Chapter One

Rocks and minerals

Formation of Rocks
Rock cycle
The Rock Cycle represents the changes between the three rock types and the processes causing them.

Types of Rocks
Igneous rocks:

• Made when liquid magma cools to form solid rock.

• Molten rock below the surface is called magma, and lava when it reaches the surface.
• Extrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools quickly, small crystals, e.g., basalt, are formed.
• Intrusive igneous rock: if the rock cools slowly, large crystals, e.g., granite, are formed.
• Examples: Granite and Basalt

Sedimentary rocks:
• Formed by the weathering of existing rocks at the Earth’s surface.
• Fossils may be present.
• Sediments (small particles of rocks) accumulate into layers and get pressurized due to the newer
deposits above them.
• The sediments are transported by water and wind (erosion).
• Particles like clays, silts, sands, gravels, and small boulders are found in sediments.
• Examples: limestone, sandstone, and shale.

Metamorphic rocks:

• Formed from the existing rock when heat and/or pressure causes changes in the rock crystals
without melting it.
• The changes can be physical, chemical, or both.
• Examples: marble and slate.

Extraction of Rocks and Minerals from the Earth

Exploring for minerals:

Prospecting: a process of searching for minerals by examining the surface of the rocks

Ore: A rock with enough important mineral to make it worth mining

Methods of exploration

Remote sensing: a process in which information is gathered about the Earth’s surface from above.

• Photographs of the area are taken from air.

 • The images are carefully analyzed for mineral presence.
• Aerial photography can cover more ground than a person on the surface.

Satellite signals:

• Some satellites send signals to the Earth’s surface and collect the reflected signals, indicating the
presence of minerals.
• The unique radiation pattern is processed and analyzed by computers
• The system works in all weather conditions.
• The GPS gives the exact location.
• Large area covered in low-cost
• Most efficient method

Geochemical analysis and field surveys

• Geochemical analysis: analyzing the chemical properties of rocks (by taking samples).
• The samples can be taken from stream sediments, soil or rocks (using shallow drilling).
• The location of the sample points can be accurately found using the Global Positioning System
(GPS)

Geophysics: method to identify mineral ores in rocks using their physical properties.

A series of vibrations (seismic waves) are sent through the Earth’s surface.

Several sensors are placed at different distances from the source of vibrations on the surface.

The vibrations create shock waves that travel down into the rock layers.

They are reflected to the sensors on the surface.

The shock waves record different patterns depending on the minerals present in the rock layers.

Methods of extraction:
There are two methods of extraction

1. Surface mining
2. Sub-surface mining

Surface mining includes open-cast (open-pit, open-cut) and strip mining.

1. Open-pit mining is used when a valuable deposit is located near the surface.
2. The vegetation is cleared, and topsoil is removed.
3. The rocks are broken up and loosened with explosives.
4. The loose rock is removed using diggers.
5. The rock or mineral is tipped into trucks or railway wagons.
6. Building materials such as sand, gravel, and stone are removed from open pits called quarries.
7. Strip mining is used to mine a seam of mineral.
8. The overburden (the unwanted overlying rock and soil) is removed as a thin strip.
9. It is mainly used to mine coal and lignite
Sub-surface mining includes deep and shaft mining.

1. A vertical shaft is sunk into the rock layer containing minerals.

2. A horizontal tunnel is made, following the mineral layer.
3. The minerals are extracted by digging (by machines and miners).
4. The loose rock is brought from the mine and piled up on waste heaps on the surface.
5. The minerals are brought to the surface and transported in trucks or trains

Factors that affect the decision to extract rocks and minerals:

Geology:

• High-grade ores yield more of the required chemical elements than low-grade ores.
• Small deposits of high-grade ore are worth mining.
• Small deposits of low-grade ore that cannot be mined at a profit are left as reserves. Minerals
that are near to the surface are extracted first while minerals deep underground with faulting
and folding are hard to extract.

Accessibility:

• Transporting the ore from the mine to processing plants can be difficult and expensive.
• The cost of building road or rail links to the processing plant or the nearest export port must be
considered.
• Carrying out some processing at the mine reduces transport costs.
• The mining company must be given a license before extracting a deposit.
• A long-term agreement between the government and mining companies must be reached to
avoid rapid rises in the tax, which makes mining unprofitable.

Environmental impact assessment:

• For the license application to be approved, the company must have a plan to keep the loss of
habitat minimal, followed by the restoration of land after the completion of mining.
• The choice of site for mine waste should also be considered.

Supply and demand: the relation between how much of a commodity is available and how much is
needed or wanted by the consumers.

• An increase in world demand for any mineral ore will elevate the prices.
• The profit from a working mine depends on changes in supply and demand.
• If the demand is too high, mines that were not profitable before becoming worth mining.
• If the demand falls, working mines may lose due to the transport and extraction expenses.

Impact of Rock and Mineral Extraction

Environmental impacts:

• Loss of habitat as the vegetation is cleared

• Plants do not have a place to grow, so the animals depending on them for food and shelter are
affected.
Pollution:

Noise pollution:

• Due to machinery, explosives and trucks carrying equipment and minerals.

• Disturbs the behavior of animal species and causes hearing problems for people.

Water pollution:

• Water supplies may also be polluted, making it unsafe for people to drink.
• The water may become acidic and dissolved toxic metal ions kills many aquatic organisms.
• Chemicals from mines might contaminate water sources which causes bioaccumulation and
biomagnification.

Bioaccumulation: organisms absorb and retain the chemical ions in their body, reaching a concentration
higher than that in water.

Biomagnification: the concentrations increase higher up in the food chain and cause the death of top
consumers.

Land pollution:

• Huge pits on the ground and waste heaps which affects the scenery/If they are not stable they
will collapse damaging natural habitats, blocking roads or contaminating rivers and lakes.
• The toxic nature of the waste doesn’t allow plant growth even years after the mining is stopped.

Air pollution:

• Dust particles from mining settle on the vegetation, not allowing sunlight to reach the leaves
and thus reducing the rate of photosynthesis. Fumes from processing units can affect people’s
health.
• Breathing in dust that remains in the lungs can cause serious lung diseases.

Visual pollution:

The landscape is damaged by pits and waste heaps.

Economic Impacts:

• Jobs are created in the extraction and transporting of minerals

• Increase in the Country’s economy
• Earn foreign exchange.
• The income earned can be used for buying goods and services and investing in infrastructure
projects.
• Improvements to transport
Social Impacts:

Positive:

✓ Better standard of living due to economic gain

✓ Improvements to services, like healthcare and education
✓ Investing in infrastructure projects can help the country in building more well-designed
communities.

Negative:

It affects miners’ health; tunnels collapse, explosions and bad air quality affect their health
(respiratory diseases)
Affects health of civilians due to pollution
Lack of safety

Managing the Impact of Rock and Mineral Extraction

Safe disposal of mining waste:

• Mine waste must be stored to prevent collapse.

• The site of the mine must prevent the chances of water pollution.
• The waste must be monitored to detect any movement or further pollution.

Land restoration

Tree planting and creating nature reserves:

• Covering pits with overburden and adding the stored top soil. Introducing fertilizers to improve
soil.
• After improving soil fertility, plants and trees can be grown in that area, helping an ecosystem to
be reborn.
• Several tree and herb species are introduced. This will help maintain the biodiversity
• As their populations grow, they create habitats for many species.
• These nature reserves become valuable green spaces for human recreation and help in
maintaining biodiversity.

Making lakes:

• If the rock lining the hole (created by the extraction) is non-toxic and impervious to water, it can
be filled with water to form a reservoir or lake.
• It is used for irrigating farmland or processing to provide clean, safe drinking water for humans
or for recreation activities

Landfilling: Pits could be used to dump waste.

Sanitary landfilling: As in landfilling, the waste is used to fill the hole, but alternating layers of waste and
sand are used.

• The waste is tipped into a hole; from time to time, it is leveled off and compacted.
 • After (sanitary) landfilling, mine waste can be covered by a layer of soil, that can be enriched
with fertilizers.

Landfilling: the waste is tipped into a hole; from time to time, it is leveled off and compacted.

Bioremediation:

• It is a process of removing pollutants from waste using living organisms.

• In situ treatment: treatment of contaminated waste where it’s left.
• Ex-situ treatment: removal of contaminated waste from a site to a treatment plant.
• Often happens slowly (can be sped up by providing oxygen and nitrogen).
• Microorganisms, like bacteria, can absorb pollutants and metabolize them into less harmful
substances.
• Some plants have the ability to bioaccumulate toxic metals.
• After these plants grow for a while, the parts of the plants aboveground are removed so the
waste in the ground becomes less toxic.

Sustainable Use of Rocks and Minerals

Sustainable resource: a resource that can be continuously replenished e.g. agriculture, forestry, etc.

Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Strategies for the sustainable use of rocks and minerals:

✓ Increasing the efficiency of the extraction of rocks and minerals:

• Mine wastes must be processed for the second time.
• This allows the valuable minerals to be recovered and reduces the risk of pollution due to mine
waste.
• Chemical treatment of the waste and biological treatment (using microorganisms) still extracts
much of the valuable minerals within it.
• Improvements in the performance of the machines used in mining and processing.

✓ Increasing the efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals:

• Engineering solutions e.g. design of steel beams with the same strength but using less steel.
• Reusing waste to make new products.
• Reducing the use of minerals by introducing substitutes. E.g. Using plastic for water pipes
instead of copper.
✓ The Need to Recycle Rocks and Minerals:
• Recycling uses less energy than processing the ores.
• Recycling also produces less waste and, thus, reduces the risk of pollution.
✓ Legislation:
• Governments pass laws that require manufacturers to become responsible for recycling and
reusing.
Chapter two
Energy and the Environment
Fossil Fuel Formation

Fossil fuels: carbon-based fuels formed millions of years ago from the decay of living matter.

Coal: formed from plants.

Oil and natural gas: formed from sea creatures.

Formation of coal:

• Huge forests grew millions of years ago, covering most of the Earth.
• The vegetation died and formed peat.
• The peat was compressed between layers of sediments to form lignite (low-grade coal).
• Further compression formed coal.

Formation of oil and natural gas:

Small animals and plants die and fall to the bottom of the sea.

• Sediments cover their remains.

• As the sediments start forming layers, they start to change into sandstone as the temperature
and pressure increase.
• The heat and pressure turn the remains into crude oil and natural gas.
• They separate and rise through the sandstone, filling in the pores.
• The rock above the oil and gas is impervious (non-porous).
• So, they get trapped underneath it.

Energy Resources and the Generation of Electricity

The demand for energy is increasing worldwide due to:

1. Increasing population size.

2. Increasing industrialization and urbanization.
3. Improvements in standards of living and expectations.

Types of Energy Sources:

Non-renewable

Limited cannot be used over and over again

Take millions of years to form

Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) and nuclear energy.
Renewable

Can be replenished in a short period of time

Geothermal power Hydro-electric power

Tidal power Wave power

Wind power Solar power

How energy sources are used to generate electricity:

Turbine: a machine, often containing fins, that is made to revolve by gas, steam or air (it is connected to
a generator).

Generator: a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Fossil fuels and Biofuels:

 These produce a massive amount of energy during combustion that is used to heat water and
convert it into steam, which thereby drives the turbines.
 Carbon dioxide and toxic gases are released when burnt contributes to global warming and acid
rain
 Limited supply (non-renewable).
 Damages local area;

✓ The technology used is well-known and the methods of extraction are well-practiced
✓ Provides job opportunities (mining and processing);
✓ Energy dense
✓ Not weather dependent; Reliable

Nuclear power:

Uranium, a radioactive element, releases huge amounts of energy when nuclear fission (splitting of the
atom) occurs.

This energy is used to heat the water, produce steam, and rotate the turbines. Nuclear fuels last for
centuries and are a good replacement for fossil fuels.

 Uranium is non-renewable.
 Waste remains radioactive for many years and it increases the risk of cancer and genetic
mutations
 Expensive to dispose waste and decommission power station
✓ They are energy dense.
✓ Not weather dependent.
✓ Do not contribute to global warming and climate change
Geothermal power:

Cold water is pumped under pressure into a layer of hot rocks deep underground.

The rocks heat the water.

The hot water returns to the surface under pressure.

The steam produced moves the turbine, generating electricity.

✓ Does not contribute to global warming or acid rain;

✓ non-finite/renewable /not weather dependent
 It is very expensive to develop and maintain and require certain physical conditions (volcanic
areas)

Wind power:

Wind turbines have shafts (blades) that rotate due to wind.

Gearbox maximizes the rotation of the shaft.

Brakes slow down or stop the rotor in very windy conditions, preventing damage to the blade.

As the turbine rotates, the generator produces electricity.

✓ Do not contribute to global warming and generate an income to farmers who allow their land to
be used.
 It kills birds, creates noise and visual pollution; modest output; needs backup power station
 Maintenance is very expensive and have a short life span
 Weather dependent
 Causes visual and noise pollution

Solar power:

Uses photovoltaic cells that produce a small electric charge when exposed to light.

A bank of cells organized into solar panels produce a significant amount of electricity.

✓ Renewable; do not contribute to global warming; enables homes and houses far from the
national grid to have electricity.
 Weather dependent; suitable for countries with long sunshine hours (tropical countries)
 Fields of solar panels on farmland cause food shortages and visually polluting;
 Cadmium sulphide is used to make solar panels

Tidal power:

Uses the natural rise and fall in the level of water in an area caused by moon gravity.

When the levels drop, water is held back by a tidal barrage (a small dam that releases water back
through a turbine).
 ✓ Provide lots of energy without global warming or acid rain; and the barrage built could be used
as bridge
 It is very expensive and there are concerns about the wildlife in the estuary; prevent fish
migration and reduce tidal flow
 Negative impacts on tourism and fishing activities

Wave power:

Also uses turbine and generator.

Uses the smaller differences in water levels that are caused by wind.

Small energy wave converters are sited in the coast (limpet)or off-shore

✓ Do not contribute to global warming or acid rain

✓ Renewable
✓ Modest output
 Wildlife could be affected if they come in contact with blades and noise might frighten them
away
 Weather dependent; need back up power station and outputs are modest
 Structures could be navigational hazards
 Require physical features (coastal areas)

Hydro-electric power:

Uses a dam on a river to store water in a reservoir.

Water is released from the reservoir that flows through the turbine, rotating it.

The turbine then activates a generator that generates electricity.

✓ Running costs are cheap; no global warming; prevent flooding

✓ Greater flexibility in power output; can increase or decrease production as needed
✓ Reservoirs can store water for irrigation, domestic use, fish farming or recreational activities
which creates jobs in tourism for local people.
 High cost of construction (Require very expensive equipment and trained workers and time);
countries may get in debt
 Best physical conditions are remote from places people live that is why it requires long distance
powerlines.
 Forests are cleared and habitats are destroyed
 People living in the valley that is going to be flooded are forced to relocate and most of the time
they are not compensated
 Lower water level downstream which affects fish; Trap sediments which fertilize the soil forcing
farmers to us chemical fertilizers and the sediments might reduce the storage in reservoir
Biofuels:

Wood, bioethanol or biogas are burned to provide heat to boil water and produce steam in order to
move turbines and generate electricity.

✓ Renewable source; Plentiful supply

✓ Carbon dioxide and toxic gases are released when burnt but they are carbon neutral. ( This
advantage is lost if they are transported long distances for use)

✓ The price of electricity they produce is more stable than other energy resources, supplies are
more secure and the need to import fuels is reduced.

✓ Growing more plants uses carbon dioxide;

 Lot of land needed.
 Shortage of land for agriculture which might cause food shortages or increase food prices
 The plantations replace forests which cause loss of habitats and biodiversity

Energy Demand

Domestic demand:

Created by affordability, availability and social status.

Most of the purchases that are considered as necessities now increase the demand for energy supplies,
notably electricity.

Example:

Fruits and vegetables, that aren’t naturally available in the season locally, are produced in glasshouses
or in areas with a favorable climate and are then transported.

In both the scenarios (glasshouse operation and transport), the energy cost is significant.

Industrial demand:

Manufacturing requires the use of large amounts of energy throughout the production e.g. iron and
steel production.

Advanced manufacturing techniques made the products, that were once luxury items, cheaper.

So, more people want to buy them.

The demand for energy (needed for production) also increases.

Transport:

Manufacturers supply customers across the globe.

This decreases production costs in countries that import, but increases the transport costs as they
require large amounts of fossil fuels to operate.

Personal and national wealth:

More money to spend on luxury items;

Increase in demand for energy (for production).

If economic conditions are poor:

Families have less money to spend on luxury items;

Need to make savings;

Reduce the use of fuel;

Reduce the purchase and use of electrical items;

Decrease in the demand for energy.

Climate:

The demand for energy with regard to climate depends on the country.

People living in a temperate climate are likely to experience colder winters, so the energy demand for
heating would be far higher.

They also experience fewer hours of daylight.

This increases the usage of electrical lighting.

Climate change (excessive heat or cold) increased the energy consumption (particularly in urban areas).

Need for additional heating.

Installation and operation of air-conditioning units.

Conservation and Management of Energy Sources
Strategies for the efficient management of energy resources:

Reducing consumption:

✓ Reducing the amount of energy used to heat a building by:

1. Insulation: constructing using material with good insulation properties prevents loss of heat.

Cavity wall insulation: a gap between inside and outside walls is filled with an insulating material,
causing the heat to pass through more slowly.

2. Double glazing: two panes of glass with a gap in the middle to act as an insulator.

This sealed gap is usually filled with air or an inert gas e.g. argon.

3. Triple glazing can also be used, but it is too expensive.

4. Minimize artificial lightings and use skylights and large windows
5. Heat recovery systems
6. Programmable thermostats to regulate heating and cooling
7. Switch to renewable like solar panels
✓ Electrical devices must be turned off when not in use.
✓ Devices cannot be left in ‘standby’ mode.
✓ More energy-efficient devices must be bought.
✓ Developing alternative fuels for vehicles and further in engine technology.
✓ ‘Scrappage’ schemes: remove inefficient machines from use (electrical appliances or vehicles).
✓ Recycling of scrap materials uses less energy

Energy from waste:

✓ Incinerate waste to extract energy from them before they are disposed.
✓ Anaerobic digestion: breaking down of organic matter (waste food and vegetation) using
bacteria.

This process takes place in a sealed container and releases methane (a flammable gas) that can be used
for heating purposes.

The composted waste can be used as organic matter to improve soil structure.

✓ Household rubbish can be incinerated (burnt) to produce heat, that can be used to generate
electricity;

Waste from burning (ash) is small in volume. Thus, it doesn’t take up much space.

Produces poisonous gases during combustion.

✓ Vegetable oils can be collected and recycled into biofuels suitable for running vehicles;
Education:

✓ Governments advertise the benefits of energy conservation and provide subsides on

alternatives;
✓ Promote new ways of thinking;
✓ The message must be that significant savings in energy bills can be made over the longer term,
reducing energy use;
✓ Energy-efficiency ratings must be provided for new products to compare with the old ones.

The role of governments

1. Laws passed to make changes to renewable rapid:

2. Stricter building regulations: new constructions must be more energy efficient.
3. Preventing the sales of inefficient types of electrical devices.
4. Incentives to encourage the purchase of more efficient technologies:; hybrid cars
5. Insulating older houses that are not energy efficient;
6. Replacing older, inefficient electrical devices;
7. Scrapping older, inefficient cars, that emit more pollutants.

The type of energy source used depends on social, environmental and economic factors.

The current solution is to use a renewable resource as a primary energy source when possible and have
a fossil-fuel (or biofuel) powered station available as a backup when weather conditions are not
suitable.

This is a reliable source for industry and households and reduces the amount of fossil fuels used.

Transport policies:

✓ Regulations regarding the quality of exhaust gases from vehicles;

✓ Check on the fuel efficiency;
✓ Restrictions on where vehicles may go;
✓ Taxation on fuels;
✓ Charges for travelling to certain places at peak times;
✓ Improving public transport so it is easier and cheaper than using cars;
✓ Improving routes for cyclists and pedestrians;
✓ Encouraging car-sharing;

Restricting when cars can be used e.g. odd even rule in Delhi;

Providing incentives to buy more fuel-efficient vehicles and for vehicles using cleaner technology.
Development of new resources: (increasing efficiency in extraction)

Fracking: obtaining oil or gas from shale rock by splitting them open using water, sand and chemicals.

A vertical hole (2-3 km deep) is drilled to reach the fuel-rich rocks (shale rocks).

Water, sand and chemicals are pumped down into the shale rock layer.

This causes the rock to fracture, releasing oil and natural gas, which are forced back to the surface and
collected.

Purpose of the three components:

Water: easy to handle (in high pressure).

Chemicals: stop the blockage of pipes.

Sand: keeps the cracks in the rock open.

Advantages Disadvantages

Access to more oil and gas; Risk of toxins entering the water table;

Less pollution than burning coal Chemicals are toxic and may affect local residents;

The need to import reduces; Uses a lot of water; may cause water scarcity;

Provide many jobs locally. Noise pollution; Natural areas damaged;

May cause additional Earth tremors.

Impacts of Oil Pollution

Main causes of marine oil spills:

1. Offshore oil extraction: leakage from the rigs or blowouts

2. Oil pipelines: leaks in the oil pipework.
3. Shipping: risk of collision or damage to oil tankers or pipelines

Effects of an oil spill:

Phytoplankton

Oil floats on the surface of the water and blocks the sunlight from entering. The phytoplankton can’t
photosynthesize, so they die.

Fish

Shortage of food; reduction in phytoplankton.

Oil floating on the surface prevents gas exchange. Fish become short of oxygen and die;
Direct contact of the fish with oil affects their gills.

Birds

Oil covers their feathers causing hypothermia by reducing insulating properties and impeding their
ability to fly and feed;

May consume oil when eating fish (toxic) which bioaccumulates in their bodies

Mammals

Food sources are depleted;

Mammals may also swallow oil while feeding (toxic);

The coating of oil will affect their skin.

Whales and dolphins cannot breathe as oil enters their lungs

Reefs

Complete devastation of the reef due to lack of oxygen (species die);

Oil reduces the ability of the corals to reproduce

Areas may be covered in oil; These areas are habitats for small fish like parrotfish and shell fish

Beaches

Oil washed by tides coats rocks;

Organisms in shallow water and rock pools may die due to toxic effects of the oil;

Animal food sources, tourism and fishing activities are affected.

Economic impact

Fishing industry collapse

Beaches closed and tourists are kept away

Oil companies stop their activities

Management of Oil Pollution

Reducing oil spills in marine environments:

MARPOL: International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships.

Regulations of the MARPOL:

Supervise the transport of oil at sea;

All tankers must be certificated to show they have appropriate systems in use;

Else, it can result in a heavy fine or the ship may not be permitted to leave port.
Trained sailors; Using GPS to avoid sensitive environments

Improve tanker design:

Oil spill can be caused by damage to the hull (a hole in the hull of the boat causes its contents to leak).

Double-hulled tankers: if the outer layer’s damaged, the contents are still secure by the inner plate.

Though double-hulled tankers cost more than single-hulled, the risks of oil spill are far less.

Minimizing the impact of oil spills:

Floating booms: a floating barrier is used to surround the oil slick, preventing it from spreading.

This process works well when the spill covers a relatively small area and the sea is calm.

Detergent sprays: detergents help break down the oil slick into smaller droplets, that eventually
degrade, and disperse it.

They are effective on smaller spills, but cause damage to the coral reefs themselves as they’re not
tolerant to detergents.

Skimmers: clean the water using a material that oil easily attaches to.

The skimmer drags oil off the seawater surface, that is then scrapped off into a container.

This system is used when oil slick is contained within a boom and the sea is calm.

When the oil reaches beaches, it can only be removed by hand (difficult and time-consuming).
Chapter three
Agriculture and the Environment
Soil Composition

Mineral particles: combination of rock fragments and other inorganic substances.

They are formed due to physical, chemical and biological weathering of the parent rock.

Organic content: mixture of living plants, animals, microorganisms and their dead remain.

Air: held within the pore spaces (between the mineral particles and organic content).

Air enters the soil by diffusion.

Water: held within the pore spaces (water that is available for plant growth).

Water enters the soil when there’s precipitation or when the soil is irrigated.

The proportion of these components depends on:

Type of soil depends on:

Way, it has been managed;

Local climatic conditions;

Size of the mineral particles.

Soil can be classified into three groups:

Type Size Texture

Sand 2.0-0.02 mm Gritty

Silt 0.02-0.002 mm Silky or soapy

clay <0.002 mm Sticky when wet and hard when dried

Soils for Plant Growth

Soil is the cheapest and most abundant medium in which water, mineral nutrients, anchorage and
oxygen can be supplied to a plant.

Plants require a supply of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and a range of other elements to construct
proteins and carry out life processes.

Element Supplied as

Nitrogen Nitrate ions (NO3-)

Phosphorus Phosphate ions (PO43-)

Potassium Potassium ions (K+)

Organic content: decomposers that produce humus

Earthworms: break down vegetation; mix the soil; aerate the soil; spread organic matter through the
soil.

Fungi: feed directly on dead matter; digest hard woody items; aid plants to take up nutrients through
their roots.

Bacteria: work on organic matter; convert waste products to simple chemicals; some convert nitrogen
to nitrates ‫ ؞‬important in nitrogen cycle.

High levels of organic matter:

1. Increase the water-holding capacity (like a sponge)/ means less irrigation is required
2. Increase air spaces in the soil;
3. Increase no. of decomposers, tunnels and burrows in the soil, providing additional drainage and
less compaction;
4. Prevent the loss of mineral nutrients (humus holds on to mineral nutrients).
5. Reduce the risk of soil erosion by large size particles that form a base for other soil particles to
bind to;
6. Allow plant to develop strong roots that bind soil together

Soil pH:

Depends on the type of parent rock and pH of water that flows into the area;

Affects the uptake of nutrients by plant roots;

Affects the availability of nutrients and micro-organisms;

Farmers can try changing the pH of the soil either to acidify it (using fertilizers that have an acidic effect)
or make it alkaline (adding ground limestone).

Sand Clay

Larger air spaces Poor air spaces

Drains well Poor drainage

Poor retention of humus Retains humus

Easier to cultivate Hard to cultivate

Drainage: capacity of the soil to drain water must be medium (no water loss; no surplus amount of
water).

Affects the ease of cultivation: how easily the soil can be ploughed.

Adding organic matter to clay soils is one way to solve the drainage problem. Another way is by adding
sand or injecting air pockets into the soil. The same strategy of adding organic matter can improve water
retention in sandy soils.
Agriculture Types: depends on climate, culture, technology and economics.

Subsistence

Cultivation of food to meet the needs of the farmers and their families; Surplus is bartered for other
goods (or cash). Examples: wheat and rice.

Commercial

Cultivation of food with the main aim of selling them for cash;

Examples: tea, coffee, cocoa, sugarcane, cotton, rice, wheat and corn.

Arable Pastoral

Production of plants for consumption by humans. Production of animals or animal-related products.

Examples: rice, wheat, maize and soybeans. Examples: milk, wool or meat;

Mixed:

Farms that grow crops for food and rear animals. Farm production can also be described by evaluating
the relative yield compared with the size of the space used.

Extensive production: occurs when there is relatively small amount of production (either crops or
animals) from a large area of land.

Intensive production: occurs where large amounts are produced from small areas of land. This type of
production intends to have high inputs such as a lot of labor, fertilizers or machinery.

Shifting cultivation (Traditional form of subsistence farming):

A small plot of forest is cleared by slash and burn. The resulting ash fertilize the soil and enable the
growth of food corps like maize and vegetables. These are harvested when ready. After two or three
years the soil loses its fertility and the plot is abandoned. Another plot is cleared and the same process is
repeated. Plants and small trees grow rapidly to take over the abandoned plot. Provided that there is no
population pressure, this type of farming does not lead to serious forest destruction. The cleared plots
are so small for the forest to re-invade and take over again once cultivation stops. The disadvantage is
that the output is very low, not many people can be supported by it.
Increasing Agricultural Yields
Crop rotation: the principle of growing different types of plants in different plots each year.

Legumes: have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules.

Leafy crops: vegetables that are required for their leaves (require a lot of nitrogen left by legumes).

Root crops: have deep root systems.

Fallow: the land is ploughed but left barren for a period to restore soil fertility and to avoid surplus
production.

Advantages of crop rotation:

1. Decrease the risk of diseases and pests

2. The soil in the new plot is likely to have the essential nutrients;
3. Crops ready to harvest at different times, less potential waste, less labor and machinery needed.
4. Only limitations are if one of the crops has little commercial value in case of commercial farming
or little nutritional value in case of subsistence farming.

Fertilizers: contain minerals such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus. Add on to the nutrients
available in the soil.

Type Advantages Disadvantages

Organic

Uses natural resources Unpleasant to handle

Supplies organic matter Harder to transport; bulky

Variable in composition

Inorganic

Meet a particular need Cost of manufacture

Easier to store, obtain and apply Transportation costs

Can be formulated to provide precise amount of each nutrient

Quick acting fertilizers

Deficiency problems are dealt with swiftly Easily leach out in heavy rain

Slow acting fertilizers

Last long; no need to reapply Little immediate impact

Leaching of fertilizers can be avoided by using slow acting ones.

Irrigation: supplying water to the crops.

• Large percentage of a plant is made up of water;

• Essential for cell activity;
• Used in photosynthesis;
• Mineral nutrient uptake requires water in the soil;
• The water must be free from pollution and low in salt.

Common water application methods:

Overhead Sprinklers

Advantages Disadvantages

Easy to set up large droplets may cap the soil

Can cover a large area from one sprinkler small droplets may be blown away by wind

No need to attach pipes to each plant Water lands on leaves and soil, which evaporates quickly

Clay Pot Irrigation System

Advantages Disadvantages

Simple technology; No evaporation Only suitable for large permanent plants;

Easy to check the amount of water large labor cost.

High efficiency.

Trickle Drip System

Advantages Disadvantages

Water placed directly at the base of the plant; Expensive to install; complex to maintain.

Automated and controlled via computer; Grit can block tubes;

Water is used very efficiently. Inflexible; cannot be moved easily.

Flood Irrigation

Advantages Disadvantages

Inexpensive; Inefficient use of water;

Can cover large areas quickly. Damages soil structure; Increase the risk of weed growth

Control of competing organism

Pesticides: used to control pests.

Weed control: weed-killing chemicals are known as herbicides.

Weed must be controlled because they:

• Compete with crops for light, water and nutrients;

• Reduce the quality of a seed or grain crop;
• Might be poisonous;
• Make cultivation difficult;
• Can block drainage systems with excessive growth;
• Can be a source of pests and diseases;

Advantages of herbicides:

Easier to manage;

Alternatives may be less effective;

Cheaper;

Results are more predictable;

Less labor needed;

Effect is more rapid.

Disadvantages

If applied during heavy rain may leach into surrounding area

Extreme sunlight can scorch foliage through herbicides droplets acting as lenses

Alternatives to herbicides are cultural controls:

Hand weeding and hoeing;

Weed barriers;

Flame guns.

Fungicides are used to kill organisms that causes diseases.

Insect control: insect-controlling chemicals are called insecticides.

Advantages

Immediate reduction in pest; maintain crop yield

Disadvantages

Residue left in crops

Kill useful insects; affect food chains

Less food for top consumers

Cause biomagnification e.g. DDT

Alternative to insecticides:

Biological control: find natural predators

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

No chemical residue on crops; Not as instant as chemical control;

No impact of spray on ecosystems; Pests may breed faster than the predator;

No need of reapplication; Predator may feed on other species.

The predators will die naturally when the pests are controlled.

Mechanization:

✓ Larger area can be cultivated;

✓ Reduces labor cost;
✓ Ploughing can be done even when soil is heavy
✓ Additional attachments can be done to apply fertilizers and pesticides.

Disadvantages

 Expensive; use fossil fuels and cause soil compaction

 Removal of hedgerows which are considered habitats
 Support large farms and rich farmers

Selective breeding:

Choose parents that exhibit the desired characteristics of the species;

Raise the offspring from these parents;

Select the best offspring that shows the desired characteristics;

Repeat the process.

Examples: beef cattle, dairy cattle, wheat and rice.

Drawbacks: slow process; less success rate.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO): the DNA of one organism is inserted into another.

Advantages Disadvantages

Disease and pest-resistance Unknown impact of the new characteristics on health

Nutritional value may increase Products are not natural

Crops can be grown in inhospitable areas Genes might get into wild plants and reduce biodiversity
Herbicide resistance Issues cause by insect-resistant varieties

Crops with longer storage lives/ less food waste

Less use of pesticides

Faster results and introduce characteristics that are not natural found

Controlled environments:

Greenhouse: Structure that support controlled growth of plants. Use glass or transparent plastic sheet,
polycarbonate which provide good insulation against external temperatures so reducing cost of heating.

Advantages Disadvantages

Maximized yield Expensive

Sensors monitor the greenhouse/ Less worker Increased risk of pests and diseases

Growth factor How to increase How to Decrease

temperature Operate heating system (e.g. insulation). Open roof ventilators.

Light Supplementary lighting. Shading material in the roof.

Humidity Misting units. Open roof ventilators.

Day length Supplementary lighting. Shading material and curtains.

Water Sprinkler or irrigation. Drainage material underneath.

Hydroponics

Growing plants without soil

Advantages Disadvantages

No need for soil Expensive

Can be used anywhere/high yields small production area

Easy to harvest require technological knowledge

Plants given exact amount of nutrients disease spread through water easily

Water is recycled/ efficient use plants can die if conditions are not maintained

Use of greenhouses require growing blueprint (growing requirement of a crop to maximize the yield)

It reduces the costs by using resources efficiently, maximize the yield and quality and use the time of
grower efficiently.
Impacts of Agriculture

Overuse of herbicides and insecticides:

Regular use of one insecticide can cause resistance within the pest population

Solution: use a range of different pesticides on a rota basis/ biological control/ GM seed

Unintended environmental damage: beneficial insects like bees are also affected and food web is
disturbed.

Spray drift: herbicides stay longer in the soil and may affect the next crop.

Heavy rainfall can cause leaching of the chemicals into nearby lakes.

Overuse of fertilizers:

• Addition of extra mineral nutrients is waste of money and resources if the soil has reached its
maximum level;
• Heavy rain can dissolve the nutrients and cause leaching;
• Excess water containing dissolved fertilizers drain into nearby lakes and rivers, leading to
eutrophication;
• Nitrates from fertilizers if consumed can cause diseases such as blue-baby syndrome;
• Large quantities can affect the pH of the soil and in turn, the availability of minerals; (Increased
acidity increase the concentration of aluminum which toxic to roots)
• Too much fertilizer dehydrates the plant (scorching);
• Imbalance of nutrient makes the plant produce lots of foliage, but no flower.

Solution: strict limits on where, when and how the fertilizers must be applied; can be replaced with
organic fertilizers.

Mismanagement of irrigation

• Causes salinization and water logging:

• Damage to soil structure,
• Death of plant roots as waterlogged soils prevent plant roots from getting enough oxygen;
• Loss of nutrients as they are dissolved and washed away with water;
• High levels of run off;‫ ؞‬soil erosion.
• Soil capping: surface of the soil becomes hard.

Salinization:

• salt content of the soil can increase.

• Irrigation water soaks into the soil to a great depth;
• Salts dissolve in the water at a great depth;
• Water evaporates from the field;
• Water and salts are drawn up to the surface;
• Salt remains at the surface and kills plant roots.
 • Prevents soil cultivation as it’s difficult to cultivate soil with a high-water content.
• Poor soil management leads to soil erosion and desertification

Overproduction and waste:

The farmers use the soil over and over again with little to no rest which leaves the soil depleted of
nutrients and minerals.

Solution: crop rotation, mixed cropping and intercropping,

Allowing farmers the freedom to choose and manage their own land can lead to a waste of resources in
a number of ways.

Waste from overproduction: too much crop means some will not be sold

Waste of storage space: it may take longer to sell so buildings are needed to store spare crop

Waste of transportation: to sell a crop, a farmer may need to travel longer distances.

Waste of quality products: low quality because it had not been sold quickly so less money.

Waste of labor: not an efficient use of time and labor if too much is produced.

Exhaustion of mineral ion content:

Soil erosion:

Causes and Impacts of Soil Erosion

Causes of soil erosion:

Removal of natural vegetation: no more roots to bind the soil together or slow down the torrents of
water, so flash flooding and rainwater run-off pick the soil and carry it away.

Overcultivation: (Loss of soil structure) ploughing breaks the soil into smaller and lighter particles. These
are more easily carried away by wind.

Overgrazing: livestock reduces the vegetation to nearly ground level, sometimes leaving no roots to hold
the soil.

Animals trample down the plants and their hoofs compact the ground.

Wind erosion:

Deforestation (due to need for space, excessive grazing, increase in development of arable crops)
increases the chance of soil getting eroded by wind.

Water erosion: heavy rainfall carries the particles away.

Excess run-off water that can’t be absorbed by soil transports the soil from that area;

Soil compaction reduces infiltration;

Gully erosion: volume of water erodes local soil further forming deeper and deeper crevices.
Impacts of soil erosion:

Topsoil is removed: the most productive layer is absent (subsoil lacks nutrients).

Organisms living in the topsoil lose their habitat/ impact on the entire ecosystem.

Silting up of water courses: flooding occurs as water bodies can’t hold excess water (space taken up by
silt).

Silt deposits can form lagoons: providing breeding grounds for mosquitoes.

Silt affects the quality and availability of water for drinking.

Aquatic organisms are buried under the silty layer: preventing light from reaching the underwater plants

Desertification: the process by which fertile land becomes desert.

Severe droughts lead to migration of the whole community.

Risk of famine and malnutrition, leading to lesser food source.

Managing Soil Erosion

Terracing: prevents the erosion of soil by rainwater on steep slopes.

In a natural slope, water runs down, increasing in speed and volume, carrying soil in the run-off.

In a terraced slope, water is held in the flat terraced areas, causing less risk of run-off and more chance
of infiltration.

Contour ploughing: ploughing of land along the contour in a parallel way.

Ridges and troughs (furrows) run along the contour.

Each furrow holds water and prevents large torrents of water from running down the slope, preventing
the formation of run-off soil.

Useful for all gradients of slopes.

Bunds: artificial banks at the edges of growing spaces to hold back water.

Useful for crops that require moist soils, e.g. rice.

The water is retained on the terrace.

Increases the quantity and fertility of the soil.

Windbreaks: a permeable barrier used to reduce the impact of wind on an area. (Nets could be used as
substitute)

Without windbreaks, the soil is eroded away.

Solid structures, like walls, force the wind into smaller spaces, increasing wind speed and causing eddy
currents.
Permeable structures, like vegetation, allow wind to pass through, decreasing its speed and, thus, the
amount of wind erosion.

Advantages: additional habitats for beneficial insects; roots of the windbreak prevent erosion due to
run-off.

Maintaining vegetation cover:

Sowing legumes immediately after a crop has been harvested prevents soil erosion.

It also provides more nitrogen to the soil, increasing its fertility for the next major crop.

When cultivating, the legumes can be ploughed into soil prior to sowing the seeds

‘No dig’ method: (No till method)

Existing vegetation is left until the new crop is grown.

Rather than cultivating the soil, herbicides are applied to kill the weeds.

Roots of the existing vegetation bind the soil until the major plant is established.

Risks: herbicide residues build up.

If the control of the cover vegetation is ineffective, it may compete with the main crop as a weed.

Addition of organic matter to improve soil structure:

Provides additional air gaps in the soil ‫ ؞‬improves soil structure;

Increases decomposers in the soil as they feed on the matter;

Adds nutrients to the soil after decomposition.

It acts like a sponge, holding the extra water and preventing soil dehydration and erosion of soil
particles.

Reduces soil erosion as the organic matter acts like a base for smaller particles.

Planting trees:

A row of trees acts as a windbreak;

Tree canopy can provide shade for smaller plants that don’t thrive for sunlight;

Provide a natural habitat for animals that feed on pests;

Tree leaves fall to the ground and add to the organic matter.

Mixed cropping: growing more than one type of plant in the same area.

Resources in the soil, like nutrients, are used more efficiently.

Intercropping: rows of a different crop are grown between the rows of the main crop. This maximizes
the use of space and other resources.

Crop rotation

Sustainable Agriculture

Aims of sustainable agriculture:

Meeting the needs of the population for agricultural products;

Making efficient use of non-renewable resources;

Supporting the natural ecosystem by following natural processes with farming techniques;

Sustaining the economic independence of farmers.

Organic fertilizers:

• Are slow acting reducing the risk of eutrophication;

• Are a waste product, using them saves on disposal costs
• Are already present on many farms with minimal transport costs
• Do not require energy for their manufacture
• Also, improve soil structure.

Managed grazing:

• Prevention of overgrazing;
• Ensure sufficient grazing;
• Maintaining appropriate soil fertility by animal waste;
• Maintaining good drainage prevents compaction of the soil.
• Use of pest-resistant varieties of crops: reduces pesticide use.
• Use of drought-resistant varieties of crops: reduces water usage for irrigation.
• Use of herbicide-resistant varieties of crops: reduces herbicide use.

Trickle Drip Irrigation: Efficient use of water

Rainwater Harvesting: the collection of rainwater, for example, from the roofs of buildings and its
storage in a tank or reservoir for later use.

Chapter four
Water and its Management
Oceans cover 75% of the Earth’s surface.

Oceans and seas contain 97% of all the Earth’s water.

Only 3% of the water on Earth is fresh water.

Nearly two-thirds (65%) of this 3% fresh water is in the ‘deep freeze’ in the ice sheets.

The Water Cycle

Precipitation: moisture that reaches the surface in the form of rain, sleet, snow, or hail.

Rain is the most common type.

Surface run-off: precipitation that flows over the ground surface, eventually finding its way into streams
and rivers.

Interception: precipitation that doesn’t reach the Earth’s surface due to being obstructed by trees and
plants.

Infiltration: precipitation soaks into sub-surface soils and moves into rocks through cracks and pore
spaces.

Through-flow: downslope movement of water through the soil, roughly parallel to the ground surface.

Ground water flow: slow horizontal movement of water through rock.

Evaporation: water from oceans, seas and other water bodies is changed from water droplets to water
vapor (invisible gas) in the atmosphere due to heat.

Transpiration: evaporation or diffusion of water from plant leaves.

Condensation: water vapor converted back into liquid (water droplets) or solid (particles of ice) due to a
decrease in temperature with increasing height by air currents, e.g. clouds.

Water Supply

Surface water: water in lakes, rivers and swamps.

Ground water: water in the soil, and in rocks under the surface of the ground.

Aquifers: water stored in porous rocks under the ground.

Alternating layers of permeable and impermeable rocks trap the water in permeable rock;

Folded layers of rock so water accumulates the most in the down fold;

Permeable rocks outcropping on the surface receive new supplies of rainwater;

Water is stored in the limestone and sandstone (porous) rocks below the water table;

Mechanical pumps, or human labor are used to raise water to the surface.
Artesian aquifer: an aquifer in which the water is trapped between two impermeable layers in a
confined aquifer under pressure.

Water from a well sunk into an artesian aquifer will rise to the surface without the need for a pump.

Potable: safe to drink.

Reservoirs: an artificial lake used as a source of water supply, usually created behind a dam or by the
side of a river (bank-side reservoir).

Service reservoir: a reservoir where potable water is stored e.g. Water tower and Cistern.

Wells: a hole bored or dug into rock to reach the water stored in them.

Rivers: a large, natural stream of water flowing in a channel to the sea, a lake, or another river.

They provide surface transfers of water from higher grounds/mountains to low-land areas where farms,
villages, towns and cities are concentrated.

Desalination: removal of salt from seawater by:

Distillation: water is boiled and released as vapor, leaving salt behind.

The vapor is then condensed as liquid water and can be used.

10-30% efficient and uses a lot of energy.

Reverse osmosis: pumping water at high pressure through a fine membrane.

30-50% efficient and requires lesser energy than distillation.

Advantages Disadvantages

Provide continuous supply of potable waters expensive to build and maintain

Safe, does not contain high level of metals use large amount of energy

Create jobs Produce huge amounts of waste (brine which damage

…………………. aquatic ecosystems)

Economically viable for coastal areas with rich energy

…………………. resources

Importing or buying water from other countries (Singapore)

Rainwater harvesting

Cloud seeding

Towing icebergs

Water Usage
Domestic

At home for drinking and cooking (3% of domestic water

Flushing toilets (Mainly in MEDCs)

Washing clothes (20%)

Gardening

Washing cars

Lost in leaks.

Water for domestic use needs to be safe.

Industrial

In factories for:

Cooling;

Mixing and making products such as dyes and paints;

Bottling and canning in food and drink industries;

Power generation.

Agricultural

Mainly for irrigation (plants need water for transporting minerals, for photosynthesis, and for the
prevention of wilting);

For domestic animals.

Water Quality and Availability

Water-rich countries: countries with plentiful fresh water supplies:

Some are large countries with plenty of land for rain to fall on e.g. Russia, Canada, China, and some with
the world’s greatest rivers flowing through them e.g. Amazon, Yangtze, Mississippi.

Some countries with large amount of rainfall compared to size, like Chile and Peru

However, big areas do not ensure water availability e.g. Australia, Argentina, Sudan, due to containing
substantial areas of desert within its borders.

Water-poor countries: countries with scarce fresh water supplies:

Dominated by desert countries.

Water conflict: conflict between countries, states, or groups over an access to water resources.

Physical water scarcity: not enough water to meet both human demands and those of ecosystems to
function effectively.
Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water scarcity.

It also occurs where water seems abundant, but resources are over-committed.

Economic water scarcity: caused by a lack of investment in water infrastructure or insufficient human
capacity to satisfy the demand of water in areas where the population cannot afford to use an adequate
source of water.

Unlike Rural areas, Urban areas have higher access to safe drinking water because:

1. Cities are more wealthy places with factories and offices;

2. On average, people’s incomes are higher;
3. Easier to put pressure on the politicians or leaders to make improvements;
4. Wealthy people are more likely to live in cities;
5. Water pipes are easier and cheaper to build when a lot of people live close together.

Multipurpose Dam Projects

Example: the Ramganga Dam, Uttarakhand, India.

Choice of site:

1. High precipitation to provide sufficient water;

2. Low temperature to prevent evaporation;
3. Built on strong impermeable rock so water doesn’t drain and has a good foundation;
4. Built high up in order to have good potential for hydro-electric power;
5. Narrow, steep sided valley for economic reasons;
6. Rivers and lakes nearby to provide water;
7. Away from developed areas to reduce the risk of pollution in reservoirs;
8. Easily accessible;

Advantages Disadvantages

Generation of electricity; Relocating people;

Flood control; Flooding land; to create a reservoir

Irrigation Disrupting the life cycles of fish and other aquatic organisms

Creates recreational land for tourism Dam may become redundant due to sediment build up

Provision of water; Creates more jobs Very expensive to build

Maximizes water storage capacity Reducing soil enrichment downstream of the dam

Renewable source of energy Requires maintenance

Doesn’t produce greenhouse gases Reduces natural fisheries

Reduces fossil fuel consumption Altering water supply for people downstream

Sustainability of dams:
Alternative for burning of fossil fuels as no greenhouse gases are produced.

Are dams sustainable?

Reservoir can become silted due to material carried into it by rivers;

Dam structure under a lot of pressure can deteriorate and eventually fail;

Have negative effects on the environment and fish population.

On the other hand, dams are a far superior alternative to fossil fuels; they do not contribute to global
warming or acid rain. They create jobs, improve infrastructure and store water.

Water Pollution and its Sources

Sewage: waste matter that is rich in organic matter, thus microbial organisms can thrive in it.

It is usually disposed in water bodies, and thus has to be treated.

Domestic waste: sewage from rural and urban settlements carry many pathogenic micro-organisms,
increasing the content of nitrates and phosphates in rivers.

Detergents, metals and other manufactured products contain traces of toxic chemicals.

Industrial processes: use of chemicals, the processing of metal ores, and the leaching of metals from
waste heaps and dumps cause the presence of metals in rivers (e.g. manganese, mercury, copper).

Gases from industrial chimneys enter the atmosphere, where they dissolve in water and form acid rain.

Agricultural practices: surpluses of phosphorous and nitrogen not absorbed by the plants are washed
from the land or percolate into the ground water.

On farms, animal manure, synthetic fertilizer, and chemical pesticides are main sources.

Agrochemicals: pesticides, herbicides and fertilizer

Impact of Water Pollution

Global inequalities in sewage and water treatment:

Developing countries have difficulty treating water and sewage compared to developed countries as
people aren’t educated and can’t put pressure on the government.

Most countries make it their priority to provide clean water supply to avoid diseases. It is easier for most
them to supply potable water than sanitation systems as it requires a lot of work and money.

Risk of infectious bacterial diseases, typhoid and cholera: water-borne diseases are caused by drinking
contaminated water.

Accumulation of toxic substances from industrial processes in lakes and rivers: reduces oxygen in lakes
and rivers, causing reduction in photosynthesis and death of fish and insect larvae.
Biomagnification of toxic substances in food chains: increases concentration of a toxic substance (e.g.
mercury and pesticides) in the tissues of organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain, causing
illness.

Bioaccumulation: accumulation of a toxic chemical in the tissue of a particular organism.

Formation of acid rain: burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil produce sulfur dioxide and oxides of
nitrogen that are blown long distances and react with water in the atmosphere.

Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water to form sulfuric acid, and Nitrogen oxides dissolves to form nitric acid
that fall in the form of rain.

The effect of acid rain on organisms in rivers and lakes:

• Lower pH makes the environment intolerable for aquatic life;

• Fish egg-laying is reduced, and young fish are malformed;
• Leaching of heavy metals such as aluminum, lead and mercury from the soil into the water;
• Aluminum clogs fish gills and causes suffocation;
• Minerals essential for life, notably calcium and potassium, are washed out of the lake or river,
reducing algae growth and leaving less food for fish and other animals.

Nutrient enrichment leading to eutrophication:

Increase in nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates, in a water body causes algae bloom (rapid
growth of algae).

Death of algae causes an increase in organic matter that acts as food for bacteria as they decompose the
dead algae.

Bacteria use up oxygen, reducing oxygen content in the water and causing the death of organisms.

Managing Pollution of Fresh Water

Improve sanitation:
By separating human excreta from contact with humans, achieved by toilets and latrines. Waste can be
removed by:

Connection to a system of sewer pipes or sewerage, that collects human faeces, urine and waste water.

Connection to a septic system, which consists of an underground, sealed settling tank.

Flush toilet: uses a holding tank for flushing water, and a water seal that prevents smells.

Pour toilet: has a water seal but uses water poured by hand for flushing.

Pit latrine: type of toilet that collects human faeces in a hole in the ground that is sometimes ventilated
to take away smells.

Composting toilet: dry toilet in which vegetable waste, straw, grass, sawdust, and ash are added to the
human waste to produce compost.
Treatment of sewage: aims to reduce the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) of the sewage
(The BOD of sewage is the amount of oxygen it would use if released directly into a river)

1. Sewage outfall: waste water from homes and industries is taken to a sewage treatment plant in
sewers.
2. Screening tank: large objects are removed from the waste using a coarse grid.
3. Primary treatment, first settling tank: solid organic matter, mainly human waste, settles at the
bottom of the tank (sludge), which is treated in a sludge-digester.
4. Clean water then overflows the sides of the tank and is taken to the next stage.
5. Secondary treatment, oxidation: water is pumped into a tank where oxygen is bubbled through
it.
6. This encourages the growth of bacteria and other microbes that break down organic matter,
which cause BOD.
7. Secondary treatment, second settling tank: water enters, where bacteria settle to the bottom,
forming more sludge.
8. This cleaner water overflows the sides of the tank as effluent, usually discharged into a river.
9. Sludge digester: oxygen-free conditions are created that encourage the growth of bacteria
which can break down the sludge, releasing methane, that can be burnt.
10. Treated sludge can be dried in sludge lagoons and used as organic fertilizer on farmland.
11. Tertiary treatment: further filtering out of its effluent or its chlorination which produces even
cleaner effluent that protects the habitat in which it is released.

Water treatment: Water is made potable by undergoing coagulation treatment, being filtered and
disinfected.

Coagulation: Particles in the water are stuck together and settle to the bottom of the container.

Water is then filtered through sand beds.

Chlorination: to kill remaining pathogens, chlorine is added as a disinfectant.

Pollution control and legislation:

1. Puts pressure on polluters to find ways to reduce pollutants.

2. Industries are required to monitor the pollution they cause and keep it within set level
3. Fines for exceeding set limits.
4. Companies may be prosecuted and in extreme cases, forced to shut down.
5. Companies may need government agreement on strategic plans to reduce pollution levels.
6. Incentives may be used to encourage companies to take part, such as grants or tax relief, for
those that do achieve a reduction in pollution.
7. Improve sanitation and sewage treatment
8. FGD in power station to reduce impact of acid rain
9. International agreements that are legally binding to control pollution of seas and oceans.
Managing Water-Related Disease
Water-borne disease: spread by consuming contaminated water due to poor sanitation and untreated
sewage, or by washing food, pots and pans, or hands and face in dirty water.

Examples: cholera and Typhoid.

Cholera: intestinal infection that causes severe diarrhea that may lead to dehydration and eventually
death.

Causes: poor sanitation, contamination of water and food, disruption of piped water supplies after a
natural disaster occurrence.

Water-bred disease: the carrier breeds in water and spreads the disease by biting its victims.

Example: Malaria.

Malaria: a life-threatening disease which is transmitted through the bite of an infected Anopheles
mosquito (vector) that carries the Plasmodium parasite. Once bitten, the parasite reaches your
bloodstream.

Symptoms: high temperature and fever, diarrhea, dehydration and feeling weak.

Strategies to control malaria:

Eradicating the vector:

1. Sterilization of male mosquitoes

2. Put kerosene over the tops of pools to choke the larvae;
3. Spray insecticides on stagnant areas of water to kill the larvae;

Control the vector:

1. Sleeping under mosquito nets and using antimalarial drugs in and around homes;
2. Draining marshes and stagnant pools to eliminate breeding grounds;
3. Use vaccinations;
4. Educate people on the risks of malaria by setting up campaigns and programs.

Strategies to control cholera:

1. Ensure that sewage and drinking water are kept separate;

2. Sewage removed directly into a treatment works;
3. Water being treated before it’s delivered into homes;
4. Do not use contaminated water to wash food;
5. Hands should be washed after contact with any faecal material;
6. Boiling water and chlorination
Why people need clean water supply?

Reduce the risk of water-related disease

Contaminated water reduces the ability to work and produce

Constant outbreak of disease affects the quality of life

Children, elderly or farmers in rural areas suffer most

Clean water ensures good health for children and they will be able to pursue education which improves
their future

Women could be productive and increase their income instead of spending most of their time fetching
water.

Chapter five
Oceans and Fisheries
Oceans as a Resource

Food: fish that includes true fish, finfish, shellfish and other sea animals that can be eaten.

Fish is the primary resources of the ocean.

Chemicals and building materials: many materials in the oceans have been eroded from the land, where
rain and wind break down rocks, and are carried into the oceans via rivers.

Diamonds are mined from the bottom of the ocean; this can be a complex process though, as the ocean
floor needs to be dredged

Some substances can be extracted directly e.g. salt, magnesium, tin, gold, titanium, diamonds. Sand,
gravel and crushed rock: mined for the construction industry.

Salt: seawater that is left behind over many weeks in the hot sun. Diamonds: found in greater numbers
in ocean floor than on land.

Much harder to mine ocean floor as it must be dredged, then the sediment silted.

Physical damage can be caused to seabed and associated habitats if care is not taken. (Fine particle
clouds that are produced resettle and interfere with photosynthesis, they also act as a source of heavy
metals that can enter food chains)

Sand and gravel are also mined for construction, though it should be done carefully as there might be
some physical damage to the seabed

Oil is a mineral that is extracted by offshore drilling rigs.

Wave energy: an enormous amount of energy in the waves is estimated to produce twice the present
world energy production if harnessed.

Tidal energy: due to the varying gravitational pull of the sun and moon, water in the sea moves up and
down twice daily.

Due to the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun, the tides move up and down twice a day

This causes it to come onto land and later recede, which can be harnessed to generate electricity.

Tourism: The seaside is a significant tourist attraction. People of MEDCs are attracted to marine sites of
outstanding natural beauty, especially coral reefs.

Some adventurous activities include diving, snorkeling, windsurfing, jet skiing, deep-sea fishing, or
simply sunbathing on the beach. Pleasure cruises are still an important economic sector.

There’s a business in boat trips to view sea creatures, especially whales and dolphins. Within tropical
waters, coral reefs attract tourists because of their natural beauty.

Resorts in the Caribbean, around The Red Sea, on the islands of the Indian Ocean and on the Great
Barrier Reef in Australia attract visitors fascinated by the diving and snorkeling possibilities among the
reefs.

How global warming affect coral reefs?

• A warming ocean: causes thermal stress that contributes to coral bleaching and infectious
disease.

• Sea level rise: may lead to increases in sedimentation for reefs. Sedimentation runoff can lead to
the smothering of corals.

• Changes in storm patterns: leads to stronger and more frequent storms that can cause the
destruction of coral reefs.

• Changes in precipitation: increased runoff of freshwater, sediment, and land-based pollutants

contribute to algal blooms and cause murky water conditions that reduce light.

• Altered ocean currents: leads to changes in connectivity and temperature regimes that
contribute to lack of food for corals and hampers dispersal of coral larvae.

• Ocean acidification: causes a reduction in pH levels which decreases coral growth and structure.

When conditions such as the temperature change, corals expel the symbiotic algae living in their tissues,
responsible for their color. A spike of 1–2°C in ocean temperatures sustained over several weeks can
lead to bleaching, turning corals white. If corals are bleached for prolonged periods, they eventually die.
Coral bleaching events often lead to the death of large amounts of corals.

Transport: ships are essential to transport people and goods; however, shipping is less common to
transport people now due to the advent of aviation.

Oceans occupy 70% and hold 97% of all water on Earth. They have great influence over climate and
weather.
 1. They stabilize temperatures on land and yield moisture back into the atmosphere.
2. They play an important role in keeping our planet warm. The majority of the sun's radiation is
absorbed by oceans especially around the equator where ocean acts as a massive, heat radiating
solar panel. Land absorbs sunlight and atmosphere helps retain the heat or it will radiate quickly
to space.
3. Oceans do not store solar radiation; it distributes heat around the globe. Ocean water is
constantly evaporating, increasing the temperature and humidity of the surrounding air to form
rain and storms carried by wind.

• The tropics are particularly rainy because heat absorption and thus evaporation is the highest.

• Outside the Equatorial areas weather patterns are driven by ocean currents. Currents are
movement of ocean water in a continuous flow created largely by surface winds. They act like
conveyor belt transporting warm water and precipitation from the Equator towards the poles
and cold water from the poles back to the tropics.

• Thus, ocean currents regulate global climate helping to counteract the uneven distribution of
solar radiation reaching earth's surface.

World Fisheries
Distribution of major fish populations:

They are found in shallow continental shelves due to the large abundance of oxygen and phytoplankton

They’re part of the food web, starting with the phytoplankton. Thus, fish are found where there are
plentiful phytoplankton.

Phytoplankton produce their food by photosynthesis which requires light, water, and carbon dioxide
(CO2).

Water is abundant in the oceans, and CO2 dissolves in the water from the atmosphere. Therefore, light
is likely to be the limiting factor for photosynthesis.

Not all areas with continental shelves have significant fisheries because:

Phytoplankton need light, CO2, and water, which allow it to make carbohydrates such as sugars but also
require mineral nutrients to make proteins. Making proteins requires a source of nitrogen and sulfur. It
also requires magnesium for chlorophyll. A lack of these nutrients, even where there is plenty of
sunlight, water and carbon dioxide will reduce the growth of phytoplankton which in turns reduce the
number of fish.

Maine fisheries distribution

✓ Main fisheries are located on continental shelves where water is shallow allowing light to
penetrate and oxygen is present. The are also the most nutrient-rich parts of the oceans.
Nutrients are carried from nearby land areas by rivers which encourages an abundance growth
of phytoplankton.
 ✓ Major fishing grounds are located in temperate zones of the Northern hemisphere. This is
mainly due to physical factors; the main one is the wide expanses of continental shelf off the
east coast of North America and Asia and off the west coast of Europe. The other factor is the
presence of ocean currents.

✓ Ocean currents carry nutrients which support the growth of phytoplankton, the primary
producers. Ecologically, the richest areas are in two types of location. One where ocean currents
meet, such as Grand Banks fishing grounds off Labrador in North America (Labrador and Gulf
Stream current). This happens because mixing of warm and cold currents helps to replenish the
oxygen and favor the growth of planktons, the primary food for fish.

✓ The other is where water from the ocean deeps wells up to the surface, such as off coast of Peru
(Peruvian current) Human factors also help to explain the distribution of major fishing grounds.
Many coastal regions in temperate areas are heavily populated. Fish has traditionally been an
important part of the diet, especially in Japan, and in Scandinavian countries like Denmark and
Norway.

Overfishing: when the number of fish caught is greater than the rate at which the fish reproduce,
leading to a fall in fish numbers in an area.

Causes of overfishing:

• Demand for fish as food due to increasing world population.

• Much bigger boats, which can work a long way from a port for many weeks.

• Finding fish easily by using sonar, satellite navigation and detailed weather data.

• Creation of huge nets that scoop up everything in an area, often half of which is discarded as
bycatch (fish caught that are of no value, usually discarded and wasted).

• Factory ships where fish are processed and frozen.

Impacts of overfishing

• Lack of growth in fish caught globally since 1990s, which affected fishing communities as many
jobs in fishing and related industries were lost. There was a huge reduction in food supply.

• Fish stocks in some fishing grounds are now at such low levels that for many years they will not
recover the numbers needed for commercial fishing to begin again.

• Imbalances of the marine ecosystem. When a particular species is caught repeatedly the food
chain is affected. Many other species of fish dependent on that particular fish will suffer due to
lack of food.

• Reduction of marine biodiversity.

• Harvest of untargeted/protected/endangered marine species that are discarded at the sea or

shore.
 • Reduced catch leading to loss of jobs and reduction in food supply

• The size of fish gets progressively smaller, increasing the demand for food

• Increase in fishing efforts

El Nino Southern Oscillation

While humans are definitely responsible for the overall decline in world fish stocks, there can be
natural causes such as variations in ocean temperature and changes in ocean currents strength
and direction.

The best-known example is referred to as El Niño.

The change in the easterly prevailing winds leads the Equatorial current to reverse its direction
towards the west coast of Americas changing the pattern of currents in the South Pacific Ocean.

Warm nutrient-poor water comes into the region from the Equator results in no upwelling of
the cold, nutrient rich water that supports the anchovy fishery.

No nutrients means that the phytoplankton will not grow well, so there’s less food for the fish.

Much of the production of the anchovy fishery is used for fishmeal used to feed farmed fish,
thus countries where this is important, are affected by a crash in the anchovy fishery.

Impacts of El Nino:

Causes droughts in Australia and Philippines, which used to receive rainfall during normal years
(La Nina)

Increase rainfall and cause flooding in the western part of Peru.

Management of the harvesting of marine species.

1. By 1982 the United Nation Law of the Sea Convention, stated that every country with coastline,
establish a zone of 200 miles (370km) around its shores. Within this zone, a country was given
the sole rights to natural resources. This is known as an Economic Exclusion Zone (EEZ).
Countries are responsible for marine resources in their own territorial waters. Countries can set
their own laws and quotas to maintain their own fisheries.

The problems with this law:

• It is difficult to judge where boundaries are at sea.

• Conflicts between territories and different laws in different areas.
• Fishing grounds may be spread over several territories.

Monitoring efforts in EEZ:

a. Large vessels with onboard observers

b. Air patrols to detect and deter unlicensed boats

c. Landings must be monitored at ports

 d. All vessels in EEZ should keep daily logs of their catches

The main way that countries manage fish stocks in their EEZ zone is through:

1. Setting quotas

Annual limits are set for the amount and types of fish that can be caught. Once the quota limit
has been reached, fishing is forbidden; boats have to remain in harbor.

This allows fish to breed and keep stocks stable, but it is difficult to make sure fishermen keep
to allowing quotas.

2. Closed seasons and restricted areas during breeding time.

This allows fish to breed and increase in number but some fishermen may fish unchallenged in
restricted areas or during restricted time.

3. Limits on net sizes and types. One of the most critical factors in managing fish stocks are
net type and mesh size. Small net sizes decrease the quantity of fish caught including
immature fish.

Large mesh sizes are essential for immature fish to breed. Small young fish can escape
through larger mesh. The problem is that some fishermen may not buy the correct nets.

4. Use pole and line fishing.

It is favored by environmental groups. This is a selective, will-targeted fishing, with minimum by

catch. It supports local communities; people are living and working in balance with the ocean.
e.g. Tuna fishing in the Maldives. Greenpeace is putting pressure on canning companies and
large supermarket chains to ensure that their tuna is responsibly sourced as there is a decline in
world tuna stocks.

The problem is fewer fish caught and reduced income as yields are reduced. The main
advantage is it causes less damage to the fragile seabed.

5. Conservation laws.

Greenpeace groups are aiming to protect over 40% of oceans by developing marine reserves.
This is very ambitious because not much more than 1% of the oceans are reserves. Fish can
breed in conservation areas and then spread out into fishing areas but it is difficult to get
agreement on conservation area especially in international water and fishermen are often
opposed to conservation as it reduces the areas in which they are allowed to fish.

These laws aim to conserve fisheries and territorial waters, protect habitats an enforcing
international fishing agreement.

6. Fish farming.

Is raising fish in tanks or enclosures for sale. Most fish farms are owned by large companies who
have the investment money needed. Only one type of fish is kept. Some are freshwater
 (aquaculture), such as trout while others are marine like salmon (mariculture). In some areas
fish are bred in irrigation channel and ponds for subsistence use.

Advantages of fish farming:

• Fish farming reduces the demand for wild fish and can allow wild population of fish to be
harvested sustainably.

• Provide employment.

• Little use of fuel and less risk to fishermen.

• Higher yield/ disease spread is controlled

• No bycatch

• Harvest all year

• Higher energy conservation rate

Environmental problems caused by fish farming.

• Fish farmed in cages or nets often develop diseases and parasites which are carried on the sea
currents to wild fish stocks, infecting them.

• Various drugs are used to keep the farmed fish healthy and these will affect the surrounding
ecosystem.

• Faeces from caged fish fall through cages and nets, polluting the surrounding water.

• Some farmed fish are carnivores and must be fed on small fish or high protein pellets made from
fishmeal. This is unsustainable as it reduces stocks of the fish used for fishmeal.

• Some farmed fish are genetically engineered to grow faster and if these escape from cages could
threaten the wild fish through competition for food.

Solutions:

1. Solid walled fish tanks which do not connect to the sea. This will stop the spread of any disease
to wild fish.

2. Waste water from tanks must be filtered before released to the environment.

3. Less risk that genetically engineered fish could escape to the wild.

4. Raise herbivores fish that feed on plant material.

How well do these strategies work?

Any law or agreement is only as good as the level of enforcement that goes with it. Because of
the vastness of the oceans, it is difficult to monitor fishery laws and agreements. Monitoring
organization based in ports have more success.

• Many local fishermen do not believe that quotas and restriction are necessary.
• Monitoring is difficult out at sea and sometimes in ports.

• Catching more than allowed by quotas and not declaring the full amount caught.

• Fishing in restricted areas or trespassing into fishing grounds belonging to another country.

• Due to fishing being important for both income and food for many people, there is a huge
incentive for illegal activities. Quotas can easily be avoided by simply not declaring how many
fish are being caught.

Why international co-operation is important in controlling marine pollution?

• All countries need ocean resources so they need to work together to preserve the
environment.
• Ocean currents and wind cause pollution to spread.
• Pollution is caused by all countries bordering oceans or landlocked countries via rivers.
• Outside territorial water there is no individual country ownership or responsibility for
the ocean or sea.
• Often it is hard to identify polluters so all need to take responsibility.
Chapter Six
Managing Natural Hazards
Earthquakes and Volcanoes

The structure of the Earth:

Layer Temp (⁰C) State Material

INNER CORE 5000 – 6000 Solid (intense pressure from overlying rocks). Iron and nickel.

OUTER CORE 4000 – 5000 Liquid. Iron and nickel.

MANTLE 1000 – 1200 Liquid (flows slowly due to convectional currents from the core).Mainly
silicate minerals.

Tectonic plate: a piece of lithosphere that moves slowly. It is made of crust and upper mantle.

Where the convention currents rise to the surface, the plates move away from each other (and vice-
versa).

Plate boundaries: where two or more plates meet.

Constructive (divergent) plate boundary:

• Two plates move away from each other.

• When two oceanic plates move away, magma rises to the surface and solidifies when it comes in
contact with cold ocean water.
• The magma turns to lava and forms a new basaltic ocean crust.
• They can also form shields or basic volcanoes (submarines) and have non-explosive eruptions,
covers a wide area with gentle slopes as the magma has low viscosity. It consists of mainly basalt
lava flows from a vent.
• This is known as sea-floor spreading or ridge push
• Small Earthquakes are triggered.
• If two continental plates move away from each other, a rift valley may form.

Destructive (converging) plate boundary:

• Two plates move towards each other. (Oceanic and continental)

• When an oceanic plate and continental plate move towards each other, the denser (oceanic)
plate is forced down (subducted) under the lighter (continental) plate.
• This happens in the subduction zone, and an ocean trench is formed.
• The friction between the plates triggers Earthquakes.
• The heat produced due to friction turns the descending plate into magma.
• The magma starts to rise and erupt (due to pressure) through a weakness in the crust as a
composite volcano.
 • It is conical in shape with steep slopes and narrow base because magma has high viscosity. The
eruptions are usually explosive but infrequent.

Destructive (diverging) plate boundary

If two continental plates move towards each other, the sediments between the two plates are
compressed (collision zone) and pushed upwards to form fold mountains. Earthquakes occur, but no
volcanic activity as there is no subduction of oceanic plate.

When two oceanic plates move towards each other, the older and denser plate is subducted. The
magma that rises upwards and erupts at the surface forms a chain of volcanic islands called an island
arc. The Japanese islands are an example.

Conservative plate (transform) boundary:

Two plates slide past each other.

They move at different speeds.

The plates get locked together, and pressure builds up until it is released as an Earthquake.

Tectonic Hazards

Distribution and causes of volcanoes:

Caused due to the tectonic activity at plate boundaries

Found on constructive and destructive plate boundaries.

Distribution and causes of earthquakes:

Caused due to the tectonic activity.

Occur mostly on the destructive and conservative plate boundaries (and sometimes on the constructive
plate boundaries).

Earthquakes:

Focus: where the Earthquake begins underground.

Epicenter: point on the surface above the focus.

Seismometer: an instrument used to measure the magnitude of an Earthquake (on the Richter scale).

Factors that affect the impact of an Earthquake:

1. Location of the epicenter; depth of the focus; Geology of the area

2. Time of the Earthquake; Relief of the area
3. Severity of aftershocks; Population density
4. Level of development of human settlement;
5. Building density and strength.

Impacts of tectonic hazards

Earthquakes

1. Damage to buildings and infrastructure;

2. Fires from ruptures of gas pipes;
3. Tsunamis hit coastlines; (caused by underwater earthquakes or volcanic eruptions which cause
the overlying water to move resulting in huge waves flooding coastal areas)
4. Landslides cover buildings and roads;
5. Destruction of farmland, leading to starvation;
6. Loss of wildlife habitats;
7. Water-related diseases because victims are in temporary accommodation with no sanitation or
clean water;
8. Water is also contaminated by broken sewage pipes or untreated sewage.
9. Loss of life
10. Trauma, poor mental health;
11. Financial losses when repairing the damage.

In case of volcanic eruptions:

1. Turbulent fast-moving clouds of hot gas and ash rolls down the slopes of some volcanoes at
rapid speed killing people.

2. Carbon dioxide can suffocate people while hydrogen sulphide, which is toxic, and sulfur dioxide
may drift over populated areas.

3. Huge amount of water vapor is also emitted which cause torrential rain.

4. Volcanic bombs and ash can kill people and bury settlements and farmland. The weight of ashes
on roofs cause collapse of buildings.

5. Ash clouds damage aircraft engines causing financial losses to airlines.

6. Fast moving, intensely hot pyroclastic flows are responsible for about half the deaths in
eruptions and cover large area with thick debris. (Pyroclastic flows: a dense destructive mass of
very hot ash, lava fragments and gases ejected explosively from a volcano flowing downslope
at great speed.)

7. Heat melts down snow on mountain tops and set off mud flows. (lahar)

Managing the Impacts of tectonic hazards

Earthquakes
Prediction:

➢ Monitor tremors (using seismometers), groundwater levels and radon gas;

➢ Epicenters and frequencies of past events can be mapped to check if a pattern is developing;

➢ Hazard zone map can be drawn (geological info and ground stability);

➢ Unusual animal behavior

 Preparation and protection

➢ Earthquake-proof or aseismic buildings. Older buildings can be modernized.

➢ In developed countries buildings are designed to sway not to collapse. They are built on very
deep foundations, with steel piles having rubber layers to give flexibility. Steel frames, damping
and bracing systems are used to stop buildings from collapsing. Regular check from authority to
make sur that builders follow the standard regulation.

➢ Smart meters to switch off gas supplies, preventing fires;

➢ Land-use planning: important services (schools, hospitals) must be built on low-risk areas.

➢ Disaster preparations; drills in schools and workplaces so people will know what to do in an
earthquake to keep safe.

➢ Train specialists emergency and rescue teams to be ready for immediate action.

➢ Store emergency supplies such as tents, drugs and drinking water.

Volcanoes
Prediction
➢ Seismometers can be used to monitor tremors caused by rising magma;
➢ Satellites using heat-seeking cameras can be used to monitor increasing ground temperatures;
➢ Tiltmeters (measure very subtle changes in the surface of the Earth as magma accumulates) and
GPS can be used to monitor changes in volcano shape;
➢ Emissions of steam and gas (sulfur dioxide) can be monitored.
➢ Analysis of the chemical content of hot springs that show increase in carbon dioxide and
hydrogen before eruption

Preparation and protection:

➢ Volcano hazard map (study past eruptions);

➢ Lava diversion channels and lava barriers;
➢ Spraying lava with water;
➢ Halting lava advance by dropping concrete slabs into the flow;
➢ Routes to evacuate people
➢ Building reinforcements, for example sloping roofs to protect against ashfall
Managing tectonic hazards during and after the event.

1. Emergency services follow plan and evacuate people, begin rescue operations and put out fires.
Sometimes they are assisted by armed forces.
2. Damage to airports is quickly repaired so that emergency workers from other countries can
land. Temporary camps are made to house survivors and provide them with essential needs.
Emergency medical teams work at disaster site or hospitals.
3. International aid agencies raise funds and send essential supplies, such as blankets, tents,
medical needs and bottled water.
4. Workers begins to restore essential services, such as water, electricity, communication and
sewage system.

Tropical Cyclones
They form when the ocean reaches a minimum of 27 degrees Celsius down to a depth of 60 meters in
summer and autumn. (Between May and November in the Northern hemisphere and November and
May in the Southern hemisphere)

Warm moist air rises creating a low-pressure causing air from surrounding high pressure areas to move
towards it. This cold air warms and rises attracting more air to fill the gap. It cools and form clouds
(cumulonimbus).

The whole system of clouds and winds spins and grows using warm air as fuel creating a cyclone. Any air
travelling into the low-pressure area has to join the spiral. As the storm system rotates faster an eye
forms in the center.

Structure of a tropical cyclone:

Eye: low pressure-area, calm, sinking air

Eye wall: Cloudy area with maximum wind speed

Spiral rainband: band of clouds rotating around eye

Tropical cyclones are storms which form in the deep warm tropical oceans and cause very strong wind
and heavy rain. Their visit to coastal locations lasts 24 to 48 hours.

They form between latitudes 5⁰ and 20⁰ north and south of the Equator. They do not form on the
equator because the Coriolis effect there is too small to generate a vortex powerful enough to form a
cyclone.

They are called hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean and eastern Pacific Ocean, cyclones in the Indian Ocean
and Australia and typhoons in the western Pacific Ocean.

A tropical cyclone can be up to 800 km in diameter and up to 20 km in height. They last for a week and
rotate in anticlockwise direction around the eye in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise direction in
the southern hemisphere.

They are categorized using the Saffir-Simson hurricane wind scale. Category 1 is when the wind speed is
between 119 and153 km/h and category 5 is reached when the speed is over 252 km/h.

Since 1953, tropical cyclones had been given girls names but in 1979 boys names were included. The list
of names is rotated every 6 years period. If the storm is very destructive the name is removed from the
list and not used again.

Impacts of tropical cyclones

➢ Flooding: coastal flooding results from storm surges. These large waves are driven by strong
onshore winds, aided by a rise in the height of the sea surface.

➢ Landslides: Any loose material on a slope can become a landslide when it has sufficient water
added to it. These landslides can rush down burying people, settlements and farms.

➢ Damage to infrastructure, farmland, crops and habitats: Buildings and bridges are destroyed by
flash floods and high winds. People are forced to live in tented camps. Strong winds bring down
power lines and uproot trees, which block roads railways. Flooding, strong winds and landslides
devastated farmland, kill crops and destroy habitats.

➢ Economical losses: People can lose their jobs and income and the economies of countries are
badly hit, not only from the loss of commercial crops but also from the cost of repairing the
infrastructure and loss of income because tourists stop visiting. In MEDCS insurance companies
have to bear enormous costs. Water-related disease: In large-scale disasters water supplies
become contaminated with floodwaters, raw sewage and rotting corpses, leading to outbreak of
cholera, typhoid, malaria and other water related diseases.

➢ Loss of life: Deaths occur for a variety of reasons, including being hit by solid objects blown by
wind, electrocution and shortage of both medical supplies and drinking water.

➢ Loss of wildlife habitats.

Management strategies
Prediction

Satellite images allow meteorologists to detect a developing cyclone at early stage and track its
movement and growth.

Warning can be issued through media for people to prepare.

➢ Sometimes authorities order evacuation of low-lying coastal area near sea. This is not taken
lightly because it causes economic loss, inconvenience and annoyance. Looting of empty
properties is a huge problem. People who have not evacuated are advised to stay indoor in the
strongest part with windows boarded. Emergency services plan and practice for the event.
People are advised to stock up with emergency supplies and take part in practice drills.

Preparation and protection

➢ Cyclone shelters are built and stocked with food and water.

➢ Embankments along the coast; or building on stilts to avoid flooding.

➢ Preserve mangrove swamps to absorb the energy of storm surges.

➢ Use tropical cyclone-proof building methods: Using shatter-proof glass and reinforced concrete
in construction. Having dome-shaped roofs which are better in withstanding strong wind.
Anchoring roofs to the foundations through the walls.

➢ After storm: Emergency services and armed forces search and rescue while hospitals prepare to
receive the injured. Restoring water, power supplies and sanitation are the early tasks.
Delivering emergency supplies to communities’ cut-off by flooding or landslides along routes.

Flooding
Physical cause Impact

Heavy rainfall Reduces the infiltration capacity of the soil; Increase in overland flow.

Prolonged rainfall Saturates the soil; Causes the water table to rise, reducing infiltration capacity.

Snowmelt Surface run-off flow increase due to rapid snowmelt.

Land relief Steeper slopes lead to faster overland flow has little time to infiltrate.

Saturated soil The more saturated the soil is (before the rainfall), lesser infiltration and more
overland flow.

Storm surges, tsunamis Flooding of low-lying coastal areas.

Human cause Impact

Deforestation Reduces interception and infiltration.

Cultivation Ploughing down rather than across slopes increases the water flow.
Urbanization Concrete and tarmac are impermeable surfaces (no infiltration ‫)؞‬

Climate change Global warming may lead to rise in sea levels and more rainfall in some areas.

Impacts

Immediate:

➢ Loss of life by drowning or by secondary impacts (diseases).

➢ Deaths of livestock: Cattle, sheep goats and poultry die as they are abandoned by owners.

➢ Crops are ruined by heavy rain and washed in flood water, resulting in loss of food stock.

➢ Homes and businesses are damaged or destroyed along with bridges, roads and railways.

Short-term:

➢ People are homeless or suffer from injuries.

➢ Shortage of safe drinking water due to water contamination by domestic and industrial waste.

➢ Food shortages and problems of moving from one place to another.

➢ After floods many people are affected by health problems caused by water-related diseases.
Many people lack proper sanitation.

Long-term:

➢ Rural people especially lose income, as do some urban dwellers.

➢ The economy of the country is also reduced by export losses and by the cost of restoring
infrastructure.

Positive impact:

➢ Deposition of silt from the flood waters which enriches farmland.

➢ Recharge of groundwater stores.

Prediction:

➢ Monitoring the amount of rainfall and river discharge

➢ Using the features of the drainage basin and type of storm to determine the severity of the flood.

Storm hydrograph: are used to show the rainfall and how a river's discharge is affected by it.
(discharge is the amount of water flowing in a river channel past a certain point over a given
time). Hydrographs help to understand the patterns of discharge of a river system so that
flooding can be predicted and flood prevention measures can be undertaken.

Preparation and protection:

Hard engineering

➢ Building dams across rivers to store water after heavy rain.

 ➢ Building embankments to raise river banks.

➢ Excavating basins into which excess river water can be diverted

➢ Straightening channels to speed water flow.

➢ Digging overflow channels

Soft engineering

➢ Allow river to flood washlands upstream of settlements

➢ Plant trees in the upper drainage basin

➢ Land-use planning to restrict development on floodplains and build houses above flood danger.

(flood plains can be used as sports field or nature reserve)

➢ Use of sandbags and pumps.

➢ Adapt houses to position power sockets 1.5 m above ground level to prevent electrocution.

Drought
Is a period of dry weather longer or worse than normally expected. Areas which suffer from droughts
are mostly found in the tropics such as Savanna and Monsoon.

Causes of drought:

➢ Lack of rain caused by prolonged high pressure:

➢ Air in a high-pressure system sinks and doesn’t form rain clouds.
➢ Effect of El Niño Southern Oscillation and La Niña:

El Niño causes the surface water in the Pacific Ocean along South America to be warmer.

These warmer waters alter storm patterns and can cause droughts in Australia.
Whereas, La Niña causes the temperature of the water along South America to decrease.
The cooler conditions cause drought in parts of North and South America.
➢ Effects of climate change:
Warmer worldwide temperatures cause the rainfall to decrease in some parts of the world,
leading to drought.
➢ Human activities
Agricultural practices make land more vulnerable to drought. Irrigation techniques have
increased farmers dependence on water. Over- cultivation and overgrazing can lead to soil
compaction, and the soil is less able to hold water. As the soil becomes drier, its vulnerable to
erosion and eventually desertification.
Deforestation: As a lack of trees decreases soil infiltration and increases soil erosion.
Building a dam on a large river can cause drought downstream of the dam by reducing the flow
of water.
Impacts of drought:

➢ Water sources dry up, forcing people to travel long distances to fetch water;

➢ Decline in crop yields;

➢ Loss of crops, livestock, plants and wildlife;

➢ Decrease in land prices as production declines and farmers lose money;

➢ Migration from rural to urban areas;

➢ Unemployment;

➢ Increase in food prices;

➢ Health problems due to malnutrition;

➢ Soil erosion, leading to desertification;

➢ Increased risk of wildfires and poor air quality;

➢ Conflicts over water usage and food.

Prediction:

Monitoring precipitation and temperature.

Preparation and protection:

➢ Increase water supplies (dams, reservoirs, wells, percolation ponds, aquifers, pumps, water
transfer by pipeline, and desalination);
➢ Water conservation (storage tanks, spray irrigation, drought-tolerant crops, recycling water and
reducing deforestation);
➢ Agricultural improvements (shelterbelts to decrease wind and evaporation, bunds to increase
infiltration and fencing to control overgrazing);
➢ The government stockpiling supplies of water, food and medicine.

Why people are reluctant to leave hazard zones

1. Individuals may want to be near family and friends.

2. Confidence in prediction, preparation and protection.
3. Employment opportunities e.g. tourism.
4. No choice in moving if there is pressure on land or if it is too expensive to move.
5. After a volcanic eruption, fertile soils are created that produce high crop yields.
6. The scenery can be spectacular;
7. Geothermal energy can be obtained easily;
8. Possibility of mining minerals such as sulfur, diamonds and gold.
9. Living near rivers may provide a source of food, water for drinking and irrigation.
10. Communication may be easier;
11. Flat land on either side is available for building on.
Managing the impacts of droughts.

Drought lasts longer than any other climatic hazards and is more difficult to detect its coming. Agencies
responsible for climatic data monitor precipitation, temperature, evapo-transpiration and soil moisture
and consider forecasts. Agencies responsible of water supplies monitor streamflow, lakes, reservoirs and
underground water. The public are warned of drought as soon as it is detected, so they can take
necessary action.

Water conservation strategies

➢ Reduce consumption by using water- efficient machines and using washing up water for
flushing toilet

➢ Grow water efficient crops that need less water (GMS)

➢ Enforce water saving by law

➢ Replace rusty pipes and repair leaks

➢ Increase consumer awareness of the need to save water

➢ Education

➢ Charge customer using large amount of water

➢ In industry convert the steam used in electrical power generation back to water in
cooling towers for reuse

Methods of increasing water supply.

Dams and reservoirs: Dams are built across rivers to collect water in times of surplus and store it for use
in times of need. Stored water supplies homes and industries and can be used for HEP. They are very
effective, but expensive method of increasing water supply.

Water transfer: Pipelines and canals take water from rivers and reservoirs in areas of surplus rainfall to
areas prone to drought.

Desalination: it is very expensive and mainly used in countries with hot desert climates where there are
no alternatives water sources and the country has abundant energy supplies and wealth.

Rain water harvesting: There are various ways in which rain water is collected and stored. It is useful in
areas having irregular rainfall. Water collected in wet season is stored and used in dry season.

International aid: Countries suffering from frequently occurring droughts have little option than to seek
international aid. WFP works with local organizations and governments to provide people with food
supplies, protect water sources and promote sustainable use of water.
Chapter seven
The Atmosphere

The Composition of the Atmosphere:

component % in atmosphere Importance to Life on Earth

Nitrogen 78.09 Growth of plants.

Oxygen 20.95 Produced by photosynthesis; used in respiration

Water Vapor 0.2-4 Source for Precipitation;

carbon dioxide 0.03 Used by plants in photosynthesis;

argon 0.93

Helium (He), Neon (Ne), Krypton (Kr)

Atmospheric Pollution and its causes

Acid rain: precipitation with a pH value of less than 7.

Burning of fossil fuels in factories and power stations release sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

Vehicle emissions add further nitrogen oxides.

When these gases mix and react with the water vapor in the atmosphere, they form weak nitric and
sulfuric acid solutions.

Prevailing winds carry them.

They eventually fall to Earth as acid rain.

Smog:

Burning of fossil fuels in industry, homes, and vehicles provides particles like smoke and dust for fog to
form around.

Photochemical smog:

When volatile organic compounds combine with nitrogen oxides in sunlight a chemical reaction occurs
which produces ground level ozone. VOCs are produced by industries such as oil refining, chemical
manufacturing and power stations. The biggest sources of VOCs in cities are vehicle exhausts which
churn out gaseous hydrocarbons and nitric oxides as a result of incomplete combustion of fuel.

These emissions are at maximum during the rush hours but the chemical reaction takes time, so the
smog reaches the peak in the early afternoon sunlight.

(VOCs and nitrogen oxides under sunlight react and produce ground-level ozone)

The worst pollution occurs during temperature inversions.

Temperature inversion: a weather condition when the air temperature increases with altitude rather
than decreasing.

Causes:

• Weather condition: When air near the ground loses its heat rapidly in clear night. The ground
becomes cool quickly while air above it retains the heat the ground was holding. (Calm
conditions)

• In coastal areas because of the upwelling of cold water can decrease surface temperature and
cool air stays below warm air. (High air pressure/anticyclone)

• Topography: Sometimes cold air flow from mountains peaks down into valleys. It pushes under
rising warmer air.

• In areas with snow cover because the snow at ground level is cold it reflects all heat, thus the air
above the snow is often warmer.

The natural greenhouse effect

A process that helps keep the Earth’s surface and atmosphere warm.

The earth receives the incoming short-wave radiation from the sun. About half of this radiation is
absorbed by the Earth's surface, around 20% is absorbed by the atmosphere and 30% is reflected by
clouds and the earth's surface, back into space.

As the Earth's surface warms, outgoing longwave radiation or infrared radiation is emitted back into the
atmosphere. Greenhouse gases absorb some of this radiation and deflect it back to the earth surface.
This process maintains the earth's temperature at around 33 degrees Celsius allowing life to exist.

The enhanced greenhouse effects

This refers to the addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere by human activity which intensifies
the natural greenhouse effect. It is the main cause of climate change.

Increased temperature of the Earth's surface leads to global warming and climate change.

Sources of greenhouse gases

carbon dioxide Burning of fossil fuels; Deforestation.

methane Cattle and rice production; Coal mine ventilation; Deforestation; landfill sites.

CFCs Aerosol sprays; Fire extinguishers; Refrigeration; Air conditioning.

Nitrogen Oxides Vehicle exhausts; Chemical fertilizers.

Tropospheric ozone Chemical reactions involving nitrogen oxides and VOCs.

Ozone Layer Depletion:

The ozone layer protects the Earth from the Sun’s harmful radiation.

It is formed when oxygen (O2) filters from the top of the troposphere and reacts under the influence of
ultraviolet radiation to form ozone (O3).

It is continually formed, destroyed and replaced naturally, creating a dynamic balance disturbed by
human activities.

When CFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet radiation breaks them down, releasing chlorine.

Chlorine reacts with oxygen in a destructive process, breaking down the ozone molecules to chlorine
monoxide and oxygen, depleting the layer and forming a hole.

This hole allows harmful radiation to enter the Earth’s atmosphere.

Impacts of Atmospheric Pollution

Smog

• Irritation of eyes and throat;

• Respiratory diseases, like asthma;
• Fine particles are carried into the lungs, leading to lung cancer, strokes and heart attacks;
• Breathing difficulties.
• Ability of the plants to make and store food reduced; Reproduction reduced and plants are more
prone to diseases

Acid rain

• Acidification of groundwater, making the water undrinkable;

• It can cause diarrhea and stomach upset if the water is consumed;
• Aluminum leached from the soil to groundwater;
• Acidification of groundwater damages tree roots
• Crop yields decline;
• Trees affected as foliage die (dieback)
• Nutrients like calcium are leached out of the soil;
• Fish die as acidity levels increase;
• Limestone buildings are chemically weathered.

Ozone Depletion

• Higher levels of ultraviolet radiation cause sunburn, skin cancers, retina damage and cataracts;
• Extra ultraviolet radiation limits the reproduction of phytoplankton, affecting the entire food
web;
• Changes in the biochemical composition of some plant leaves make them less attractive as food.
Climate change

• Melting of ice sheets, glaciers and permafrost causes a rise in sea levels;
• Damage to low-lying countries from flooding; (Bangladesh and island countries like the
Maldives)
• Forced migration as people lose their homes and farmland from rising sea levels;
• Loss of biodiversity, habitat or extinction if animals and plants can’t adapt;
• Ecosystem changes could mean plant an animal species move into new areas (invasive species)
• Increased droughts could lead to desertification and famine; Increased diseases such as Malaria.
• Warmer weather means farmers grow different crops and have longer growing season.
• Sea-level rise leads to the loss of coastal land and increased erosion.
• Negative impact on certain economic activities like skiing industry.

Managing Atmospheric Pollution

Reduction of carbon footprint:

Carbon footprint: a measure of the impact of our activities on the environment.

• Reduced use of fossil fuels:

• Low-sulfur coal can be used;
• Increased use of renewable energy.
• Use of CNG (compressed natural gas); CBG (cleaner burning gasoline which reduced emissions
by 15% in Los Angeles)

Energy efficiency:

• Using energy-efficient appliances.

• Carbon capture and storage:
• Waste carbon dioxide from power stations can be transported via pipelines to storage sites.

Transport policies:

• Creation of cycle lanes, bus lanes, metro systems and trams;

• Electric or hybrid cars can be encouraged; car share
• Biofuels can be used;
• Vehicles can be banned from certain parts of the city by pedestrianization;
• Public transport and residential parking can be made free.

Taxation:

Using taxes to reduce pollution is unpopular method. Vehicle taxes aiming to reduce car ownership
affect people who rely on cars to go to work. Carbon taxes on fuels according to their carbon content
aiming to reduce consumption, have an effect in rising the prices of transported goods in shops.

• Carbon tax-a tax paid according to the carbon content of the fuels. (Paid by consumer)
• Emission tax- emitters pay for every tonne of greenhouse gas they add to the atmosphere.
(Money could be used to improve public transport)
 • Energy tax-is added to the cost of energy made from fossil fuels to make the use of alternative
energy more attractive.
• Higher road tax to decrease car ownership.

Catalytic converters

• They are used in vehicles to convert toxic gases in exhaust emissions to a less toxic form by the
chemical processes of reduction and oxidation. They have to be fitted by law to reduce three
pollutants;
• Nitrogen oxides are reduced to nitrogen and oxygen
• Carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide.
• Unburnt hydrocarbons are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water.

They have cut nitrogen oxides by 70%. Vehicles have to pass regular emission tests to be allowed on
roads in some countries.

• Flu gas desulphurization

Scrubbers in chimneys reduce about 90% of the sulfur dioxide in emissions from power stations
that uses fossil fuels. By using a mixture of limestone and water which converts the sulfur
dioxide into calcium sulphate.
• Nitrogen oxides in flue gases can be reduced by selective catalytic reduction- adding ammonia
and passing it over catalysts to produce nitrogen and water.
Both cost money and increase the cost of electricity, which explains why most power stations
are not as clean as they could be.

International agreement and policies:

CFC replacement

In 1987 and according to the international agreement (Montreal Protocol), all countries agreed to stop
the use of CFCs gases and halons that destroy the ozone by 2000. All countries agreed to ban the
manufacture, export and import of CFCs.

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) were the first commonly used replacement for CFCs. They are less
harmful to the ozone but have higher global warming potential than carbon dioxide.

They are being replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) which do not contain chlorine, so do not destroy
the ozone but are powerful greenhouse gases and have a long life.

Developing countries complain that they cannot afford to use expensive substitutes which have not
been fully developed and do not have the technology to make while developed countries were able to
produce cheap refrigerators and cooling systems.

Kyoto Protocol and Paris Climate

• Issue of climate change was addressed in Rio earth summit [Link] treaties signed by
countries to cut down greenhouse gases were not compulsory.

• The Kyoto conference in1997 proposed compulsory [Link] senate refused to ratify the
agreement and USA emission increased by 3% per year. Developing countries were excluded so
 as not to hinder their economic development, although India & China are industrializing rapidly
using coal deposits.

• Paris 2015, USA and China agreed on the proposed reduction but it was too little. EU countries
set strict targets for carbon dioxide reductions. Germany & Denmark led the way and increased
the use of renewables.

Reforestation and afforestation

Reforestation, the replacement of trees that are felled, and afforestation the planting of trees on land
previously without trees, both work to take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. As trees absorb
carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, afforestation increases carbon sinks by converting the gas into
biomass.

Carbon capture and storage

Is a process of capturing and storing carbon dioxide before it is released into the atmosphere. The
carbon dioxide is captured as it leaves the coal burning power station and buried underground in
aquifers or mining tunnels no longer in use. No one is convinced about its viability and desirability.
Scientists mention practical difficulties, the cost and the fact that a very dangerous toxic gas is being
stored.
Chapter eight
Human Population

Population: all the organisms of one species living in a defined area at the same time.

History of human population: about 10,000 years ago, about 5 million people were living as hunter-
gatherers.

Significant points in the growth of the human population since then are:

• About 6,000 years ago, humans started growing crops and rearing animals, which provided
more food and allowed the population to begin to grow;
• By the time the modern system of counting years started, the population was about 250 million;
• It then took another 1800 years to reach 1 billion;
• After this, the growth becomes very rapid;
• By 1930, it was 2 billion;
• By 1975, it was 4 billion;
• By 2016, it was over 7 billion, a rise of 3 billion in just 37 years.

Human Population Distribution and Density

Population density refers to how many people live in a certain area and is calculated by total population
divided by area, usually expressed as people per square Km.

Population distribution describes how people are spread over an area.

Example: very few or no people live in deserts and mountains, whereas populations are very high in
coastal areas due to availability of fresh water.

Population density of an area is an average. Botswana has a population density of 3.75per square km
but most people are distributed in the wetter east in clusters with densities over 10 per square km.
Most of the rest of the country is part of the Kalahari Desert with a population density of less than one
per square km.

Changes in Population Size

Lag phase: the period in population growth when an organism is adapting to its new environment and
the growth is slow.

Log/exponential phase: when the growth rate of a population increases over time as all requirements
are in superabundance.

Stationary phase: when the growth rate of a population has slowed down to zero as the carrying
capacity is reached.

Carrying capacity: the maximum size of a population that an environment can support in terms of food,
water and other resources.
Overpopulation

An overpopulated area does not necessarily have a high population and an underpopulated area does
not have a low population.

✓ Overpopulation means there are few resources to sustain the number of people in an area.

✓ Underpopulation means that there are not enough people to fully exploit resources in the area
to maximize their economic potential

Keywords:

Birth rate: the number of live births per thousand of the population per year.

Death rate: the number of deaths per thousand of the population per year.

Natural increase: the difference between birth rate and death rate.

Fertility rate: average number of births a woman has in her life time

Infant mortality rate: Number of babies per 1000 live births who die before the age of one.

Immigration: The movement of people into a country.

Emigration: The movement of people out of a country.

Net migration rate: No. of immigrants minus no. of emigrants /1000 of population in a country.
Population growth: (birth rate + immigration) – (death rate + emigration)

Factors affecting birth rate:

High birth rates

Cultural and social reasons.

• In some cultures, men have higher prestige the more children they have.
• Women lack education in some societies and do not have careers.

• Traditional early marriages causes children-bearing to start early.

• Parents expect that children will look after them when they are old.
• In polygamous societies a man may have more than one wife.
Religion.

• Some religions do not allow or approve birth control.( Roman catholic, Muslims and Hindu)
Demographic reasons.
• Higher birth rates result when there are more females of child-bearing age.
Economic reasons
• Children are needed to work on family farms in LEDCs.
 • Poor countries have high infant mortality rates, so people have more children to ensure that
some survive.
• In poor economies where literacy rates are low and there is no education, people lack the
knowledge about family planning and are unaware of the benefits of having fewer children.
• In more inaccessible rural areas, lack of knowledge and education are widespread as is poverty.
People are unable to afford contraceptives or visit clinics.
Low birth rate

• Family planning available.

• Women are educated and pursue careers.
• Socially, it is accepted to have1 or 2 children.

• Economically children cost their parents money and do not contribute to family income.
• Governments set an age where under it a person is a minor and not allowed to marry.

• Infant mortality rates are lower due to better medical care.

• Population has smaller percentages of child bearing age.

• Pensions and social care for elderly make people less reliant on children in their old age.
High death rate

• Lack of medical care and good nutrition due to poverty

• Lack of access sanitation and clean water supply.

• Outbreak of diseases like AIDS and Ebola had a great impact in many African countries.
• Natural disasters like droughts and famines.
• Political conflicts and wars which lead to inadequate food supply and malnutrition.
Death rates in some MEDCs are higher than expected. In USA obesity leads to health problems, while
smoking and alcohol consumption in Russia has caused the death rate to increase.
Low death rates
With the exception of some war-torn countries, death rates have been falling as a result of:
• The development of new medicines, better trained doctors, better access to clinics, and
eradication of diseases by vaccination.

• Schemes to improve access to safe clean water and sanitation in developing countries to
improve health.
• Increased food supplies.
Problems caused by increasing population

• Deforestation to provide land for agriculture or housing (urbanization)

• This leads to soil deterioration (overcultivation and overgrazing), soil erosion, desertification and
salinization

• Pressure on natural resources (water, soil and minerals)

• Overcrowding results in loss of woodlands habitats.

• Pollution: Air from traffic congestion and factories, Water from sewage, fertilizers and litter)

• Unemployment, crime and lack of security

Migration: the movement of people into (immigration) or out of (emigration) a region, country or area.

The most common worldwide movement is from rural to urban areas in LEDCs.

Sometimes, urban-to-rural migrations also occur, mostly in MEDCs.

Push factors: factors that encourage people to move away from an area.

Pull factors: factors that encourage people to move into an area.

Push factors Pull factors

Drought/famine; Good supplies of food, the weather;

Poverty; Well-paid jobs;

Poor links with the outside world; Good roads;

Poor services Hospitals, schools, water, electricity;

Work on the land only, subsistence; Factory, shops, and office work for a wage.

Desertification; Family ties

Population structure.

Population structure is the age and gender composition of a population. It is illustrated by a population
pyramid, a diagram which show a number of male and female in five-year age ranges. The structure of a
population can be analyzed by examining similarities or differences in:

• Young dependents aged 0-14

• Economically active population of working age, 15-64, whose taxes help support the
non-working groups
• All dependents aged 65 and above
• The total number or proportion of each gender
• The gender balance in each age group
Problems caused by the expanding population of LEDCs

• Dependency ratio is high with high percentage of young and few old.
• Population will grow rapidly as many young people will soon be off child-bearing age.
• The government will need to spend on family planning, child clinics and new schools.
• Economy and food production need to expand to keep pace with population growth.

Problems caused by the ageing population of MEDCs

• More old people need health and social care; more retirement or nursing homes and hospitals.
• Governments spend more on pensions.
• High taxes because the working population is comparatively low and dependency ratio is high.
• With fewer young adults, there will be fewer children born in the future, so population will
decline.
• It is more difficult to find suitable candidates for some jobs.

Managing Human Population Size

Antinatalist policy

• Family planning services& information (using the media)

• Free contraceptives
• Education for women
• Better employment and standard of living to decrease need for large families
• Late marriages. (Governments set an age where under it a person is a minor and not allowed to
marry)
• Improve sanitation and healthcare to reduce infant mortality rates.
• Incentives for small families, including cash, priority to schools and fines or withdrawing tax
allowances form bigger ones.
• Limiting family size by law, such as China's one child policy.
Family planning: methods used by couples to decide the number of children to have and when, which is
mostly encouraged by governments

Pronatalist policies

• Encourage couples to have more children to increase the population.

• Incentives or grants are given for having children.

• Favored treatment in housing.
• Paid maternity or paternity leaves.
• Subsided nurseries and schools.
• Subsided or free health care.
 • Free or fare reduction on public transport.
• Educating people about the importance of children to the economy and problems of ageing
population.
Family planning services& information. Some countries encourage contraception through
advertising and media. They build birth control clinics and train doctors and nurses. They distribute
free contraceptives.
Success has been limited in LEDCs because:
• People in rural areas are unaware that they can access free contraception.
• There is a limit on how much expenditure the government of a poor country can make when
there are so many other problems to solve.
• In some countries, the available help with contraception is not taken up for religious and
cultural reasons. Muslim and Roman Catholic countries are reluctant to spend on family
planning.

Chapter nine
Natural Ecosystems and Human Activities
✓ Ecosystem: all the living things (biotic components) together with all the non-living things
(abiotic components) in an area.
✓ Population: all the organisms of one species living in a defined area at the same time.
✓ Community: a group of populations of different species that live together in an area and interact
with each other.
✓ Habitat: the place within an ecosystem where an organism lives.
✓ Niche: the role of a species within the ecosystem.
✓ Food chain: a diagram showing the relationship between a single producer and primary,
secondary and tertiary consumers.
✓ Food web: a diagram showing the relationship between all (or most) of the producers, primary,
secondary and tertiary consumers in an ecosystem.
✓ Trophic level: a feeding level within a food chain or food web.
✓ Pyramid of numbers: a diagram that represents the number of organisms at each trophic level in
an ecosystem by a horizontal bar whose length is proportional to the numbers at that level.

The pyramid shape reflects the loss of energy at each trophic level.

Energy is:

➢ Lost during transfer as heat to the environment;

➢ Used for cellular respiration;
➢ Used for growth;
➢ Lost as faeces;
➢ Lost by incomplete digestion by higher trophic level.

Food chains cannot have more than 4 or 5 trophic levels as there’s not enough energy to pass on.
Biotic factors:

Producers: organisms within an ecosystem that can carry out photosynthesis.

Primary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from producers.

Secondary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from primary consumers.

Tertiary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from secondary consumers.

Decomposers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive their food from the bodies of dead organisms.

Abiotic factors:

Temperature: usually expressed in °C. Living things have a range of temperatures within which they can
survive.

Humidity: a measure of how damp the air is; how much water vapor it holds.

Usually expressed as relative humidity (RH) – RH expresses the humidity as a % of the amount of water
vapor the air could hold if fully saturated.

Water: essential for all life as it’s a raw material for photosynthesis and a medium for chemical
reactions.

Plants obtain water from the soil, and the water content of the soil is an important factor in determining
where exactly a plant species lives.

Oxygen: nearly 21% in the air; decreases with increasing altitude.

Usually expressed as parts per million (ppm) in water.

Not very soluble in water, so all aquatic organisms have adaptations to get enough, e.g. gills in fish.

Some bacteria do not need oxygen, these are anaerobic bacteria.

Salinity: how salty something is, measured as ppm or parts per thousand (ppt) or concentration, e.g.
milligrams/liter)

Brackish water: salty water (>0ppt) but not as salty as seawater (<35ppt).

Light: essential for photosynthesis; expressed as lumens.

Low light intensity such as the shade under a forest canopy results in much less photosynthesis. Plants
growing in these shady areas are adapted to these conditions

pH: is the measure of acidity and alkalinity. Soils and water which are too acid do not support many
types of organisms that’s why acid rain may cause lakes to become acid, killing organisms that live there.

Biotic interactions

Photosynthesis:

Plants trap light energy with the help of chlorophyll.

This green pigment splits water into hydrogen and oxygen.

The hydrogen is added to CO2 to make glucose.

The oxygen not used in respiration is given off to the atmosphere.

Plants obtain CO2 from the atmosphere through their stomata in the leaves and water from the soil
through their roots.

Plants in respiration use glucose to release energy, and it is converted to substances the plant needs,
e.g. starch, cellulose, proteins, etc.

Nitrogen is needed to form some substances, such as proteins, but in every case, chemical energy
remains stored in the substance.

Respiration: the process by which living things release energy from food to carry out the process of life,
such as movement.

Competition: living things need a range of resources from the environment.

Many youngers are produced than will survive, so there is often competition for resources.

Individuals least adapted to the current conditions will die or fail to reproduce.

Predation: when one animal eats another.

Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains (male gametes) from the anther to the stigma for it to fuse with
the ovule (female gamete).

In plants, male sex cells are found in pollen grains made in the anther.

Pollen grains are either blown by wind or carried by insects.

The anther is in the flower, attracting the animals with bright colors, scent and the production of nectar.

The pollen grain lands on the stigma of another flower and sends out a tube that grows down to where
the ovule is.

The ovule is then fertilized to form an embryo in a seed that grows into a plant.

The Carbon Cycle:

• Photosynthesis--- carbon in atmosphere absorbed by green plants and changed into organic
compounds.
• Respiration--- carbon is returned to the atmosphere by organisms breaking down food for
energy.
• Decomposition--- this is the same as respiration though the raw material is dead organic matter.
• Fossilization---dead plants and animals become fossilized over long period of time and form
coal, oil and natural gas.
• Combustion---wood and fossil fuels when burned release carbon dioxide
• Diffusion---- carbon dioxide is taken into oceans by phytoplankton for photosynthesis and
release by ocean creatures as waste product from respiration.
Ecosystems Under Threat
Importance of wetlands:

• Shoreline protection;
• Maintenance of water quality;
• Flood control;
• Recharging of aquifers;
• Biological productivity;
• Provide habitats;
• Source of variety of products e.g. fish, fuel and fibers.

Causes of habitat loss:

1. The drainage of wetlands:

✓ Drainage for agriculture, forestry and mosquito control;
✓ Dredging for flood protection;
✓ Use for disposal of waste created by road construction;
✓ Discharge of pollutants;
✓ Peat removal;
✓ Removal of groundwater.
2. Intensive agricultural practices:
wetlands are drained, and other land is occupied to provide for intensive agricultural practices,
resulting in habitat loss.

Overcultivation of soil leads to soil erosion, causing habitat loss for decomposers living in the soil.

3. Deforestation:
Clearance of climax communities that would otherwise provide habitat for a wide range of tree
and ground-dwelling species.

Climax community: An ecological community in which populations of plants or animals remain stable
and exist in balance with each other and their environment.

Impacts of habitat loss:

Extinction: the process by which a species or other named group ceases to exist on Earth or another
named area.

Loss of biodiversity: various species die or relocate when their habitat is destroyed.

Genetic depletion: the loss of species containing potentially useful genes.

✓ Species and genetic diversity that exist in the wild may have many currently unknown uses e.g.
medicinal, drought-resistant, etc.
✓ These characteristics of modern crop plants may prove useful in the future e.g. due to climate
change; drought-resistant strains are needed.
✓ These useful, ancient strains (genes) of important crop plants should be retained.
 ✓ However, due to habitat destruction, genetic diversity is reducing, leading to species becoming
extinct, making the genetic loss irretrievable.
✓ 10Modern strains of crop plants may not be able to adapt to future changes.

Deforestation
Causes of deforestation:

Timber is needed in MEDCs for products ranging from luxury furniture to paper or as a source of energy.

Land is cleared for:

1. Timber extraction and logging (Large areas of forest may be destroyed just to reach one valuable
tree like mahogany, as they often do not grow close to each other. Other forest areas may be
felled and timber used for building houses and fuel.)
2. Farming (Where human population numbers are increasing, the existing land area may not
provide enough food. Forest areas will be cut down so that more areas for farming can be
cultivated. Where families farm at subsistence level, continued deforestation may become
unsustainable as the underlying soils lose fertility. Large areas of forest may be cut down for
commercial farming such as oil plantations.)
3. Roads and settlements (logging tend to be selective as only a few species create timber;
however, building roads for transporting logs is the most damaging process.)
4. Rock and mineral extraction. (If the where the mineral is found area is a forest, then trees will
need to be felled, roads built and mining equipment and buildings brought in and constructed.
More areas of forest are destroyed as the mine or quarry expand.)
Importance of forests
✓ They support habitats with high biodiversity.
✓ Contain useful resources of food, medicine and raw materials.
✓ They prevent or slow soil erosion.
✓ They are important part of the water cycle. (Trees have a role in the water cycle through
evapotranspiration. Water taken by roots is transpired through leaves and returned as water
vapor to the atmosphere. Over large forests water vapor produced by transpiration condenses
into clouds and bring rainfall. Tree leaves intercept rainfall so that it falls slowly into the ground
and does not cause surface run off and flooding, soil erosion and leaching thus maintaining soil
fertility)
✓ They are major carbon sink and store. Trees as they grow accumulate carbon. This is why they
are referred to as carbon sinks. Young trees, growing quickly, accumulate carbon faster than
mature trees. A mature forest act as a carbon store for all the carbon it accumulated during
growth. Trees can live for hundreds of years so the carbon taken in is locked away for long
periods. Therefore, trees provide a balance for carbon dioxide given out during respiration.)
✓ They improve soil structure, depth and fertility.

Impacts of deforestation:

1. Habitat loss: Forests contain different habitats. The layered structure of the tree canopies
allows many species to live together in the canopy, the understorey and forest floor.
 Deforestation means many species of plants and animals can be lost. Remaining areas of forest
may be too far apart for animals to migrate between them.
2. Soil erosion and desertification: The tree roots hold the soil together and tree canopies
intercept rainfall preventing surface run-off. When trees are removed the soil loses its structure
and rain can fall directly to the ground, causing soil erosion which can lead to desertification.
3. Loss of biodiversity and genetic depletion: Loss of species from an ecosystem weakens the
balance of food web and increases the risk of the ecosystem being destroyed. Population
numbers for individual species may be reduced so much, that inbreeding occurs and the species
lose the ability to adapt to changes in the environment.
4. Atmosphere: Less oxygen, less transpiration which reduces rainfall and more concentration of
carbon dioxide and global warming.
5. People: Indigenous people are displaced from their land, loss of traditional way of life, lack of
fuel wood. All over the world people will be affected by climate change and reduction in
biodiversity.

Managing Forests
Forests need to be sustainably managed because the ecosystem services they provide maintain the
balance for many of the earth's systems and provide resources for people. Natural forests regenerate
themselves by having trees at different stages of growth and age. Forest management should seek to
copy this natural model. Forests provide the following services:

1. Carbon sinks and stores

2. Role in the water cycle: forests add water to the atmosphere during transpiration, leading to
the formation of clouds, eventually releasing it by precipitation.

During deforestation, this process is reduced, and local droughts are caused in the area.

Forests generate moisture in the atmosphere that can affect rainfall around the world.

3. Prevention of soil erosion:

By intercepting rain, forests reduce heavy rainfall on the forest floor.

Debris, such as tree leaves on the floor of the forest, slows run-off.

Roots of trees hold soil in place.

Forests on the coast reduce erosion by absorbing energy from storms.

4. Ecotourism: responsible travel to a natural area that promotes conservation of the environment.

Visitors travel with the main aim of appreciating its natural beauty.

Ecotourism is both a reason to manage forests sustainably and a method by which this can be
achieved.

5. Source of food, medicine and raw materials.

Managing Biodiversity
National strategies:
1. Sustainable harvesting of wild plant and animal species

Many plants have medicinal properties because of the secondary metabolites they produce.

Wild plants are the preferred source as cultivated varieties only produce small or none of the chemicals
used.

Management plan to control the harvesting of wild-grown medicinal Plants:

1. Assessing the abundance of the plant.

2. Investigate species’ growth rate, reproductive biology and impact of harvesting.
3. Assess the yield that the wild population can sustain.
4. Details of how the harvesting should be monitored. (In Karntaka, India, they collect resin from
White Palle trees to be used in traditional medicine and incense by removing the bark which will
kill the tree. (Collectors make shallow grooves in trunks coated with resin stimulating
substance.)
Another strategy is to encourage more cultivation of plants in homes gardens, or intercropping
in fields. The problem here is that many customers complain that the cultivated plants are
inferior (in taste and smell) to those gathered in the wild. Environmental groups are putting
pressure on large cosmetic and drug companies based in MEDCs, to take only sustainable
products from forests in developing world. This way they will work with the local communities
whose survival depend on sustainable forest activities and improve their livelihood.

2. Sustainable forestry:
a. Selective logging: removal of only mature trees of species that are valuable. Other species
and immature trees of value species are left, allowing the forest to repair over time.
Non-valued trees still provide habitat for many species and immature valued trees can be used
years later.
Good logging practices.
✓ Draw up logging plan.
✓ Take into account the number and maturity of trees.
✓ Issue specific license for numbers and locations.
✓ Check harvesting and ensure a long gap between cuttings.

b. Agroforestry: land management system in which crops are grown around trees.

Including fast growing agricultural tree crops, such as rubber and oil palm which provides
income from forest products for many years and shelter smaller crops and soil. Fast growing
trees like eucalyptus can be grown on small areas to provide wood for fuel.

• Trees enrich the soil when the leaves fall and provide food for animals, firewood for people, and
sometimes medicine.
• Tree roots bind the soil together and, in some cases, fix nitrogen, further enriching the soil.
 • Farmers obtain food and milk from the farm, and their animals enrich the soil with manure.

Alley cropping: planting rows of trees at wide spacings with a companion crop grown in the alleyways
between the rows.

• Trees are pruned, and the pruning is used to improve the soil and provide minerals to the crop.
(if the tree is a legume, these minerals would include nitrates)
• Mineral recycling and the suppression of weeds by trees are combined with cropping on the
same land, thereby allowing the long-term survival of farmland.
3. National parks: an area of land protected by the government to preserve entire ecosystems e.g.
flora, fauna and landscape.
• Laws that ban/limit activities such as hunting, logging and collection of wildflowers are
implemented.
• Enforcement requires regular inspection and threat of hefty fines or imprisonment for breaking
the law.
• Extensive tourist facilities are provided, including roadways, carparks and natural trails.
• An entry fee is charged for conservation work.
• A guidebook/leaflet includes information on the dos and don’ts and the importance of the
conservation of wild nature.
4. Wildlife and ecological reserves:
Reserves are areas that provide protection and favorable living conditions to wildlife. Corridors
is an area of habitat connecting wildlife population separated by human activity or structure.
These designated areas are usually on a smaller scale than national parks and provide protection
for special habitats such as wetland areas that support endangered species of plants and
animals.
5. Ecological /wildlife corridors: a link of wildlife habitat, generally native vegetation, which joins
two or more larger areas of similar wildlife habitat.
When it is not possible to designate a large area, smaller corridors joining larger area may be
possible. These corridors provide a migration route for animals so that population do not
become genetically isolated.
A healthy exchange of individuals among animal population is needed to avoid negative effects
of in-breeding. Reduced genetic biodiversity often occurs in isolated plant communities.
Ecological corridors could be used to repopulate areas badly affected by natural disasters or
diseases. These corridors are expensive to construct, some work well while others do not as it is
difficult to force animals to behave in the way that people plan.
6. Extractive reserves: an area of land, generally state-owned where access and use rights,
including natural resource extraction, are allocated to local groups or communities. These
extractive reserves can limit deforestation by:
Using local people to stop deforestation attempts within their reserve.
Acting as buffer zone to keep ranching and extractive industries out of the natural forest.
International strategies
1. World biosphere reserves: an ecosystem with plants and animals of unusual scientific and
natural interest. The plan is to promote management, research and education in ecosystem
conservation.

Advantages:

✓ Recognized internationally via UNESCO.

✓ Attracts funding and support of experts in the conservation community, improving the success
of the reserve.

A scientific approach to conservation is adopted. These biosphere reserves are more than just
protected areas. They recognize that the conservation objective is likely to be achieved more
successfully with the cooperation of local people, using their expertise of living in the environment
and taking into account their need.

Biosphere reserves have three zones:

The core area: contains landscape, ecosystem and species that need conservation. There may be
more than one core area in a reserve if there are different ecological systems to protect. The only
human activity in the core is research and monitoring.

The buffer zone: is next to the core area, and used for scientific research, monitoring, training and
education. Tourism and recreational facilities are located in this area.

The Transition area: is the outer part of the reserve. It can be described as an area of cooperation. It
is here that local communities, conservation agencies, cultural groups and other interested parties
must agree to work together to manage and sustainably develop the area’s resources for the benefit
of people

2. Seed banks: store seeds to preserve genetic diversity when it’s not possible to protect the area
where the endangered plant lives. They are publicly funded
• Wild plants carry genes that could be used in crop plants to confer resistance to pests and
diseases;
• Future scientists will have access to genes from which to develop new seeds to increase yield,
improve nutritional quality, develop seeds with more tolerance of drought or resistant to
disease and improve staple crops if climate change threatens their viability.
• Seeds occupy less space than plants. Thus, more species can be held;
• Collecting small samples of seeds is unlikely to damage the wild population, as most plants
produce a large number of seeds;
• Seeds are dormant and need minimal care, thus easier to store than living plants.
3. Role of zoos and captive breeding:
• Provide education about the illegal trade in animals and products, and the need to maintain
biodiversity;
• Involved in scientific research on the control of diseases, animal behavior and techniques to
improve breeding success;
• Captive-breeding programs increase species numbers, thus reducing the risk of extinction;
 • Aim to release captive-bred animals into the wild when habitats have been restored;
• Such programs try to maintain the genetic biodiversity of a species, as interbreeding leads to a
reduction in diversity and therefore reduces adaptability when the species is placed back in the
wild.

Ways to reduce inbreeding:

✓ Organisms aren’t allowed to breed repeatedly with the same partner;

✓ A variety of partners for an organism can be achieved through in-vitro fertilization and inter-zoo
swapping of individuals;
✓ Use a database (studbook) to record the breeding history of individuals in captivity.
4. Sustainable tourism and ecotourism: Tourism that is environmentally sound where natural
environment and wildlife are protected and natural resources are used in a sustainable manner.
It is a good way to develop the economy of the country.

Key to successful sustainable ecotourism is realising that the growth of the tourist industry depends on
maintaining the environment. Measures are taken to safeguard wildlife, and the resources are used
sustainably.

Advantages.

✓ Protect the environment.

✓ Respects local cultures and protect traditions and ways of life.

✓ Conserve natural resources, cause minimum pollution and reduce the impact of tourism on
nature.

✓ Local communities get an economic boost and employs the local people.

✓ It motivates people to lead environmentally sustainable lives so that the people learn to avoid
unnecessary usage of resources.

✓ It gives tourists a chance to interact with nature.

Disadvantages

 Expensive to develop and maintain

 Income is low
 Jobs are seasonal

Measuring biodiversity:
Types of sampling:

Random sampling: a sampling method in which the sampling device is placed using random tables or
dice roll. (unbiased/more representative)

Used when two areas are to be compared e.g. number of insects in wet and dry areas.

Systematic sampling: a sampling method in which the sampling device is placed along a line or a pre-
determined pattern, usually a transect. (biased/cover large area)
Used to check how the species change along a gradient in the environment e.g. from the shade of a
woodland to an open field.

Quadrat: a frame of the known area placed on a part of the site to be sampled.

• Used to sample sedentary organisms e.g. plants.

• The number of organisms of the species is then counted.
• Sometimes, the percentage cover of the organism in the quadrat is calculated.

Transect: a sampling method in which sampling devices are laid out along a line already placed across an
area.

• Used to sample sedentary organisms.

• An example of systematic sampling.

Pitfall traps:

• Used to sample non-sedentary organisms (insects).

• Consists of a jar sunk up to its rim in the soil.
• The jar may or may not be covered (depending on the predicted likelihood of rainfall).
• Traps should be inspected and emptied regularly.
• It can be used randomly or systematically.
• Drawback: flooded during rainfall/animals escape or eaten by a predator

Pooter: A small jar used for collecting insects. It has two tubes; one goes to your mouth for suction and
the other to the insect to get into the jar. A fine mesh covers the end of the first tube to stop you from
swallowing the insect. A pooter is used to transport the organisms from the nets or traps to a
laboratory.

Method Advantages Disadvantages

quadrats Quick; Inexpensive, Portable. Not always very accurate; Unless many
quadrats are placed, the sample can be unintentionally biased.

transects Quick; Inexpensive, Portable. Often used in inappropriate situations.

pitfall traps Inexpensive; Easy to set up and use. Often kill the organisms captured; May
oversample or under sample.

Estimating animal numbers

Mark and recapture:

• Capture part of the population, mark and release them. (12)

• Capture another sample later. (6)

• Calculate what fraction of the second sample is marked (2/6)

• Divide the number you marked at the start by the fraction.

• Estimated population=12÷2/6=72/2=36
 • Or use the formula

• Population= No. of animals caught in the first time × No. of animals caught the second time

No. of marked animals caught in the second capture

Quadrats:

• Layout of the area by using tapes

• Divide into sectors
• Take samples count the number of organisms in each quadrat and calculate average
• Multiply average by total area

Transect:

• Compass to place transect

• Wooden markers to locate sites of quadrat
• Measuring tape to measure interval distance between quadrats
• Notebook and pencil to record data/ A book or identification app to identify species.

Questionnaire

A series of short questions used to figure out people view/ opinion to specific project.

Questionnaire instructions:

✓ Direct, short questions

✓ Not biased
✓ 10 questions or less
✓ Relevant or logical order
✓ Answers should be yes or no /categories so can be easily processed int percentages

Limitations of questionnaire

 Samples might not be representative (small, biased, irrelevant not interested group)
 Questions cannot be understood or do not serve the aim of the questionnaire

So, a pilot questionnaire is done to predict results and make sure questions are understandable.