1.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1.1 Atom (Definition)
● An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still has the properties of that element.
1.2 Subatomic Particles (Definition)
Subatomic particles are the smaller particles inside atoms: protons, neutrons, electrons.
article
P efinition
D harge
C elative Mass
R Location
Proton Particle that defines the element +1 1 ucleus
N
Neutron Neutral particle adding mass 0 1 Nucleus
Electron Tiny negative particle –1 1/2000 Shells
1.3 Rutherford Model (8Cm.01)
● n atom has a tiny, dense nucleus containing protons & neutrons.
A
● Electrons orbit around the nucleus.
● Most of the atom is empty space.
● The nucleus holds most of the mass.
1.4 Electrostatic Attraction (8Cm.03)
Electrostatic attraction = force between opposite charges (+ and –).
● lectrons are negative.
E
● Protons in the nucleus are positive.
● Opposite charges attract → strong force pulls electrons toward the nucleus.
his force:
T
✔ keeps electrons in shells
✔ prevents atom from falling apart
✔ stabilises the entire structure
✔ is responsible for the existence of atoms & bonding
Without electrostatic attraction → electrons would fly off and atoms could not exist.
2. ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
2.1 What is electron configuration?
● The arrangement of electrons in shells around the nucleus.
2.2 What each number in the Periodic Table means
or an element symbol like Na²³:
F ₁₁
⭐
Top number = Mass number (A)
● Total number of protons + neutrons in nucleus.
⭐ Bottom number = Atomic number (Z)
● umber of protons in the atom.
N
● Also = number of electrons (if neutral).
2.3 Rules
.
1 tomic number = number of protons
A
2. Number of electrons = number of protons (neutral atom)
3. Mass number = protons + neutrons
4. Neutrons = mass number – atomic number
2.4 Shell Capacities
● 1st shell: 2 electrons max
● 2nd shell: 8 electrons max
● 3rd shell: 8 electrons max
Electrons always fill the lowest shell first.
2.5 How to write electron configuration
Steps:
.
1 ook at atomic number → this gives number of electrons
L
2. Fill shells in order (2, then 8, then 8)
3. Write configuration like 2,8,1
2.6 Examples
1. Sodium (Na)
tomic number = 11 → electrons = 11
A
Configuration = 2, 8, 1
2. Magnesium (Mg)
tomic number = 12
A
Configuration = 2, 8, 2
3. Chlorine (Cl)
tomic number = 17
A
Configuration = 2, 8, 7
2.7. FORMING IONS FROM ELECTRON CONFIGURATION(9Cm.04)
A
● toms form ions to get a full outer shell (stable).
● Metals → lose electrons → positive ions (cations)
Atom Configuration After Losing e⁻ Ion
a
N ,8,1
2 ,8
2 a⁺
N
Mg 2,8,2 2,8 Mg²⁺
Ca 2,8,8,2 2,8,8 Ca²⁺
● ⭐ Non-metals → gain electrons → negative ions (anions)
Atom Configuration After Gaining e⁻ Ion
l
C ,8,7
2 2,8,8 l⁻
C
O 2,6 2,8 O²⁻
N 2,5 2,8 N³⁻
🔵 3. IONIC BONDING(9Cm.05)
● An ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a metal positive ion and a non-metal negative ion.
⭐ Ionic bonding = metal + non-metal
● lectrons transferred
E
● Forms ions
● Opposite ions attract
● Form a giant ionic lattice
⭐ Ionic Bonding Examples
1. Sodium + Chlorine → Sodium chloride (NaCl)
a: 2,8,1 → loses 1 → Na⁺
N
Cl: 2,8,7 → gains 1 → Cl⁻
Bond: Na⁺ attracts Cl⁻
🔵 4. COVALENT BONDING(9Cm.02 & 9Cm.03)
● A covalent bond forms when two non-metal atoms share electrons to get a full outer shell.
⭐ Covalent bonding = non-metal + non-metal
● lectrons are shared
E
● No ions formed
● Forms molecules (simple or giant)
🔵 5. IONIC vs COVALENT SUMMARY
Feature Ionic Covalent
tom types
A etal + non-metal
M on-metal + non-metal
N
Electrons Transferred Shared
Particles Ions Molecules
Structure Giant lattice Simple or giant
mp/bp Very high Low / very high
Conduction When molten/aq No (except graphite)
🔵 6. STRUCTURES & PROPERTIES(9Cp.04)
⭐ Simple Molecular
● Small molecules
● Weak intermolecular forces
● Low mp/bp
● Do not conduct electricity
⭐ Giant Ionic Lattice
● 3D structure of ions
● Very high mp/bp
● Conduct when molten/dissolved
● Brittle
⭐ Giant Covalent
● Many strong covalent bonds
● Very high mp/bp
● Hard (except graphite)
⭐ Diamond vs Graphite
iamond
D Graphite
4 bonds per carbon bonds per carbon
3
3D network Layers
No free electrons Free electrons
Very hard Soft/slippery
No conduction Conducts electricity
🔵 8. PERIODIC TABLE TRENDS — EXTREMELY DETAILED VERSION
(Covers 9Cp.01, 9Cm.01, 8Cc.06)
The Periodic Table is arranged by atomic number, which determines:
● umber of protons
n
● number of electrons
● electron configuration
● therefore → chemical properties and trends in groups
group = vertical column
A
A period = horizontal row
Elements in the same group have:
the same number of outer-shell electrons
●
● similar chemical properties
● clear trends going down the group
⭐ 8.1 Group 1 — Alkali Metals
( Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium…)
Electron structure explanation:
All Group 1 atoms have 1 electron in the outer shell, so they:
lose 1 electron easily
●
● form +1 ions (cations)
● have very similar reactions (especially with water)
⭐ Physical trends DOWN Group 1
Property Trend Detailed Explanation
Melting point (mp) Decreases ↓ toms get bigger → weaker attraction between metal ions +
A
electron cloud → easier to melt.
Boiling point (bp) Decreases ↓ Same reason as mp: larger atoms → weaker metallic
bonds.
Density enerally increases (but
G Bigger atoms pack less tightly at the top. Heavier atoms
Li, Na, K are low) lower down → higher density.
⭐ Chemical trend: Reactivity INCREASES down group 1
● toms get bigger (more shells)
A
● Outer electron is further from nucleus
● More shielding → inner electrons block nuclear pull
● Attraction between nucleus and outer e⁻ becomes weaker
● Electron is lost more easily
➡ Easier loss of e⁻ = higher reactivity
⭐ 8.2 Group 7 — Halogens
( F₂, Cl₂, Br₂, I₂)
Electron structure explanation:
All halogens have 7 outer-shell electrons, so they:
g
● ain 1 electron
● form –1 ions (anions)
● react with metals to form salts (e.g., NaCl, KI)
⭐ Physical trends DOWN Group 7
roperty
P rend
T etailed Explanation
D
olour
C Becomes darker ↓ F₂ = pale yellow, Cl₂ = green, Br₂ = brown, I₂ = purple-black → more
electrons → stronger colour.
State Gas → liquid → solid More electrons → stronger intermolecular forces → higher mp/bp →
changes state.
elting point
M Increases ↑ More electrons → stronger intermolecular forces → harder to separate.
Boiling point Increases ↑ Same reason as mp.
⭐ Chemical trend: Reactivity DECREASES down the group
● arger atoms (more shells)
L
● Incoming electron feels less pull from the nucleus
● More shielding
● Harder for the atom to gain an electron
➡ Harder gain of e⁻ = lower reactivity
⭐
Displacement reactions (important for exams)
More reactive halogens can replace less reactive ones:
Cl₂ + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br₂ (Chlorine displaces bromine)
⭐ 8.3 Group 0 — Noble Gases
(He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe)
Electron structure explanation:
Full outer shells → stable → inert (unreactive)
⭐ Physical trends DOWN Group 0
Property Trend Explanation
ensity
D Increases ↑ A toms become heavier.
Melting point Increases ↑ Larger atoms → stronger forces between atoms.
Boiling point Increases ↑ More electrons → stronger intermolecular forces.
⭐ Note on reactivity
● oble gases are inert
N
● Because they already have full outer shells
● No need to gain/lose/share electrons
● Very stable
🔵9. MATTER
⭐
9.1 Pure Substances
A pure substance contains ONLY one type of particle.
This means its composition is fixed and unchanging.
Pure substances have:
● harp melting point (melts at one exact temperature)
S
● Sharp boiling point
● Consistent chemical properties
● Cannot be separated by physical methods
✔
Elements
● Pure substance made of one type of atom.
roperties:
P
● Cannot be chemically broken down
● All atoms identical
● Represented on the periodic table
● May exist as atoms (He), molecules (O₂, N₂), or giant structures (C)
Examples:
● xygen (O₂)
O
● Nitrogen (N₂)
● Iron (Fe)
● Helium (He)
● Carbon (diamond/graphite)
✔ Compounds
● Pure substance made of two or more different atoms chemically bonded.
Properties:
● lways combined in fixed ratios
A
● Can ONLY be separated by chemical reactions
● Completely new properties compared to elements inside
Examples:
● ater (H₂O)
W
● Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
● Sodium chloride (NaCl)
● Ammonia (NH₃)
⭐ Purity & Melting/Boiling Points
ure substances:
P
● Melt/boil at one sharp temperature
Impure substances:
● Melt at lower temperatures
● Boil at higher temperatures
Reason: impurities disrupt particle arrangement.
⭐
9.2 Mixtures
● A mixture contains two or more different particles NOT chemically joined.
Properties of mixtures:
● omposition is variable
C
● Components keep their own properties
● Can be separated by physical methods
● o sharp mp/bp
N
● Melting point ↓
● Boiling point ↑
Why reactions can form mixtures:
● ometimes not all reactants react
S
● Side reactions produce extra products
● Product remains mixed with unreacted chemicals
● Gas, liquid, and solid may form together
xample:
E
Burning magnesium sometimes creates MgO and unburnt Mg → mixture.
⭐ 9.3 Types of Mixtures — TABLE FORMAT
Feature Homogeneous Mixture (“same Heterogeneous Mixture (“different throughout”)
throughout”)
Definition articles are evenly mixed; mixture looks P
P articles are not evenly mixed; different parts are
like one uniform phase visible
article-Level
P • Solute particles completely dissolved • Particles stay separate
Explanation • No separate parts visible • More than one visible phase
• Even particle distribution everywhere • Uneven particle distribution
Appearance Transparent (if colorless), uniform Cloudy, uneven, can see pieces
Settling Does not settle Particles may settle over time
Separation Difficulty H ard to separate (need distillation, asy to separate (filtration, decanting, tweezers,
E
evaporation, chromatography) sieving)
Visibility of Particles Cannot see individual particles Can usually see particles or layers
Examples • Saltwater • Sand + water
• Sugar water • Oil + water
• Air • Cereal in milk
• Brass (Cu + Zn) • Fruit salad
⭐ 9.5 Concentration of Solutions
● Concentration = how many solute particles are dissolved per volume of solvent.
High concentration
● any particles
M
● Strong taste / color
● Faster reactions
Low concentration
● ew particles
F
● Weak taste / color
⭐ Ways to Increase Concentration
● dd more solute
A
● Evaporate solvent
⭐ 9.6 Saturated, Unsaturated, Supersaturated
ype of Solution
T eaning
M ehaviour
B article View
P xample
E
Unsaturated Solution Can dissolve more All added Many empty spaces A pinch of sugar dissolves
solute solute between solvent easily in water
dissolves particles → more
solute can fit
Saturated Solution ontains the maximum
C Extra solute Spaces between ugar that stops
S
amount of dissolved stays solid at solvent particles are dissolving at room
solute bottom “full”; cannot hold more temperature
upersaturated Solution Contains more solute
S Very unstable; Solvent overloaded Rock candy solution
than normally possible crystals form with solute; even a cooled slowly
easily scratch makes crystals
form