154

154 Numerical Methods

60
5.1 Introduction.
The limitations of analytical methods have led the engineers and scientists to evolve
graphical and numerical methods. The graphical methods, though simple, give results to a low

E3
degree of accuracy. Numerical methods can, however, be derived which are more accurate.
5.2 Significant digits and Rounding off of Numbers.
(1) Significant digits : The significant digits in a number are determined by the following
rules :

ID
(i) All non-zero digits in a number are significant.
(ii) All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant.
(iii) If a number having embedded decimal point ends with a non-zero or a sequences of
zeros, then all these zeros are significant digits.
U
(iv) All zeros preceding a non-zero digit are non-significant.

Number Number of significant digits

YG

3.0450 5
0.0025 2
102.030070 9
35.9200 6
0.0002050 4
D

20.00 4
2000 1

(2) Rounding off of numbers : If a number is to be rounded off to n significant digits, then we
U

follow the following rules :

(i) Discard all digits to the right of the nth digit.
ST

(ii) If the (n+1)th digit is greater then 5 or it is 5 followed by a nonzero digit, then nth digit
is increased by 1. If the (n+1)th digit is less then 5, then digit remains unchanged.
(iii) If the (n+1)th digit is 5 and is followed by zero or zeros, then nth digit is increased by
1 if it is odd and it remains unchanged if it is even.
5.3 Error due to Rounding off of Numbers.
If a number is rounded off according to the rules, the maximum error due to rounding does
not exceed the one half of the place value of the last retained digit in the number.
The difference between a numerical value X and its rounded value X1 is called round off
error is given by E  X  X 1 .
5.4 Truncation and Error due to Truncation of Numbers.
 Numerical Methods 155

Leaving out the extra digits that are not required in a number without rounding off, is
called truncation or chopping off.
The difference between a numerical value X and its truncated value X1 is called truncation
error and is given by E  X  X 1 .
The maximum error due to truncation of a number cannot exceed the place value of the last
retained digit in the number.

60
Remark 1 : In truncation the numerical value of a positive number is decreased and that of a
negative number is increased.
Remark 2 : If we round off a large number of positive numbers to the same number of

E3
decimal places, then the average error due to rounding off is zero.
Remark 3 : In case of truncation of a large number of positive numbers to the same number
of decimal places the average truncation error is one half of the place value of the last retained
digit.
Remark ID
4 : If the number is rounded off and truncated to the same number of decimal
places, then truncation error is greater than the round off error.
Remark
U
5 : Round of error may be positive or negative but truncation error is always
positive in case of positive numbers and negative in case of negative numbers.
YG

Number Approximated number obtained by

Chopping off Rounding off

0.335217... 0.3352 0.3352

0.666666... 0.6666 0.6667
0.123451... 0.1234 0.1235
D

0.213450... 0.2134 0.2134

0.213950... 0.2139 0.2140
0.335750... 0.3357 0.3358
U

0.999999... 0.9999 1.0000

0.555555... 0.5555 0.5556
ST

5.5 Relative and Percentage errors of Numbers .

The difference between the exact value of a number X and its approximate value X1,
obtained by rounding off or truncation, is known as absolute error.
X  X1
The quantity is called the relative error and is denoted by E R .
X
X  X 1 X
Thus E R   . This is a dimensionless quantity.
X X
X X
The quantity  100 is known as percentage error and is denoted by E p , i.e. E p   100 .
X X
 156 Numerical Methods

Remark 1 : If a number is rounded off to n decimal digits, then | ER |  0.5  10 n1

Remark 2 : If a number is truncated to n decimal places, then | E R |  10 n1
Example: 1 The number of significant digits in 0.0001 is
(a) 5 (b) 4 (c) 1 (d) None of these
Solution: (c) 0.0001 has only one significant digit 1.

60
Example: 2 When a number is rounded off to n decimal places, then the magnitude of relative error does not
exceed [DCE 1998]
(a) 10  n (b) 10 n 1 (c) 0 .5  10 n 1 (d) None of these
Solution: (c) When a number is rounded off to n decimal places, then the magnitude of relative error i.e. | E R | does
not exceed 0 .5  10 n 1 .

E3
Example: 3 When the number 2.089 is rounded off to three significant digits, then the absolute error is
(a) 0.01 (b) –0.01 (c) 0.001 (d) –0.001
Solution: (d) When the number 2.089 is rounded off to three significant digits, it becomes 2.09. Hence, the
absolute error that occurs is 2.089  2.09  0.001

5.6 Algebraic and Transcendental Equation. ID

An equation of the form f(x)=0, is said to an algebraic or a transcendental equation
according as f(x) is a polynomial or a transcendental function respectively.
U
e.g. ax 2  bx  c  0 , ax 3  bx 2  cx  d  0 etc., where a, b, c, d  Q, are algebraic equations
whereas ae x  b sin x  0 ; a log x  bx  3 etc. are transcendental equations.
5.7 Location of real Roots of an Equation.
YG

By location of a real root of an equation, we mean finding an approximate value of the root
graphically or otherwise.
(1) Graphical Method : It is often possible to write f (x )  0 in the form f1 (x )  f2 (x ) and then
plot the graphs of the functions y  f1 (x ) and y  f2 (x ) .
D

Y
y=f2(x) y=f1(x)
P
U

X X
ST

O A real root of
Y f1(x) = f2(x)

The abscissae of the points of intersection of these two graphs are the real roots of f (x )  0 .
(2) Location Theorem : Let y  f (x ) be a real-valued, continuous function defined on [a, b]. If
f (a) and f(b)
Y
y=
fx A real root of
f(x) = 0
f(a
)
X a X
O b
f(b
Y )
 Numerical Methods 157

have opposite signs i.e. f(a).f(b) < 0, then the equation f(x)=0 has at least one real root
between a and b.
5.8 Position of Real Roots
If f (x )  0 be a polynomial equation and x 1 , x 2 .......... .. x k are the consecutive real roots of

60
f ( x )  0 , then positive or negative sign of the values of f (), f (x )......... ..... f (x k ), f() will determine
the intervals in which the root of f (x )  0 will lie whenever there is a change of sign from f ( x r )
to f (x r 1 ) the root lies in the interval [ x r , x r 1 ] .
Example: 4 If all roots of equation x 3  3 x  k  0 are real, then range of value of k

E3
(a) (–2, 2) (b) [–2, 2] (c) Both (d) None of these
Solution: (a) Let f (x )  x 3  3 x  k , then f (x )  3 x 2  3 and so f (x )  0  x  1 . The values of f(x) at x  ,  1, 1,  are :
x :  1 1 
f (x ) :   k  2 k  2 
If all roots of given equation are real, then k  2  0 and k  2  0  2  k  2 . Hence the range of k is
(–2, 2)
Example: 5

Solution: (a)
(a) (0, 1) (b) (–1, 0)
ID
For the smallest positive root of transcendental equation x  e  x  0 , interval is
(c) (1, 2) (d) (2, 3)
Let f (x )  x  e  x  0  xe x  1  0 but f (0 )  ive and f (1)  ive . Therefore root lie in (0,1).
[MP PET 1996]
U
Example: 6 The maximum number of real roots of the equation x 2 n  1  0 is [MP PET 2001]
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) n (d) 2n
Solution: (a) Let f (x )  x 2n  1 , then f ' (x )  x 2n 1  0  x  0
YG

x:  0 
Sign of f (x ) at x  , 0,   are
f (x ) :  ive  ive  ive
This show that there are two real roots of f (x )  0 which lie in the interval (,0 ) and (0,) . Hence
maximum number of real roots are 2.

5.9 Solution of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations

D

There are many numerical methods for solving algebraic and transcendental equations. Some
of these methods are given below. After locating root of an equation, we successively approximate
U

it to any desired degree of accuracy.

(1) Iterative method: If the equation f(x) = 0 can be expressed as x = g(x) (certainly g(x) is
non-constant), the value g(x0) of g(x) at x  x 0 is the next approximation to the root  . Let
ST

g( x 0 )  x 1 , then x 2  g(x 1 ) is a third approximation to  . This process is repeated until a number,

whose absolute difference from  is as small as we please, is obtained. This number is the
required root of f (x )  0 , calculated upto a desired accuracy.
Thus, if x i is an approximation to  , then the next approximation x i1  g(x i ) ........(i)
The relation (i) is known as Iterative formula or recursion formula and this method of
approximating a real root of an equation f (x )  0 is called
Y
iterative method. y=f(x)

(2) Successive bisection method : This method consists in

locating the root of the equation f (x )  0 between a and b. If f(x) a x2
O X
is continuous between a and b, and f(a) and f(b) are of opposite x3 x1 b
 158 Numerical Methods

signs i.e. f(a).f(b)<0, then there is (at least one) root between a and b. For definiteness, let f(a)
1
be negative and f(b) be positive. Then the first approximation to the root x 1  (a  b) .
2
Working Rule : (i) Find f (a) by the above formula.
ab
(ii) Let f (a) be negative and f (b ) be positive, then take x 1  .
2

60
(iii) If f ( x 1 )  0 , then c is the required root or otherwise if f ( x 1 ) is negative
then root will be in ( x 1 , b ) and if f ( x 1 ) is positive then root will be in (a, x 1 ) .
(iv) Repeat it until you get the root nearest to the actual root.
Note

E3
: This method of approximation is very slow but it is reliable and can be
applied to any type of algebraic or transcendental equations.
 This method may give a false root if f (x ) is discontinuous on [a, b].
Example: 7 By bisection method, the real root of the equation x 3  9 x  1  0 lying between x  2 and x  4 is
nearer to

Solution: (b)
(a) 2.2 (b) 2.75
ID (c) 3.5
Since f (2)  2 3  9(2)  1  0 and f (4 )  4 3  9(4 )  1  0
(d) 4.0
[MP PET 1997]
U
 Root will lie between 2 and 4.
24
At x   3 , f (3)  3 3  9(3)  1  0
2
YG

 Root lie between 2 and 3.

23
At x   2 .5 , f (2 . 5 ) is –ive, root lies between 2.5 and 3
2
2 .5  3
At x   2 . 75 and f (2.75 )  (2.75 )3  9(2.75 )  1  0 .  Root is near to 2.75.
2

(3) Method of false position or Regula-Falsi method : This is the oldest method of finding the
D

real root of an equation f (x )  0 and closely resembles the Y

A[x0,
bisection method. Here we choose two points x 0 and x 1 such f(x0)]
U

that f ( x 0 ) and f ( x 1 ) are of opposite signs i.e. the graph of

y  f (x ) crosses the x-axis between these points. This indicates O x0
x3 x2 x1
X
p(x)
that a root lies between x 0 and x 1 consequently f (x 0 ) f (x 1 )  0 .
ST

B[x1,
f(x1)]

Equation of the chord joining the points A[ x 0 , f (x 0 )] and B[ x 1 , f (x 1 )] is

f (x 1 )  f (x 0 )
y  f (x 0 )  (x  x 0 ) ........(i)
x1  x 0
The method consists in replacing the curve AB by means of the chord AB and taking the
point of intersection of the chord with the x-axis as an approximation to the root. So the
 Numerical Methods 159

x1  x 0
abscissa of the point where the chord cuts the x-axis (y  0 ) is given by x 2  x 0  f (x 0 )
f (x 1 )  f (x 2 )
.........(ii)
which is an approximation to the root.
If now f ( x 0 ) and f ( x 2 ) are of opposite signs, then the root lies between x 0 and x 2 . So

60
replacing x 1 by x 2 in (ii), we obtain the next approximation x 3 . (The root could as well lie
between x 1 and x 2 and we would obtain x 3 accordingly). This procedure is repeated till the
root is found to desired accuracy. The iteration process based on (i) is known as the method of
false position.

E3
Working rule
(i) Calculate f ( x 0 ) and f ( x 1 ) , if these are of opposite sign then the root lies between x 0 and
x1 .
(ii) Calculate x 2 by the above formula.
(iii) Now if f ( x 2 )  0 , then x 2 is the required root.
ID
(iv) If f ( x 2 ) is negative, then the root lies in (x 2 , x 1 ) .
U
(v) If f ( x 2 ) is positive, then the root lies in (x 0 , x 2 ) .
(vi) Repeat it until you get the root nearest to the real root.
YG

Note : This method is also known as the method of false position.

 The method may give a false root or may not converge if either a and b are not
sufficiently close to
each other or f (x ) is discontinuous on [a, b].
D

 Geometrically speaking, in this method, part of the curve between the points P(a,
f(a)) and Q (b, f(b)) is replaced by the secant PQ and the point of intersection of
this secant with x-axis gives an approximate value of the root.
U

 It converges more rapidly than bisection.

Example: 8 The root of the equation x 3  x  3  0 lies in interval (1, 2) after second iteration by false position
ST

method, it will be in
[MP PET 2003]
(a) (1.178, 2.00) (b) (1.25, 1.75) (c) (1.125, 1.375) (d) (1.875, 2.00)
Solution: (a) f (x )  x  x  3
3

f (1)  1 and f (2)  7

Therefore, root lie in (1, 2).
Now, take x 0  1 , x 1  2
x1  x 0 2 1
 x2  x0  . f (x 0 )  x 2  1  .(1) =1.125 and so f (x 2 )  0.451
f (x 1 )  f (x 0 )  7  (1)
Hence, roots lie in (1.125, 2)
 160 Numerical Methods
2  1.125
 x 3  1.125  (0.451 )  1.178 . So required root lie in (1.178, 2)
7  (0.451 )

(4) Newton-Raphson method : Let x 0 be an approximate root of the equation f (x )  0 . If

x 1  x 0  h be the exact root, then f ( x 1 )  0
 Expanding f (x 0  h) by Taylor's series

60
h2
f (x 0 )  hf ' (x 0 )  f ' ' (x 0 )  .......  0
2!
Since h is small, neglecting h 2 and higher powers of h, we get
f (x 0 )  hf ' (x 0 )  0

E3
f (x 0 )
or h ........(i)
f ' (x 0 )
 A closer approximation to the root is given by

x1  x 0 
f (x 0 )
f ' (x 0 )
Similarly, starting with x 1 , a still better approximation x 2 is given by
ID
U
f (x 1 )
x 2  x1 
f ' (x 1 )
f (x n )
YG

In general, x n 1  x n  ........(ii)
f ' (x n )
Which is known as the Newton-Raphson formula or Newton's iteration formula.
Working rule : (i) Find | f (a)| and | f (b )| . If | f (a)|  | f (b)| , then let a  x 0 , otherwise b  x 0 .
f (x 0 )
(ii) Calculate x 1  x 0 
D

f ' (x 0 )
(iii) x 1 is the required root if f ( x 1 )  0 .
U

(iv) To find nearest to the real root, repeat it.

Note : Geometrically speaking, in Newton-Raphson method, the part of the graph of
the function y  f (x ) between the point P(a, f (a)) and the x-axis is replaced by a
ST

tangent to the curve at the point at each step in the approximation process.
 This method is very useful for approximating isolated roots.
 The Newton-Raphson method fails if f ' ( x ) is difficult to compute or vanishes in a
neighbourhood of the desired root. In such cases, the Regula-Falsi method should
be used.
 The Newton-Raphson method is widely used since in a neighbourhood of the
desired root, it converges more rapidly than the bisection method or the Regula-
Falsi method.
 If the starting value a is not close enough to the desired root, the method may give
a false root or may not converge.
 Numerical Methods 161

 If f (x 0 ) / f ' (x 0 ) is not sufficiently small, this method does not work. Also if it work,
it works faster.
Geometrical Interpretation
Let x 0 be a point near the root  of the equation f (x )  0 . Then the equation of the tangent
at A 0 [ x 0 , f (x 0 )] is y  f (x 0 )  f ' (x 0 )(x  x 0 ) .
Y

60
f (x 0 ) A[x0,
It cuts the x-axis at x 1  x 0  y= f(x) f(x0)]
f ' (x 0 )
A1
A2
X
O x2 x1

E3


Which is a first approximation to the root  . If A1 is the point corresponding to x 1 on the

curve, then the tangent at A1 will cut the x-axis of x 2 which is nearer to  and is, therefore, a
second approximation to the root. Repeating this process, we approach to the root  quite
ID
rapidly. Hence the method consists in replacing the part of the curve between the point A 0 and
the x-axis by means of the tangent to the curve at A 0 .

Example: 9 The value of the root nearest to the 2, after first iteration of the equation x 4  x  10  0 by Newton-
U
Raphson method is
[MP PET 2003]
(a) 2.321 (b) 2.125 (c) 1.983 (d) 1.871
YG

Solution: (d) Let f (x )  x 4  x  10 , then f (1)  10 and f (2)  4

Thus roots lie in (1, 2). Also | f (2)| | f (1)| , So take x 0  2

Also f ' (x )  4 x 3  1
f ' (2)  4 (8 )  1  31
 By Newton's rule, the first iteration,
D

f (x 0 ) 4
x1  x 0  2  1 .871
f ' (x 0 ) 31
U

Example: 10 For finding real roots of the equation x 2  x  2 by Newton-Raphson method, choose x 0  1 , then the
value of x 2 is
[MP PET 2000, 02]
ST

11
(a) –1 (b) 3 (c) (d) None of these
5
Solution: (c) Let f (x )  x 2  x  2 . Given x 0  1 .
f (x 0 )
By Newton-Raphson method, x 1  x 0 
f ' (x 0 )
2
f ' (x )  2 x  1  2(1)  1  1 and f (1)  2 . Now x 1  1  3
1
f (x 1 )  f (3)  9  3  2  4
4 11
f ' (x 1 )  f ' (3)  2(3)  1  5 ; x 2  3  
5 5

Example: 11 The value of 12 correct to 3 decimal places by Newton-Raphson method is given by [DCE 1999, 2000]
 162 Numerical Methods
(a) 3.463 (b) 3.462 (c) 3.467 (d) None of these
Solution: (a) Let x  12  x 2  12  0  f (x )  x  12, f ' (x )  2 x
2

 f (3)  3 i.e. –ive and f (4 )  4 i.e. +ive

Hence roots lie between 3 and 4.  | f (3)| | f (4)| ,  x 0  3
f (x 0 ) 3
First iteration , x 1  x 0  3  3 .5
f ' (x 0 ) 6

60
0 .25
Now second iteration, f (3.5)  0.25, f ' (3.5)  7 , x 2  3 .5   3 .463
7
5.10 Numerical Integration
It is the process of computing the value of a definite integral when we are given a set of

E3
numerical values of the integrand f(x) corresponding to some values of the independent
variable x.
b

If I  y .dx . Then I represents the area of the region R under the curve y  f (x ) between the
a

ordinates x  a, x  b and the x-axis.

(1) Trapezoidal rule
ID
Let y  f (x ) be a function defined on [a, b] which is divided into n equal sub-intervals each
U
of width h so that b  a  nh .
Let the values of f (x ) for (n  1) equidistant arguments x 0  a, x 1  x 0  h, x 2  x 0  2h,......., x n 
x 0  nh  b be y 0 , y 1 , y 2 ,......... y n respectively.
YG

x 0 nh 1  h
y dx  h (y 0  y n )  (y 1  y 2  ......  y n 1 )  (y 0  y n )  2(y 1  y 2  ......  y n 1 )
b
Then  f (x )dx  
a x0
2  2
This rule is known as Trapezoidal rule .
The geometrical significance of this rule is that the curve y  f (x ) is replaced by n straight
D

lines joining the points (x 0 , y 0 ) and ( x 1 , y 1 ) ; ( x 1 , y 1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 ) ; (x n 1 , y n 1 ) and ( x n , y n ) . The area

bounded by the curve y  f (x ) . The ordinate x  x0 and x  x n and the x-axis, is then
U

approximately equivalent to the sum of the areas of the n trapeziums obtained.

e
4
Example: 12 If e 0  1, e 1  2 .72, e 2  7 . 39 , e 3  20 .09 , e 4  54 .60 , then by Trapezoidal rule x
dx  [MP PET 1995, 2001]
ST

(a) 53.87 (b) 53.60 (c) 58.00 (d) None of these

ba 4 0
Solution: (c) h  1
n 4
x: 0 1 2 3 4
y: 1 2.72 7.39 20.09 54.60

  (y 0  y 4 )  2(y 1  y 2  y 3 )
4 4
h
By Trapezoidal rule, f (x ) dx  e x dx 
0 0 2

 (1  54 .6)  2(2 .72  7 .39  20 . 09 )  55 .6  60 . 4   58 .00

1 1
2 2

x
5
2
Example: 13 By trapezoidal rule the value of the integral dx on dividing the interval into four equal parts is [MP PET
1

(a) 42 (b) 41.3 (c) 41 (d) 40

 Numerical Methods 163

5 1
Solution: (a) h 1
4
x: 1 2 3 4 5
y: 1 4 9 16 25

x (y 0  y 4 )  2(y 1  y 2  y 3 )  1 (1  25 )  2(4  9  16 )  1 26  58   84  42

5
h
2
dx 
1 2 2 2 2

x
9

60
Example: 14 If for n4, the approximate value of integral 2
dx by Trapezoidal rule is
1

1 
2  (1  9 2 )   2   2  7 2  , then
2 
[MP PET 2002]

E3
(a)   1,   3 (b)   2,   4 (c)   3,   5 (d)   4,   6
b  a 9 1
Solution: (c) h  2
n 4
x 0  1 , x 1  x 0  nh  1  1.2  3 , x 2  x 0  2.2  5, x 3  x 0  3.2  7, x 4  x 0  4.2  9
y 0  1, y 1  9, y 2  25, y 3  49, y 4  81
By trapezoidal rule,

 f(x) dx  2 (y
b

a
h
0  y 4 )  2(y 1  y 2  y 3 ) 

Obvious from above equation,   3,   5 .

2
2
ID
(1  81)  2(9  25  49 )  2  1 (1  9 2 )  (3 2  5 2  7 2 )
2 
U
(2) Simpson's one third rule : Let y  f (x ) be a function defined on [a, b] which is divided into
n (an even number) equal parts each of width h so that b  a  nh .
YG

Suppose the function y  f (x ) attains values y 0 , y 1 , y 2 ,......... . y n at n  1 equidistant points

x 0  a, x 1  x 0  h , x 2  x 0  2h,......... .., x n  x 0  nh  b respectively. Then
b x 0 nh
h
a
f (x )dx 
x0  3
ydx 
[(y 0  y n )  4(y 1  y 3  y 5  ....  y n1 )  2(y 2  y 4  ...  y n2 )]

= (one-third of the distance between two consecutive ordinates)

D

 [(sum of the extreme ordinates)+4(sum of odd ordinates)+2(sum of even

ordinates)]
U

This formula is known as Simpson's one-third rule. Its geometric significance is that we
n
replace the graph of the given function by arcs of second degree polynomials, or parabolas
2
ST

with vertical axes. It is to note here that the interval [a, b] is divided into an even number of
subinterval of equal width.
Simpson's rule yield more accurate results than the trapezoidal rule. Small size of interval
gives more accuracy.

 x dx
6
Example: 15 By Simpson's rule the value of the interval on dividing, the interval into four equal parts is [MP PET 2
1

(a) 16 (b) 16.5 (c) 17 (d) 17.5

6 1 5
Solution: (d) h   1 . 25
4 4
x 0  a  1, x 1  x 0  h  1  1.25  2.25
x 2  x 0  2h  1  2(1.25 )  3.50
 164 Numerical Methods
x 3  x 0  3h  1  3(1.25 )  4.75
x 4  x 0  4 h  1  4(1.25)  6.0

  xdx (y 0  y 4 )  4 (y 1  y 3 )  2(y 2 )

b 6 1 .25
By Simpson's rule, f (x )dx  
a 1 3


1 .25
(1  6)  4 (2 .25  4.75 )  2(3.5)  1.25 7  28  7   17 .5
3 3

60

6
dx
Example: 16 Considering six sub-interval, the value of by Simpson's rule is
0 1 x2
(a) 1.3562 (b) 1.3662 (c) 1.3456 (d) 1.2662
60
Solution: (b) h 1
6

E3
x 0  0, x 1  0  1.1  1
x 2  0  2.1  2, x 3  3, x 4  4, x 5  5, x 6  6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
and y 0   1, y 1  , y 2  , y 3  , y4  , y5  , y6 
10 2 5 10 17 26 37
By Simpson's rule ,

a
b
f (x )dx 
h
3
ID 
3  37   2 10 26   5 17 

(y 0  y 6 )  4(y 1  y 3  y 5 )  2(y 2  y 4 )  1 1  1   4  1  1  1   2 1  1   1.3662

 1 x
1
1
U
Example: 17 By Simpson's rule taking n  4 , the value of the integral 2
dx is equal to [Kurukshetra CEE 1998; DCE 20
0

(a) 0.785 (b) 0.788 (c) 0.781 (d) None of these

10
YG

Solution: (a) h  0 .25

4
x0  0 x 1  0  0.25  0.25
x 2  0  2(0.25)  0.50, x 3  0.75, x 4  1
1 1 1 1
and y 0    1 , y1   0 .941 , y 2   0 .8 , y 3  0.64 and y 4  0.5
1 x 02 10 1  (0 .25 ) 2
1  (0 .50 ) 2
D

 1 x (y 0  y 4 )  4(y 1  y 3 )  2(y 2 )

1
dx 0 .25
2

0 3
U


0 .25
(1  0.5)  4 (0 .941  0.64 )  2(0 .8)  0.785 .
3
ST