Overview of Digestion

◼ 2 main groups of organs in the digestive system.

1. Alimentary Canal (nutrition)
a. Mouth

b. Pharynx

c. Esophagus

d. Stomach

e. Small intestine

f. Large intestine
2. Accessory Digestive Organs

a. Teeth

b. Tongue

c. Gall bladder

d. Salivary glands

e. Liver

f. pancreas
 How does “Digestion” occur?
6 step process:
1. Ingestion
2. Propulsion
Peristalsis – alternate
waves of muscular
contraction and relaxation
in the primary digestive
organs. The end result is
to squeeze food from one
part of the system to the
next.
3. Mechanical Digestion
- physical preparation
of food for digestion.
- Segmentation – mixing
of food in the intestines
with digestive juices.
4. Chemical Digestion
- Carbohydrates, Fat,
and Proteins are broken
down by enzymes.
5. Absorption
- transfer of the
digested portion of
food into the blood
from the digestive
canal.

6. Defecation
- removal/elimination
of the waste products
from the body.
Histology of the Digestive System
◼ All alimentary canal
organs have the same 4
layers.
1. Mucosa (innermost layer)
2. Submucosa (CT
containing neurovascular
bundles)
3. Muscularis Externa (2
layers of smooth muscle)
4. Serosa (outermost
layer, visceral
peritoneum)
Diagram of GI wall to
show various kinds of
glands -- some within the
wall and some without
(like the liver). These
glands have ducts that
empty into the lumen of
the gut. In all cases, the
epithelium lining the
ducts and glands is
continuous with the
epithelium lining the
lumen (cavity) of the gut.
Secretion of
mucus from
goblet cells is
elicited primarily
by irritating
stimuli rather
than in response
to hormones
 Mouth and Associated Organs
◼ Food enters the GI tract at
the mouth. It is chewed,
manipulated by the tongue,
and moistened with saliva.
◼ Mouth has two parts:
1. vestibule – space
between cheek and teeth.
2. oral cavity proper –
space internal to the teeth.
◼ Tongue
- skeletal muscle
- mixes food with saliva into a compact mass known as
a BOLUS.
- LINGUAL FRENULUM attaches the tongue to the
floor of the mouth and prevents posterior movement
of the tongue.
 Salivary Glands
◼ When you dissect
◼ you will notice two
muscles on the inside
of the cheek.
◼ The DIGASTRIC
MUSCLE opens the
jaw.
◼ The MASSETER
MUSCLE closes the
jaw.
◼ The masseter inserts on the mandible.
◼ Superficial to part of the masseter and anterior to
the ear is the large PAROTID GLAND. This gland
produces SALIVARY AMYLASE (ptyalin), a digestive
enzyme.
◼ The parotid gland is GRANULAR, it is attached by
fascia. It is also the largest of the salivary glands.
◼ The parotid empties into the PAROTID DUCT which
empties between the last two molars at the angle of
the jaw.
◼ The parotid gland is an EXOCRINE GLAND. Exocrine
glands empty via a duct to a specific location. The
other type of gland is an ENDOCRINE GLAND that
empties directly into the bloodstream.
◼ Caudal and ventral to the
parotid gland is the
SUBMANDIBULAR
GLAND
(SUBMAXILLARY).
◼ The SUBMAXILLARY
DUCT empties this gland.
It runs on the lateral
aspect of the digastric
muscle.
◼ This gland carries saliva
into the angle of the
lower jaw.
◼ The SUBLINGUAL GLAND
is on the submaxillary duct.
It is wedge shaped and it is
lateral to the digastric
muscle.
◼ The DORSAL and
VENTRAL FACIAL
NERVES run around the
outline of the masseter
muscle. These nerves come
out in front of the ear
from the STYLOMASTOID
FORAMEN and branch
across the face.
1. Masseter Muscle

2. Parotid Gland

3. Parotid Duct

4. Submandibular Gland

5. Sublingual Gland

6. Lymph Nodes

7. Molar Gland
 Parotid Duct
Masseter
muscle

Parotid gland

Submandibular gland

Sublingual gland
Submandibular Duct
 5 Openings into the Pharynx
1. Mouth
2. Left and right
nasal passages
3. Eustachian
tubes (connect
middle ear to
the throat)
4. Larynx
5. Esophagus
 Swallowing
◼ Is a reflex.
◼ When the mouth closes, the
soft palate is pushed
superiorly and closes the
nasal passages
◼ A sphincter valve closes off
the eustachian tubes
◼ The glottis closes and
respiration stops. The
glottis also bends and closes
the entrance into the larynx.
◼ The esophagus is opened by
pressure of the food. This
allows the epiglottis to open.
◼ Food then enters the
esophagus.
 Teeth
◼ Very similar to
bone.
◼ Three major
components:
1. hydroxyapatite
Ca (PO ) (OH)
5 4 3

2. bone collagen
3. cells
◼ The pH of the mouth is
usually 7.2
◼ There are acids in the
mouth that come from
three sources:
1. stomach acid during
vomiting
2. foods
3. waste products of
mouth bacteria
 Tooth Anatomy
◼ Enamel: hardest substance in
the body
◼ Pulp Cavity: contains arteries,
veins, and nerves.
◼ Alveolus: made of alveolar bone
◼ Root: made of dentin
◼ Gingiva: gum
◼ Periodontal membrane:
periosteum found around the
tooth
◼ Cementum: material that holds
the tooth in the alveolus.
◼ INCISORS – chisel shaped
for nipping food.
◼ CANINES – cone shaped for
tearing
◼ PREMOLARS –
◼ MOLARS - grinding
food

◼ 32 teeth in the Permanent

Dentition
◼ 20 teeth in the Deciduous
Dentition
◼ Function: physically and
chemically breakdown food
products so that they can
be absorbed and
transported to cells.
◼ CARBOHYDRATES are the
major source of
biochemical energy. They
include sugars and
starches. These are
eventually broken down
into MONOSACCHARIDES
(simple sugars)
◼ PROTEINS are broken down to
amino acids. AMINO ACIDS
are the chemical building
blocks of proteins. Proteins
are necessary parts of cell
membranes and nucleic acids
(DNA and RNA).
◼ LIPIDS are broken down to
fatty acids and glycerol. Lipids
are very large molecules and
cannot be directly absorbed.
They are broken down by
ENZYMES which are organic
CATALYSTS. They are very
specific for each chemical
reaction and the function to
speed up the reaction.
◼ The name of an enzyme usually end in “-ase”
and can give a clue as to its function.
◼ For example, Lipase is an enzyme that
catalyzes the breakdown of lipids (fats and
oils)
 Chewing (Mastication)
◼ Helps the digestive process
by:

a. Mixes food with

digestive enzymes in saliva.
b. Increases surfaces
area of food
c. Makes moving the food
easier
 Saliva

◼ Contains PTYALIN or SALIVARY AMYLASE. These

are enzymes that break down starches. These
enzymes are only active under certain pH conditions.
◼ The pH of the mouth is about 7.2 (slightly alkaline as
7 directly in the middle of the scale)
◼ When the swallowed food reaches the stomach, the
pH drops to 3 (very acidic). The ptyalin is no longer
active at that pH.
◼ Once food is swallowed, smooth muscle in the
esophagus carries the bolus by PERISTALSIS.
◼ Once food enters the esophagus, peristalsis is
automatic. In fact, food can successfully reach the
stomach while standing on your hands.
◼ The bolus enters the stomach by passing through the
GASTROESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTER. It is held shut
by contraction of muscle.
◼ The LESSER CURVATURE of the stomach is anchored
to the liver with the LESSER OMENTUM. It cannot
move.
◼ The esophagus and duodenal ends are anchored. As
food fills the stomach, it can sag on the left side.
◼ The walls of the stomach have 3 muscle layers
◼ These muscles do not contract together-they
contract out of sync. This enables the muscles to mix
and churn the food in the body of the stomach.
◼ The mixing is with water, hydrochloric acid (produced
in the stomach), and pepsin. This mixture is known as
CHYME.
◼ The release of the chyme is regulated by the
pyloric sphincter.
◼ The stomach also has longitudinal folds within
the lumen. These folds, called RUGAE,
increase the surface area of the stomach.
 Small Intestine

◼ 3 parts:
1. Duodenum
- 10 inches long
2. Jejunum
- 8 feet long
3. Ileum
- 11 feet long
◼ The small intestine produces 7 enzymes.
There are a total of 17 enzymes that are
dumped into the duodenum for digestion.
◼ The small intestine is the area where most
digestion occurs.
◼ It is also the place where 74% of the
absorption of nutrients occur.
◼ The absorptive area is increased by:
1. circular folds called PLICAE CIRCULARIS.
2. Microscopic VILLI
3. MICROVILLI
These structures increase the surface area of the small
intestine by 600x
◼ Within the plicae circularis are arteries, capillaries,
and veins. The veins drain into the HEPATIC PORTAL
SYSTEM which ultimately drain into the liver and
INFERIOR VENA CAVA.
◼ There is also lymphatic drainage via LACTEALS which
drain into the CISTERNA CHYLI. These drain into
the THORACIC DUCT.
◼ SEGMENTAL PERISTLASIS occurs in
the small intestine. This segmenting
results in a sausage appearing structure.
◼ The ileocecal valve (sphincter) regulates
flow into to large intestine. It also
prevents backflow from the large
intestine into the small intestine.
 Sources of Intestinal Secretions
Esophagus
Stomach

Cystic Duct Hepatic Ducts

Common Spleen
Gall Bile Duct
Bladder
pancreas

villi Jejunum
Duodenum
microvilli
 The Large Intestine
◼ 5 feet long
◼ The CECUM extends as a
2.5 inch blind sac
caudally from the
sphincter.
◼ Off the cecum is the
APPENDIX. There is
currently no purpose for
the appendix. Some
research is pointing
toward an immune
function.
◼ From the cecum is the
ASCENDING COLON (5
inches). It is
retroperitoneal.
◼ The RIGHT COLIC
FLEXURE leads to the
TRNASVERSE COLON (15
inches).
◼ The LEFT COLIC FLEXURE
leads to the DESCENDING
COLON (10 inches) and it is
also retroperitoneal.
◼ The descending colon leads to the SIGMOID COLON.
The name change occurs at the SIGMOID FLEXURE.
◼ The RECTUM (5 inches) leads to the ANAL CANAL (7
inches).
◼ The final sphincter in the tract is the SPHINCTER
ANI.
◼ The sigmoid and rectum are also retroperitoneal.
◼ The transverse colon hands on a piece of the
MESOCOLIC LIGAMENT.
◼ It hangs into the umbilical region.
◼ The longitudinal bands of muscle in the colon are
three bands that do not completely surround the
structure.
◼ The only part of the large intestine that have
complete muscle coverage is the rectum.
 Parotid Gland

Liver esophagus
Gastroesophageal
sphincter
Fundus of
Stomach
pancreas
Gall
bladder
Pylorus of
stomach

cecum
◼ The muscles act like a drawstring that contract the colon into
little pouches. These pouches are called HAUSTRA.
◼ The material that reaches the colon is undigested and/or
undigestable.
◼ Bacteria live in the colon. These are important for the synthesis
of Vit. B12 and K. Other bacteria are responsible for destroying
the “bad” bacteria.
◼ E. coli is an example
◼ The sphincter ani is an involuntary smooth muscle.
◼ The DEFECATION REFLEX which is kept in control by the
sigmoid flexure and peristaltic activity.
◼ When peristalsis occurs the sphincter ani relaxes. An
EXTERNAL SPHINCTER (skeletal muscle) can oppose the
sphincter ani. This allows you to “hold it in” until you find a
bathroom!
◼ The first part and part of the second third of the esophagus
are also made of skeletal muscle. The rest of the GI tract is
smooth muscle.
 Transverse Colon

Tenia
coli
Haustra
Descending
Terminal Colon
Ileum

cecum
rectum
appendix
Anal Canal
 Liver

◼ 5 functions:

1. Detoxification of blood
2. Carbohydrate metabolism
-glycogenesis – formation of glycogen
from excess glucose in
circulation.
-glycogenolysis – breakdown of glycogen in
times of fasting.
-gluconeogenesis-formation of glucose in
hepatocytes from raw
materials.
3. Lipid metabolism
-synthesizes large quantities of
cholesterol and phospholipids.
-oxidizing triglycerides to produce energy.
4. Protein synthesis
5. Secretion of bile
◼ Bile contains bile salts, water, pigments,
cholesterol, and lecithin (a phospholipid)
◼ Bile salts act like detergents and EMULSIFY
fats. Makes fat form into small droplets that
are more soluble. Greater surface area
makes it more digestible.
◼ Bile is stored in the GALL BLADDER where it is
concentrated. When fat is detected in the
duodenum, the gall bladder contracts and bile is
discharged into it.
◼ The COMMON BILE DUCT comes into the first inch
of the duodenum. Its opening is called the AMPULLA
OF VATER. This opening is controlled by the
SPHINCTER OF ODDI. This sphincter relaxes when
the gall bladder contracts.
 Pancreas
◼ Produces approx. 10 enzymes which are responsible
for digestion.
◼ The PANCREATIC DUCT carries these enzymes
directly into the common bile duct. Sometimes it
empties directly into the duodenum (anatomic
variance).
◼ Also secretes BICARBONATE which neutralizes the
duodenal contents.
◼ The ISLETS OF LANGERHANS produce INSULIN
and GLUCAGON.
 Spleen
◼ Stores blood
◼ Produces WBC
◼ Part of lymphatic
system
◼ Found midaxillary,
deep to ribs 9-11 and
superior to the TPL.