs. Nitrous acid inhibits both nitrobacteria and nitrosomanas bacteria – this inhibition
can result in an increase in nitrite. As ph increases the toxicity in terms of NO 2 as N
decreases and the toxicity in terms of HNO2 as N increases.

2.3.20 Phosphates

Phosphates are often the limiting nutrients for plant growth in most aquatic environments,
in the Nigeria. Therefore, high phosphate levels could lead to the problems described

21
above. The main sources of phosphorus in local catchments are: Sediments from rocks and
soil. Effluent from waste water treatment plants and in situ sewage disposal units.
Detergents and fertilizers that have been washed down drains or that have run off from
properties due to poor land management practices and storm water pollution. Decaying
organic matter, (Uchegbu, 2002).

Category Total PO4 (mg/L)

Low < 0.06

Medium 0.06 – 0.15

High > 0.15 – 0.45

Very High > 0.45

2.3.21 Biological components

Organisms, populations, and communities composed of different species make up the

biological diversity of aquatic ecosystems. From single-celled microbes such as viruses,
bacteria, protists, and fungi, to multi-cellular organisms such as vascular plants, aquatic
invertebrates, fish and wildfowl, the community of organisms that reside within and near
aquatic ecosystems simultaneously plays a vital role in regulating biogeochemical fluxes
in their surrounding environment and is influenced by these same biogeochemical fluxes.

Aquatic organisms, often considered ‘engineers’ of aquatic ecosystems, not only react to
physical and chemical changes in their environment, but also they can drive such changes
and have important roles in cleansing and detoxifying their environment (Ostroumov,
2005). Losses of sensitive species may have feedback effects on other resident organisms
that can lead to catastrophic shifts in the composition of aquatic communities and the
functions they provide. As such, the overall diversity of biological communities enables
many ecosystem processes to function normally and in a stable state. Loss of diversity may
lead to declines in ecosystem function as well as shifts to alternate stable states
(Ostroumov, 2005; Scheffer et al., 2001). A common example of a dramatic shift in
ecosystem condition to an alternate stable state that has been attributed to water pollution

22
is the shift from a clearwater, vascular plant dominated state to a turbid, phytoplankton-
dominated state in many shallow lakes (Scheffer et al., 2001). The entire biological
diversity of aquatic environments ensures that ecosystems can continue to function
normally: shifts in species composition through species losses or biological invasions can
lead to physical and chemical changes in the environment that may have detrimental
effects on both the community of organisms residing within the ecosystem and on humans
that rely upon the system for water supply and other activities. The diversity of aquatic
ecosystems can also be influenced by physical and chemical changes in the environment.
There is considerable duplication of function in aquatic food webs, where several species
and trophic levels may perform similar functions of self-purification of a body of water.
For example, both bacteria and fungi have roles in the chemical breakdown of pollutants.
These biological components include: microbes, algae and aquatic vascular plants,
invertebrates: zooplankton and benthic macro-invertebrates, fish.

2.3.22. Organic contaminants

Organic contaminants are primarily human-produced chemicals that enter natural

environments through pesticide use, industrial chemicals, and as by-products of
degradation of other chemicals. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) tend to persist in the
environment and become widely distributed geographically, bioaccumulate through the
food web, and pose the risk of causing severe adverse effects to human health and the
environment.

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which entered into force in
2004, is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from POPs, in which
signatory governments will take measures to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into
the environment. The POPs identified under the Stockholm Convention are listed in Table
1. Although by no means an exhaustive list of potential POPs entering the environment,
the named compounds are often referred to as the ‘dirty dozen’: that is, those chemicals
that pose the greatest known threat to the environment and human health.

2.3.23 Drinking water standard

According to Standard Organization Of Nigeria (2007), The Safe Drinking Water Act
(SDWA) is the key federal law for protecting public drinking water from harmful

23
contaminants. Congress enacted the SDWA in 1974 after nationwide studies of community
water systems revealed widespread water quality problems and health risks from poor
operating procedures, inadequate facilities, and uneven management of public water supplies
in communities of all sizes. Before the SDWA, 40 percent of the nation’s drinking water
systems did not meet basic health standards. The SDWA primarily addresses: (1) the quality
of drinking water from public water works; and (2) the protection of underground sources of
drinking water (groundwater or aquifers).

Under the SDWA, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) oversees and sets national
health-based standards to protect drinking water from naturally-occurring and man- made
contaminants. The SDWA does not regulate private wells. Regulation of private well systems
is left to state and local authorities who often lack legal authority or resources to regulate
private wells effectively. Generally, these private wells are located in rural areas and are most
likely to be affected by hydraulic fracturing oil and gas exploration and production
(hereinafter “fracking”).

SDWA Drinking Water Standards

The SDWA requires the creation of health-based drinking water standards that limit drinking
water contaminants for public water systems. States may adopt their own, more stringent
standards with SDWA standards acting as a floor or minimum

The EPA sets primary drinking water standards through a three-step process:

i. First, the EPA identifies contaminants that may adversely affect public health and
occur in drinking water with a frequency and at levels that may pose a threat to
public health. The contaminants are further studied in order to determine if they
should be regulated.
ii. Once the EPA decides to regulate a contaminant, it determines a maximum
contaminant level goal (MCLG). The MCLG is a non-enforceable level at which no
known or anticipated adverse health effects occur and which allow an adequate
margin of safety.
iii. Third, the EPA sets a maximum contaminant level (MCL) or Treatment Technique
(TT). The MCLs are enforceable standards and are set as close to the MCLG as
feasible taking treatment cost into account. When it is not economically or

24
 technically feasible to set an MCL or there is no reliable method to detect a
contaminant, the EPA requires a specified Treatment Technique.

The SDWA also authorizes the creation of Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels which
are non-enforceable guidelines regulating contaminants that may affect drinking water taste,
odor, or color, but are not considered to present a health risk.

Drinking water standard addresses harmful contaminants in drinking water by providing

states the authority to monitor public water system, notify the public of the exceedances
above allowable levels and cite persistent violations. Violations are persistent over time at
certain system.

2.3.24 Water Quality Index (WQI)

Water Quality Index is a very useful and efficient method for assessing the suitability of
water quality. It is also a very useful tool for communicating the information on overall
quality of water (Asadi et al., 2007).

Water Quality Index (WQI) is considered as the most effective method of measuring water
quality. A number of water quality parameters are included in a mathematical equation to rate
water quality, determining the suitability of water for drinking. The index was first developed
by Horton in 1965 to measure water quality by using 10 most regularly used water
parameters. The method was subsequently modified by different experts. These indices used
water quality parameters which vary by number and types.

The weights in each parameter are based on its respective standards, and the assigned weight
indicates the parameter’s significance and impacts on the index. A usual WQI method
follows three steps which include:

i. Selection of parameters
ii. Determination of quality function for each parameter
iii. Aggregation through mathematical equation.

The index provides a single number that represents overall water quality at a certain location
and time based on some water parameters. The index enables comparison between different
sampling sites. WQI simplifies a complex dataset into easily understandable and usable
information. The water quality classification system used in the WQI denotes how suitable

25
water is for drinking. The single-value output of this index, derived from several parameters,
provides important information about water quality that is easily interpretable, even by lay
people. One of the merits of this method is that a less number of parameters are required to
compare water quality for certain use.

26
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 STUDY AREA
Amawom, a village located in Ikwuano Local Government Area Abia state, Nigeria which
is made up of about 52 villages and communities and is bounded by Ini LGA of
AwkaIbom state by the West and Umuahia South to the North. Ikwuano is a Local
Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria. Its headquarters is in Isiala Oboro, Ikwuano LGA
was among the new local government areas that were created on 27th August 1991 when
the General Ibrahim Babangida's Administration created Abia state from the old Imo state.
It is one of the five LGAs that make up Abia Central Senatorial District. It has an area of
281km2 and a population of 137,993 at 2006 census (Ukandu et al, 2011).

Fig 3.1 Map of Amawom in Ikwuano LGA, (Google map 2021)

3.1.1 Ibimi Amawom Stream in Ikwuano LGA

Ibimi stream is located at Amawom village in Ikwuano local government area Abia state
Nigeria. It has it source from Umuokom rock with the length of 13km from the source to

27
its land space. It flows through Umuokom, Mbakamanu and empties its water at Umugharu
outlet. The stream is majorly covered with vegetation making it not easily possible to be
detected by the Google in the map.

Fig 3.2 The Ibimi stream location covered with vegetation (Google map 2021)

Fig 3.3 Picture of Ibimi stream with vegetation cover (picture on site)

Amawon is one of the eighteen (18) villages of the Oboro clan with the coordinates 5° 28N
(latitude) 7° 34E (longitude), having nine (9) hamlets including Mbakamanu, Agbommiri,
Umoobia, Mbachukwu, Umuokem, Mgbaja, Agah, Mbaisara, and Amaya.

28
Amawom is believed to be discovered in the 18th century.

Fig 3.4 Map of Amawom (Google map 2021)

3.2 Sources of Data

The data used in this research were obtained from both primary and secondary sources
3.2.1. Primary Data
The primary data are the set of data collected from the study area through sampling, and
include those derived from observations made during sampling and laboratory.
3.2.2 Secondary Data
Secondary data includes all published materials used in this study. These are information
and data from text books, monographs, lecture books, journals, periodicals, internet and
literatures from other peoples work.
3.3 Sampling Design and Locations
Three (3) different samples were collected at sampling locations between 08:00-12:00noon
third week of March, 2021. The study comprised field sampling and laboratory analyses
and labelled S1 (sample 1), S2 (sample 2) and S3 (sample 3).
Table 3.3 Sampling Table (on site readings)
Sample Code Distance (from previous sample location) Sampling location
S1 15m Upstream

29
S2 20m Downstream
S3 10m Downstream

3.4 Sampling method

The grab sampling technique was employed in each sampling location. This was done by
dipping high density polyethylene (HDPE) 2ltrs plastic bottles below the water surface at the
centre of the stream. Prior to sampling, the sample bottles were disinfected with methylated
spirit and the rinsed thoroughly with the sample water before sample collection as
recommended by APHA, (2005). The samples were stored in a cooler containing ice and
delivered on the same day to StyPaul Laboratory Services, Umudike (SLSU) for laboratory
analysis.

3.5 Laboratory Analysis

The analytical method adopted for the examination of the necessary parameters is in
accordance with APHA, 2005 as recommended. Samples were analyzed for selected physical
parameters (TDS, TSS), chemical parameters (pH, DO) and biological parameter (Total
Coliform).

3.5.1 In-situ (Onsite) analysis

However, Temperature, pH, were determined in-situ.
A portable dissolved oxygen meter (DO STARTER300D) was used for the determination of
dissolved oxygen, a pocket-sized pH meter (pHep) was used to measure the pH and (mercury
thermometer) was used to determine the temperature.

3.5.2 Laboratory (Offsite) analysis

Physical parameters:

[Link] Total dissolved solids (TDS)

Apparatus: Glass-fiber filter disks, membrane filter funnel, filtration apparatus, suction flask
and pump, drying oven and Grooch crucible.
Procedure: The difference in the weights of Total Solids (W1) and Total Suspended Solids
(W2) expressed in the same units gives Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).

30
[Link] Total suspended solids
Apparatus: Porcelain dish (100ml capacity), glass fiber filter disk, suction pump and flask,
measuring jar, membrane filter funnel, oven and filtration apparatus.
Procedure: The known volume of vigorously shaken sample (50ml) was filtered into a pre-
weighed glass fibre filter disk fitted to suction pump, and washed successively with distilled
water. The filter was carefully removed from the filtration apparatus and dried for an hour at
103-105°C in an oven, cooled in dessicator and weighed for constant weight.

Chemical parameters:
[Link] pH
Apparatus required:
pH meter.
Procedure:
The pH meter was suspended in a 100ml of the collected water sample and allowed for some
time until the reading became stable, and then the value was recorded. The process was
repeated in order to determine the exact reading of the pH meter.

[Link] Dissolved oxygen (DO):

Method: Winkler’s method
Apparatus required: BOD bottles-300ml capacity, sampling devices, lab glassware -
measuring cylinder, conical flasks, etc., and Bunsen burner.
Reagents:
i. Manganese sulphate: 480g of manganous sulphate tetrahydrate is dissolved and made
up to 1000ml with distilled water (Discarded if it changes colour with starch).
ii. Alkaline iodide-azide reagent: 500g of sodium hydroxide and 150g of potassium
iodide along with 10g of sodium azide (NaN3) is dissolved and made up to 1000ml
with distilled water.
iii. Conc. sulphuric acid
iv. Starch indicator: 0.5g of starch is dissolved in distilled water and boiled for few
minutes.
v. Stock sodium thiosulphate: 24.82g of sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate (Na2S202.
5H2O) is dissolved in distilled water and made up to 1000ml.
vi. Standard sodium thiosulphate (0.025N): 250ml of the stock sodium thiosulphate
pentahydrate is made up to 1000ml with distilled water to give 0.025N.

31
Procedure: The samples were collected in BOD bottles, to which 2ml of manganous sulphate
and 2ml of potassium iodide were added and sealed. This was mixed well and the precipitate
allowed to settle down. At this stage 2ml of conc. sulphuric acid was added, and mixed well
until all the precipitate dissolves. 203ml of the sample was measured into the conical flask
and titrated against 0.025N sodium thiosulphate using starch as an indicator. The end point
was the change of colour from blue to colourless.

Biological parameter:
[Link] Total Coliform
Testing for coli form: membrane filter method
A measured volume of sample was filtered through a special membrane filter by applying a
partial vacuum. The filter, a flat paper-like disk, having uniform microscopic pores small
enough to retain the bacteria on its surface while allowing the water to pass through was
used. The filter paper was then placed in a sterile container called a petri dish, which contains
a special culture medium that the bacteria use as a food source. The petri dish was placed in
an incubator, which keeps the temperature at 35°C, for 24 h. After incubation, colonies of
coliform bacteria were visible. The coliform concentration was obtained by counting the
number of colonies on the filter; each colony counted represents only one coliform in the
original sample. Coliform concentrations were expressed in terms of the number of
organisms per 100 ml of water as follows:
Coli forms per 100 ml = number of colonies × 100 / ml of sample

3.6 Estimating the Discharge

3.6.1 Apparatus:
Stop watch, float (orange), measuring tape, line, stakes, measuring stick, record sheet.
3.6.2 Method:
The flow measurement method used was the "floating method". The method consists of
estimating the average flow velocity (V), and measuring the area of the cross-section, called
the ‘wetted cross-section’ (A).
3.6.3 The discharge (Q) can be calculated by the following formula:
Q = V.A (1)
Where:
Q is the Discharge in m3/s;

32
V is the Average Flow Velocity in m/s;
and A is the area in m2 of the Wetted Cross-section.
Hence the discharge in l/s instead of m3/s, the formula to use was:
Q = 1 000 .V .A (2)
Where Q is the Discharge in l/s; 1 000 is a factor to convert m3 to l [1 m3 = 1 000 l].
3.6.4 Average Velocity
To compute the surface velocity, Vs, the selected length, L, is divided by the travel time, t:
Vs = L / t (3)
Where:Vs is the Surface Velocity in metres per second (m/s);
L is the distance in metres between points A and B; and
t is the Travel time in seconds between point A and B.
The surface velocity must be reduced in order to obtain the average velocity, because surface
water flows faster than subsurface water. For most irrigation canals this reduction factor is
about 0.75. The average velocity is therefore found from:
V = 0.75 ´ Vs (4)

Where:V is the Average Flow Velocity in m/s;

0.75 is a constant, the Reduction Factor; and
Vs is the surface velocity in m/s found from the previous calculation

3.6.5 Average Depth (aY)

To compute the average depth of the river
aY = ∑Y (5)
10

3.6.6 Average width (aB)

To compute the average width of the river
aB = ∑B (6)
4

3.6.7 Water Quality Index

The Water Quality Index (WQI) developed was based on the Canadian Council of Ministers
of Environment (CCME), which has been adopted by the Global Environmental Monitoring
Systems (GEMS, 2007). The index is based on a combination of three factors:

33
Scope, F1- the number of variables whose objectives are not met

F1 = Number of failed variables × 100 (1)

Total number of variables

Frequency, F2, - the frequency with which the objectives are not met.

F2 = Number of failed tests × 100 (2)

Total number of tests

Amplitude, F3, - the amount by which the objectives are not met. F3 was calculated in three
steps:
a) The number of times by which an individual concentration was greater than (or less than,
when the objective is a minimum) the objective was termed an “excursion” and was
estimated as follows;
(i) Failed tests greater than the objectives:

Excursions = Failed tests values - 1 (3)

Objectives

(ii) Failed tests lesser than the objectives:

Excursions = Objectives - 1 (4)

Failed tests values

(c) The collective amount by which individual tests were out of compliance was calculated by
summing the excursions of individual tests from their objectives and dividing by the total
number of tests (both those meeting objectives and those not meeting objectives).

This variable, referred to as the normalized sum of excursions (NSE), was calculated as:

NSE = ∑ (excursions) (5)

Total number tests

34
(d)F3 was thereafter calculated by an asymptotic function that scales the normalized sum of
the excursions from objectives (NSE) to yield a range between 0 and 100 as given in
Equation (6)

F3 = NSE (6)
0.01 (NSE) + 0.01

The Canadian Council of Ministers of Environment Water Quality Index (CCMEWQI) was
then developed by substituting the values of F1, F2 and F3 into the Equation (7) given by
CCME, 2001.

CWQI = 100 – {√ F12 + F22 + F32 } (7)

1.732

Equation (7) was employed in all the sampling locations and their respective results were
computed. Thereafter, the results obtained were ranked into five categories as recommended
by the Canadian Council of Ministers of Environment (CCME, 2001).

CHAPTER FOUR

35
 4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS

According to the results obtained from the analysis of the various parameters below, there are

variations in the parameters in accordance with the stream depths. Hence, some increases

with the increase in the depths while some decrease with the increase in the depths. The

results were further interpreted below in graphs and charts.

10 -

pH
8
(Average)
-

6 -

4 -

2 -

0 -
March April May June

Fig. 4.1.1 pH Average

36

1000 -
 Fig. 4.1.2 Total Dissolve Solid Average

10 -

DO (mg/l)
8 -
(Average)

6 -

4 -

2 -

0 -
March April May June

Fig. 4.1.3 Dissolved Oxygen

37
1000 -
TSS (mg/l)
Average
800 -
 Fig. 4.1.4 Total Suspended Solid

Total
Coli Form
(mpn/100ml)
0.02 -

0 -
March April May June

Fig. 4.1.5 Total Coli Form

0.2
0.18
0.16 f(x) = 0.137171090002849 x² − 0.176112332948159 x + 0.154991196045132
0.14 R² = 0.885807667368166
Velocity (m/s)

0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Depth (m)

38
Fig 4.1.6 Variation of velocity with depth

0.8

0.7

0.6 f(x) = 0.613729982492405 x² − 0.867173529605944 x + 0.664365952840406

Discharge (m3/s)

0.5
R² = 0.913967882007097

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Depth (m)

Fig 4.1.7 Variation of discharge with depth

3.5

3 f(x) = − 0.628851986056465 x² + 0.547064710501678 x + 3.05042013492116

2.5
R² = 0.932622966377992
DO (mg/l)

1.5

0.5

0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Depth (m)

Fig 4.1.8 Variation of DO with depth

39
 400
350
f(x) = 24.5421649437853 x² + 83.5445848219117 x + 180.864250546226
300
R² = 0.998075196829278
250
TSS (mg/l)

200
150
100
50
0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Depth (m)

Fig 4.1.9 Variation of TSS with depth

4.2 DISCUSSION

4.2.1 Fig 4.1.1: this shows the average pH value gotten within the periods from March to
June, the values follows respectively; 5.33, 7.15, 5.15, 6.03, as seen from the bar chart, the
month of April has the highest average pH value while the month of May has the lowest
average pH value.

4.2.2 Fig 4.1.2: this shows the average DO value gotten within the periods from March to
June, the values follows respectively; 3.68, 3.55, 5.12, 6.29, as seen from the bar chart, the
month of June has the highest average DO value while the month of April has the lowest
average Do value.

4.2.3 Fig 4.1.3: this shows the average TSS value gotten within the periods from March to
June, the values follows respectively; 363.5, 491.19, 483.69, 425.50, as seen from the bar

40
chart, the month of April has the highest average TSS value while the month of March has
the lowest average TSS value.

4.2.4 Fig 4.1.4: this shows the average TDS value gotten within the periods from March to
June, the values follows respectively; 273.03, 618.59, 528.32, 463.28, as seen from the bar
chart, the month of April has the highest average TDS value while the month of March has
the lowest average TDS value.

4.2.5 Fig 4.1.5: the total Coli Form was the same across the sample month at 0.02

4.2.6 Fig 4.1.6 shows the variation of velocity with depth of the Ibimi stream in the study
area, indicating that velocity increases from 0.0968 m/s at 0.45m depth to 0.1875m/s at
1.38m depth.

Therefore, it implies that velocity increases relatively with the increase in depth. The stream
velocity, which increases as the volume and depth of the water in the stream increases,
determines the kind of organisms that can live in the stream.

The sediments introduced into the stream by either human activities or natural activities settle
quickly to the stream bottom and thus do not keep sediment suspended longer in the water.

4.2.7 Fig 4.1.7 shows the variation of discharge with depth of the stream in the study area,
indicating that the discharge increases from 0.36m 3/s at the lowest depth of 0.45m to 0.69m3/s
at the highest depth of 1.38m.

Discharge (m3/s) being the product of the cross-sectional area (width and average depth) and
average velocity implies that as the amount of water in the stream increases, the stream adjust
its velocity and cross-sectional area in order to form a balance thus leading to increase in
discharge.

The stream carries dissolved ions as dissolved solids, fine clay and silt particles as suspended
solids, and the suspended solids settle to the bed of the stream because the stream has laminar
flow and subcritical flow.

4.2.8 Fig 4.1.8 shows the variation of dissolved oxygen (DO) with depth of the stream,
indicating that DO decreases with depth from 3.26mg/l at 0.45m depth to 2.55mg/l at 1.38m
depth.

41
The high DO level near the water surface is due to the presence of phytoplankton which
release oxygen during photosynthesis (Carignan et al, 2000).

Sunlight intensity in the stream decreases with increase in depth and simultaneously the
activities of phytoplankton decreases with depth.

4.2.9 Fig 4.1.9 shows the variation of TSS with depth of the stream, showing that TSS
increases with the increase in depth from 228mg/l at 0.45m depth to 342mg/l at 1.38m depth.

The TSS variation directly varies with the velocity and discharge such that at a low velocity
and discharge, the TSS such as fine clay, silt particles and sediments settle to the bed of the
stream while at a high velocity and discharge; they remain suspended on the stream for a
longer period of time.

4.2.10 The water quality index table WQI (table 4.5)

The data of physical, chemical, and biological properties given in table 4.5 indicate the
average values of all parameters are below the maximum permissible limits indicated in
W.H.O standard for drinking water.

The pH measurement reflects a change in the quality of the source. Very acidic or very
alkaline water produces sour or alkaline tastes. Also, higher values of pH reduce germicidal
potential of chlorine. In the study, the average value of pH ranged from 5.15 to 7.15 and
within the objective range of 6.50 to 8.50 for drinking water.

The DO measurement ranged from 3.55 to 6.29 (mg/l), with its two tests lesser than the
objective <5 (mg/l) for drinking water.

The TSS measurement ranged from 363.51 to 491.19 (mg/l), and are within the objective
range of >500 (mg/l) for drinking water.

The TDS measurement ranged from 273.03 to 618.59 (mg/l), having two tests greater than
the objective >500 (mg/l) for drinking water.

According to the total values of parameters examined, table 4.5 calculates overall water
quality CCME-WQI. The total numbers of parameters examined are five (5), and total
number of individual tests is twenty (20). The number of parameters not meeting objectives
are two (DO and TSS), and the number of tests not meeting objectives are four (4).

42
[Link] Scope: The water quality index table consists of five (5) variables (pH, DO,
TSS,TDS and total coli form). During the sample period, two (2) variables failed their
respective objectives at least once.

Therefore, F1 = {2/5} × 100 =40.0

[Link] Frequency: There are twenty (20) tests within the sample period and four (4) tests
failed their respective objectives.

Therefore, F2 = {4/20} × 100 = 20.0

[Link] Amplitude: This is calculated based on the excursion of each failed test relative to
its objectives. A failed test can either be greater than its objective (e.g. TDS) or less than its
objectives (e.g. DO).

Failed tests greater than objectives = {(618.50/500) – 1 + (528.32/500) – 1}

Failed tests lesser than objectives = {(5/3.68) – 1 + (5/3.55) – 1}

Normalized sum of excursion (NSE) = (1.07/20) = 0.054

Therefore, F3 = (0.054/0.01 (0.054) + 0.01) = 5.12

[Link] The WQI is thus obtained by combining the three factors using root-mean
square aggregation.

CWQI = 100 – {√402 + 202 + 5.122} = 74.0

1.732

Therefore, WQI = 74.0

The calculated values and ratings of WQI are presented in table 4.6 and the 74 rating
indicates that the drinking water quality of Ibimi stream is ranked “fair.” The fair quality can
be attributed to the measured DO and TSS that exceed the objective and to its large
excursion. It reflects the interaction between natural effects and man-made activities.

The result obtained can be traced in the CCME-QWI table (table 5)

Considering all observations in each sampling location, the WQI of Ibimi stream is equal to
74 indicating that the water quality of the stream is fair, which implies that it is usually

43
 protected but occasionally threatened or impaired; thus making the condition of the water
sometimes depart from desirable levels.

The fair level of the water quality of the stream can be attributed by five (5) variables and
twenty (20) tests along the period of study and results from the fact that discharges of
manures, fertilizers and some other human activities sometimes go into the water from the
farm located within the stream location.

However, the value of WQI obtained indicates that the water should be treated from time to
time to remove any trace of impurities.

Furthermore, the water can be drawn for human consumption but should be boiled and
filtered in order to remove traces of impurities before use.

The five categories of the CWQI are as follows:

Rank WQI value Description
Excellent 95-100 Water quality is protected with a virtual absence of threat or impairment;
conditions very close to natural or pristine levels.
Good 80-94 Water quality is protected with only a minor degree of threat or
impairment; conditions rarely depart from natural or desirable levels.
Fair 65-79 Water quality is usually protected but occasionally threatened or impaired;
conditions sometimes depart from natural or desirable levels.
Marginal 45-64 Water quality is frequently threatened or impaired; conditions often depart
from natural or desirable levels.
Poor 0-44 Water quality is almost always threatened or impaired; conditions usually
depart from natural or desirable levels.

44
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1. SUMMARY

According to Adakole et al. (2003), the quality of any water body is governed by its
physiochemical factors. Consequent upon this Spaak and Bauchrowitz (2010) asserts that
anthropogenic environmental changes affect natural biodiversity. Accordingly, several
authors have investigated the direct effect of interactions of many frequently measured
physicochemical variables on biotic residents of aquatic ecosystems (Jonnalagadda and
Mhere, 2001)

The water quality of the Ibimi stream in Abia state was ascertained using standard methods in
this research. The important physicochemical characteristics of the stream were investigated

45
at three (3) sampling locations. In situ measurements were made for water temperature,
salinity, turbidity, pH. Water samples were collected in replicates with 2 liters plastic
containers and taken to the laboratory in iced coolers for analysis. The test for homogeneity
in mean variance was used to determine spatial variation in the physicochemical variables.
The Eckman grab sampler was used to acquire sediments to test for the physicochemical
variability of the sediments from the river. The physicochemical variability for the Ibimi
stream from the three sample locations indicated that pH varied between (5.15-7.15),
dissolved oxygen (3.55- 6.29mg/l), TSS (363.51 to 491.19mg/l), and TDS (273.03 to
618.59mg/l). The results obtained for the physicochemical parameters and microbial
variability agreed with the permissible limits set by both national and international bodies for
drinking and domestic water and for the sustenance of aquatic life with few exceptions.

5.2. CONCLUSION

The CCME-WQI is an effective tool to evaluate water quality for water supply systems,
which sum up numerous data into a single value. The WQI model used for rating of drinking
water quality of Ibimi stream indicates that the quality is “fair” (CCME-WQI is 74) for the
sample period. DO and TDS are the parameters that determine the rating of water quality,
exceeding the standards (objectives) of drinking water.

The information provided by CCME-WQI is a useful tool for describing the state of drinking
water quality and can be of great value for water users, suppliers, and planners, et cetera.

Therefore, the assessment of Ibimi stream for domestic and agricultural uses was achieved
using the water quality index.

5.3 RECOMMENDATION

Sequel to the research finding in the current study, the following recommendations were
made:

The state environmental protection agencies (SEPA) should develop practical standards and
regulations for the protection of water ways.

SEPA should mount regular surveillance to prevent further pollution of the channel.

Current approaches by the pollution and control department of the Federal Ministry of
Environment, (FMOE) aimed at reducing significant pollution should be maintained.

46
 Further studies should include detection and enumeration of other pathogenic
microorganisms and ways of remediating and reducing pollutions within this stream.

Basic personal and environmental hygiene should be made known to the people to safeguard
their health as well as the environmental resources.

APPENDIX

Table 3.3; Sampling Table

Sample Code Distance (from previous sample location) Sampling location

S1 15m Upstream
S2 20m Downstream
S3 10m Downstream

Table 4.1; March, 2021 results

S/N PARAMETERS UNITS METHODS SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2 SAMPLE 3 AVERAGE

47
1 pH -- API-RP45 6.00 4.08 5.90 5.33

2 TDS mg/l APHA-209C 532.50 146.70 139.90 273.03

3 TSS mg/l APHA-208D 595.00 170.28 325.25 363.51

4 DO mg/l APHA-211B 5.60 2.43 3.01 3.68

5 Total Coliform MPN APHA-9222B 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

Table 4.2; April, 2021 results

S/N PARAMETERS UNITS METHODS SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2 SAMPLE 3 AVERAGE

1 pH -- API-RP45 8.90 7.20 5.35 7.15

2 TDS mg/l APHA-209C 576.05 604.50 675.23 618.59

3 TSS mg/l APHA-208D 598.20 600.15 277.35 491.19
4 DO mg/l APHA-211B 3.20 3.15 4.50 3.55
5 Total Coliform MPN APHA-9222B 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

Table 4.3; May, 2021 results

S/N PARAMETERS UNITS METHODS SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2 SAMPLE 3 AVERAGE

1 pH -- API-RP45 5.68 4.75 5.03 5.15
2 TDS mg/l APHA-209C 585.01 498.61 501.32 528.32
3 TSS mg/l APHA-208D 575.15 455.08 420.85 483.69
4 DO mg/l APHA-211B 5.35 6.03 3.96 5.12
5 Total Coliform MPN APHA-9222B 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

Table 4.4; June, 2021 results

48
S/N PARAMETERS UNITS METHODS SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2 SAMPLE 3 AVERAGE
1 pH -- API-RP45 5.85 6.00 6.25 6.03
2 TDS mg/l APHA-209C 493.06 471.25 425.55 463.28
3 TSS mg/l APHA-208D 475.60 395.27 405.64 425.50
4 DO mg/l APHA-211B 6.05 6.28 6.55 6.29
5 Total Coliform MPN APHA-9222B 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02

Table 4.5 The water quality index table (WQI)

S/N Sample Ph >8.50 DO(mg/l) TSS(mg/l) TDS(mg/l) Total Coli form

period <5 >500 >500 (MPN/100ml)>0.03

1 March 5.33 3.68 363.51 273.03 0.02

2 April 7.15 3.55 491.19 618.59 0.02

3 May 5.15 5.12 483.69 528.32 0.02

4 June 6.03 6.29 425.50 463.28 0.02

Table 4.6; Calculated values of WQI

S/N TERM OF INDEX VALUE RATING OF WQ

1 Scope – F1 40.0 Rank: Fair

2 Frequency – F2 20.0 Water quality is usually protected but

occasionally threatened or impaired;
3 NSE 0.054
therefore making the condition of the
4 Amplitude – F3 5.12
water sometimes depart from desirable
5 WQI 74.0 level.

49
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