MAT368E Mathematical Modeling - Week 2
Second-Order Dierential Equation
Equation of Motion
d 2x
m = −kx
dt 2
where m and k are constants.
Rewriting in Standard Form
Let ω 2 = m,
k
then:
x 00 + ω 2 x = 0
Finding a Solution
Assume a solution of the form:
x(t) = e rt
where r is a constant to be determined.
Characteristic Equation
r 2 e rt + ω 2 e rt = 0
(r 2 + ω 2 )e rt = 0 ⇒ r 2 = −ω 2
r = ±iω
General Solution
x(t) = Ae iωt + Be −iωt
Real Solutions using Euler's Formula
Recall Euler's formula:
e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ
Using this, we rewrite:
x(t) = C1 cos(ωt) + C2 sin(ωt)
Oscillation Formula
x(t) = A sin(ωt + φ0 )
Interpretation of Parameters
I A: Amplitude of oscillation
I φ0 : Initial phase at t = 0
I T : Period of oscillation, given by:
2π
r
m
T = = 2π
ω k
I Frequency:
1 1
r
k
f = =
T 2π m
Oscillation Visualization
Solving the Dierential Equation
r 2 e rt + ω 2 e rt = 0
(r 2 + ω 2 )e rt = 0
r 2 + ω 2 = 0 ⇒ r 2 = −ω 2
r = ±ωi
General Solution
x1 (t) = e ωit
x2 (t) = e −ωit
x(t) = ae ωti + be −ωti
Since this is a physics problem, we need a real solution.
Using Euler's Formula
e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ
x(t) = a[cos(ωt) + i sin(ωt)] + b[cos(−ωt) + i sin(−ωt)]
Extracting the Real Solution
Since cosine is an even function and sine is an odd function:
x(t) = (a + b) cos(ωt) + i(a − b) sin(ωt)
Let c1 = a + b, c2 = i(a − b)
x(t) = c1 cos(ωt) + c2 sin(ωt)
Phase Shift Representation
Using sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B , we rewrite:
A2 = c12 + c22
−1 c1
φ0 = tan
c2
x(t) = A sin(ωt + φ0 )
This is the formula for oscillation.
Graphical Representation
Oscillation Properties
I A: The amplitude of the oscillation.
I Phase of the oscillation is ωt + φ0 , where φ0 is the phase at
t = 0.
I T : The period of the oscillation.
Remark: If f (t + T ) = f (t), we say that f is periodic with period
T.
Circular Frequency
k
ω2 = , ω : circular frequency of the system
m
Frequency and Period
I The number of oscillations in one unit of time is the frequency
f:
1
f =
T
I Our solution is periodic with period 2π .
I For a complete oscillation, as t increases to t + T , ωt + φ0
must change by 2π :
ω(t + T ) + φ0 − (ωt + φ0 ) = 2π.
Period and Frequency Relations
Period
2π
r
m
T = = 2π
ω k
Circular Frequency
2π
r
k
ω= =
T m
Frequency
1 1
r
ω k
f = = =
T 2π 2π m
Period and Frequency Relations
Frequency
1 1
r
ω k
f = = =
T 2π 2π m
Natural Frequency:
q Since a spring-mass system normally oscillates
1
with frequency 2π m , this value is known as the natural frequency
k
of a spring-mass system of mass m and spring constant k .
Dimensions and Units
Dimension notation uses [ ].
I Distance: [x] = L (meter, feet)
I Time: [t] = τ (second)
I Mass: [m] = M (kg, pounds)
Derived Quantities:
I Velocity: v = dx
dt ⇒ [v ] = L
τ
I Acceleration: a = d 2x L
dt 2
⇒ [a] = τ2
L2
Note: [a] 6= τ2
Dimension of k (Spring Constant)
Hooke's Law: F = −kx
[F ]
[k] =
[x]
ML/τ 2
=
L
M
= 2
τ
Dimension of
q ω:
I ω= k
m
M/τ 2
q
I [ω] = 1
M = τ
Frictional Force and Damped Oscillation
Frictional Force:
dt (linear damping force)
Ff = −c dx
I At equilibrium:
Fa + Fr + Ff = 0
d 2x dx
m + kx + c =0
dt 2 dt
⇒ mx 00 + cx 0 + kx = 0
Solution Approach:
I Assume x(t) = e rt
I Characteristic equation:
mr 2 + cr + k = 0
√
−c ± c 2 − 4mk
r=
2m
Damped Oscillation Illustration
I Overdamped (c 2 > 4mk ): No oscillations
I Critically damped (c 2 = 4mk ): Fastest return to equilibrium
I Underdamped (c 2 < 4mk ): Oscillations decay over time
Underdamped Oscillation
c
if c 2 < 4mk r =− ± iω
2m
where √
4mk − c 2
ω=
2m
ct
x(t) = e − 2m (ae iωt + be −iωt )
ct
x(t) = Ae − 2m sin (ωt + φ0 )
Overdamped Oscillation
If c 2 > 4mk , the system is overdamped.
√
−c ± c 2 − 4mk
r1,2 =
2m
Since these roots are real, there is no oscillatory behavior:
x(t) = c1 e r1 t + c2 e r2 t
Critically Damped Oscillation
If c 2 = 4mk , the system is critically damped (rare in physics).
r1,2 = r
x(t) = c1 e rt + c2 te rt