Coland Systems Technology, Inc.

Peñas Building Sinsuat Avenue

Cotabato City

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING

_____________________________________
Student’s Name

______________________________________
Course and Year

S.Y. 2026 – 2027

Chapter 1
What is a computer?

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People living in the 21st century can be generally considered “techie” people. Almost everywhere we go, we
notice people using their phones, taking selfie or “groupie” photos, update their status in social media or having
video calls; others are may be using laptops while doing their presentations or checking their smart watches
while doing their routine exercises, submit application online, book for a ticket or hotel reservations or make
research. All of these and more are things we can do with computers.

Computers are basically any form of electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It is a device that
can be instructed to carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer
programming. It has the ability to accept data from the user (input), process and store data entered, as well as
generate the desired output result.
Computer – it is an electronic, programmable device that can store, process data to produce and retrieve a
meaningful information.

History of Computers
The development of computational devices can be grouped into:
1. Manual Computational Devices

 Abacus – Over 5,000 years ago, the abacus (see figure 1.1) was
used in Babylon 2000 years before the Greeks used it to help with
calculating. It was also used in Europe, China, and Russia but its
exact origin is still unknown. To use it, you slide the beads up
and down on the rods to add and subtract.

 Napier’s bones – John Napier (see figure 1.3) invented “logarithms” which used lookup tables to
find the solution to otherwise tedious and errors-prone mathematical calculations.

 Oughtred’s Slide Rule - Though it appeared in various forms in Europe during the 17 th century, the
early form of a slide rule (See figure 1.4) was created in 1632 by the English mathematician William
Oughtred. A slide rule consists of a moveable ruler placed between two fixed and marked rulers.

2. Manual-Mechanical
Calculators

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  Pascaline - This famous French philosopher and mathematician, Blaise Pascal invented the first
calculator in 1645 to help with collecting taxes. It could add and subtract by rotating dials.

 Leibnitz’s Calculator – Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz invented the machine in 1674, around 30
years after Pascal invented his machine. He called it the “Stepped Reckoner” and it could not only
add and subtract but multiply and divide as well.

 Jacquard’s Weaving Loom – Joseph-Marie Jacquard was a weaver. In 1804, he got the bright
idea of adapting the use of punched cards used in musical boxes to control his looms. His invention
provided a model for the input and output of data in the electro-mechanical and electronic computing
industry.

Difference Engine
Analytical Engine
 Difference Engine and Analytical Engine – In 1830, Charles Babbage an English mathematician
invented the “Difference Engine” that would solve certain equations. After the British government
withdrew its financial supports to his project, he later conceived the idea to invent the “Analytical
Engine” which he hoped would perform many kinds of calculations. His idea embodied the five key
features of our modern computer today: an input device, a place for storage, a processor, a control
unit, and an output device. This invention earns him the title “Father of Computer”. After
Babbage’s death, his son was able to design and construct the analytical engine based on his model.
Charles Babbage has a colleague in his work with the analytical engine. Her name was Augusta
Ada Byron, a gifted mathematician who helped him develop the instructions for doing computations
on it. She is daughter of the English poet Lord Byron, and later become the Countess of Lovelace.
Because of her close association with Babbage and her publications of notes about his work, she was
named “the first computer programmer”.

3. Electromechanical Computer

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  Hollerinth’s punched card machines – In the 1880s, Dr. Herman Hollernith, a statistician
with the US Bureau of Census, completed a set of machines to help process the result of the 1890
census. Using 3”x5” punched cards, he constructed an electromagnetic counting machine to sort
and tabulate the data.

4. Electronic Computers

 Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC)

- 1939
- A German engineer Konrad Zuse invented the first general-purpose computer.
- An American professor Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff of the Iowa State College (now University)
and his graduating engineering student Clifford Berry began building the prototype of the first
computing machine to use electricity and vacuum tubes, binary numbers, capacitors in a rotating
drum for memory elements and logical systems for computing, The result was ABC or the
Atanasoff-Berry Computer, the world’s first automatic electronic digital computer.

 Mark I

- 1940s
- Harvard University Professor Howard Hathaway Aiken invented the automatic general purposes
calculator called Mark I in 1944 which in turn was financed by the International Business Machine
(IBM). The official name of Mark I was Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. It was
approximately 50 feet long and 8 feet high and consisted of some 700 000 moving parts and several
hundred miles of wiring.

 Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC)

- John Mauchly and John Presper Eckert invented the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer (ENIAC) that was used in World War II to calculate trajectory tables for new guns.

 Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC)

- In 1946, Dr. John von Neumann, a Hungarian born

mathematician, proposed a modified version of the
ENIAC. He suggested the use of Binary arithmetic in the
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 operations of the computer and suggested the stored-program concept. Dr. Neumann developed the
concept where the program and data reside in the same memory locations in the computer and a
system was used to differentiate instructions from data values. These proposals was later adopted by
Princeton University, which developed EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer)

 Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC)

- When World War II was over, Mauchly and

Eckert developed the UNIVAC 1, the First
general-purpose commercial computer. This was
used by the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Generations of Computers
 First Generation (1940 to 1956):
First generation computers used to wire circuits
containing several thousands of vacuum tubes
(each tube is about the size of a light bulb) and used
punched cards as the main storage medium and
computer input. Sir John Ambrose Fleming was
an English electrical engineer and physicist, known
primarily for inventing in 1904 the first vacuum
tube.

Vacuum Tube – is a device generally use to amplify a signal by

controlling the movement of electrons in an evacuated space.

 Second Generations (1956 to 1963):

The invention of transistors in 1947 paved the way for the
development of the second-generation computers. The three
physicists who invented the transistors are William
Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain.
Transistors were smaller, more efficient and consumed
less energy. The second-generation computers used
magnetic core technology for primary memory. They used
magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for secondary storage.
The Input was still though punched cards and the output
using printouts. They used the concept of a stored program,
where instructions were stored in the memory of the
computer.
Transistor – is a small device made up of semiconductor material like germanium and silicon.

 Third Generation (1964 to 1971):

Third generation computer used Integrated
Circuits (ICs) or chips. These computers were
called minicomputers and were compact, reliable
and less expensive. The keyboard and monitor
were used to interact with the third-generation
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 computer, instead of the punched card and printouts. Jack Kilby of Texas Instrument and Robert
Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor Incorporated developed the first IC in 1958.

 Fourth Generation (1971 to present):

Fourth generation computers use a microprocessor (also
called “computer-on-a-chip”) wherein several computer
functions are integrated. These computers are much smaller,
faster and more powerful than the earlier models. These
computers are called microcomputers.
This generation of computers supported Graphical User
Interface (GUI). GUI is a user-friendly interface that allows the user to interact with the computer
via menus and icons. High-level programming languages are used for the writing of programs. The
first microprocessor was introduced in the year 1971 by Intel and was named Intel 4004, and it was
invented by Dr. Ted Hoff.

 Fifth Generation (present and next):

The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop computers that are capable of learning and self-
organization. The fifth-generation computer use Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI) chips that
are able to store millions of components on a single chip. These computers have large memory
requirements.
This generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several instructions to be executed
in parallel, instead of serial execution. Parallel processing result in faster processing speed. The
Intel dual-core microprocessor uses parallel processing.
The Fifth generation’s computers are based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). They try to simulate the
human way of thinking and reasoning. Artificial Intelligence includes areas like Expert System (ES),
Natural Language Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice recognition, robotics, etc.

Functions of a Computer
A computer has four main functions: Input, Processing, Output and Storage
 Input – is the data entered to a computer from the input devices such as a keyboard, mouse, scanner,
camera, microphone, etc. The input data can also be a character, word, image, sound, etc.

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  Processing – the task of performing operations like logical and arithmetic operations. It performs all
types of calculations based on the instructions given such as editing or modifying a document, etc. it is
then stored in the computer’s main memory.
 Output – the result generated after processing the input data. Output data can be in the form of text,
sound, images, printed document, etc. the devices used in displaying or generating an output may be a
monitor, printer, speaker, etc.
 Storage – the process of storing instructions and data permanently. Storage devices include a flash
drive, disk or tape.

Characteristics of a Computer
The reasons why computers are widely used are the following characteristics:
 Speed – the computer can process data fastly that no human being can compete. It can solve complex
computations and analyze data in a few seconds. Examples are calculators, weather forecasting, PCOS
machines.
 Accuracy – aside from being fast, computers can give result accurately. Since it is programmed, any
error that may occur can be attributed to human error (either the user or the programmer).
 Diligence – unlike humans, a computer can consistently perform any task for a long period of time.
They do not suffer from human traits like boredom and tiredness so it can perform a series of repetitive
tasks with the same speed and accuracy from beginning till end.
 Storage Capability – Today’s computers can store a large volume of data. Once data or information is
stored, it can never be forgotten and can be retrieved at any time.
 Versatility – computers are capable of performing any task even at the same time.

Advantage and Disadvantage of using a Computer

Just like any other things, computers have a pros and cons.
The advantages of using a computer include:
1. Multitasking – with the use of computers, processing of tasks becomes faster and easier. Since
computers perform Fastly and accurately, people can save time and energy.
2. Record Keeping – Since computers have large storage capacity, organizations can maintain accounts
and manage transactions even for a long period of time.
3. Best for entertainment and online services – People can use their gadgets
4. Great Educational tool – Students can have access to any information on the internet. They can have
their research for traditional information other than what is taught inside the classroom.
The disadvantage of using computer include:
1. Reduction in employment opportunity – Since task are performed automatically using computers, it
reduces the need for people.
2. Wastage of time and energy – Other people do not use computers wisely. They spend most of their
time using social media or playing computer games.
3. Computer Crimes – Computers become a venue for committing cybercrimes like hacking,
cyberbullying, pornography, etc.
4. Health Risk – the use of computers for a prolonged period of time can result in neck and back pain,
poor eye sight, etc.

Types of Computers
Based on the operational principle of computers, they are categorized as
analog, digital and hybrid computers.

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 Analog Computers – These are the most extinct today. These are different from a digital computer because
an analog computer can perform several mathematical operations simultaneously. It uses continuous
variable for mathematical operations and utilizes mechanical or electrical energy. Example of analog
computers are the thermometer, analog clock, speedometer, and tire pressure gauge.

 Digital Computers – They

analogous to state ON and OFF. Data on these computers is
represented as a series of 0s and 1s. Digital computers are suitable
for complex computation and have higher processing speeds. They
are programmable. Digital computers are either general-purpose
computers or special purpose ones. Special Purpose Computers, as
their name suggest, are designed for specific types of data processing like ATM Machine, Traffic Control
Machine, and Washing Machine while General Purpose Computers are meant for general us. Example of
special purpose computers are digital watches, Fitbit, smartphones, calculators, etc. Example of general-
purpose computers are the IBM PC, the apple Macintosh, desktop computers, netbooks, and laptops.

 Hybrid Computers – These computers are a combination of both

digital and analog computers. In this type of computers, the digital
segments perform process control by conversion of analog signals to
digital ones. Example of hybrid computers are those used in the
hospitals, to measure the heartbeat of the patient and devices used in
the petrol pump.

Classification of Computers
The following are the classification of the different types of computers based on their sizes and functionalities.

Mainframe Computer Minicomputer Supercomputer

Server Computer
Microcomputer

Mainframe Computers – Large organizations use mainframes for highly critical. Applications such as bulk
data processing and ERP. Most of the mainframe computers have the capacities to host multiple operating
systems and operate as a number of virtual machines and can substitute for several small servers.
Minicomputer – In terms of size and processing capacity, minicomputers lie in between mainframes and
microcomputers. Minicomputers are also called mid-range systems or workstations. The term began to be
popularly used in the 1960s to refer to relatively smaller third generation computers.
Servers – they are computers designed to provide services to client machines in a computer network. They have
larger storage capacities and powerful processors. Running on them are programs that serve client requests and
allocate resources like memory and time to client machines. Usually, they are very large in size, as they have
large processors and many hard drives. They are designed to be fall-safe and resistant to crash.
Supercomputer – The highly calculation-intensive tasks can be effectively performed by means of
supercomputers. Quantum physics, mechanics, weather forecasting, molecular theory are best studied by means
of supercomputers. Their ability of parallel processing and their well-designed memory hierarchy give the
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supercomputers, large transaction processing powers. Example of supercomputers include Belle Deep Blue, and
Hydra, for playing chess, Gravity Pipe for astrophysics, MDGRAPE-3 for protein structure computation
molecular dynamics and Deep Crack, for breaking DES cipher.
Microcomputers – a computer with a microprocessor and its central processing unit is known as a
microcomputer. They do not occupy space as much as mainframes do. When supplemented with keyboard and a
mouse, microcomputers can be called personal computers. A monitor, a keyboard and other similar input-
output devices, computer memory in the form of Ram and a power supply unit come packaged in a
microcomputer. These computers can fit on desks or tables and prove to be the best choice for single-user tasks.
Microcomputers include desktops, laptops, netbooks, PDAs, tablet computers and wearable computers.

Desktop Laptop Netbook

PDA Tablet Computer Wearable Computer

Desktop – a desktop is intended to be used on a single location. The spare parts of a desktop computer are
readily available at relatively lower costs. Power consumption is not as critical as that in laptops. Desktops are
widely popular for daily use in the workplace and households.
Laptops – Similar in operation to desktop, laptop computers are miniaturized and optimized for mobile use.
Laptops run on a single battery or an external adapter that changes the computer batteries.
Netbooks – They fall in the category of laptops. But are inexpensive and relatively smaller in size. They had a
smaller feature set and lesser capacities in comparison to regular laptops, at the time they came into the market.
Personal Digital Assistants (PDA’s) – It is a handheld computer and popularly known as a palmtop. It has a
touch screen and a memory card for storage of data. PDAs can also be used as portable audio players, web
browsers and smartphones. Most of them can access the internet by means of Bluetooth or Wi-Fi
communication.
Tablet Computers – Tablets are mobile computers that are very handy to use. They use touch screen
technology. Tablets come with an onscreen keyboard or use a stylus or digital pen. Apple’s iPad redefined the
class of tablet computers. Samsung tablets and Microsoft surface are also examples of tablet computers.
Wearable Computers – A record-setting step in the evolution of computers was the creation of wearable
computers. These computers can be worn on the body and are often used in the study
of behavior modeling and human health. Military and health professionals have User
incorporated wearable computers into their daily routine, as a part of such studies.
When the users’ hands and sensory organs are engaged in other activities, wearable Application Software
computers are of great help in tracking human actions. Wearable computers do not
have to be turned on and off and remain in operation without user intervention.
Examples of wearable watches are Google glass, oculus rift, smart watches, and Operating System
fitness bands
Hardware
Computer Environment

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A diagram showing how the user interacts with application software on typical desktop computer. The
application software layer interfaces with the operating system, which in turn communicates with the hardware.
The arrows indicate information flow.

The computer system consists of three parts: Hardware, Software, Peopleware.

 Computer Hardware – is the collection of physical components that constitute a computer system.
Computer hardware is the physical part or component of a computer, such as a monitor, keyboard,
computer data, storage, graphics card, sound card, motherboard, and so on, all of which are tangible
objects.
 Computer Software – or simply software, is a part of a computer system that consist of data or
computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. In computer
science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer system,
programs, and data. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-
executable data, such as online documentation or digital media.

 Peopleware – is a term used to refer to one of the three core aspects of computer technology, the other
two being hardware and software. Peopleware can refer to anything that has to do with the role of people
in the development or use of computer software and hardware systems, including such issues as
developer productivity, teamwork, group dynamics, the psychology of programming, project
management organizational factors, human interface design, and human-machine interaction.

Types of Hardware
 Input Devices – allow the user to enter information into the system, or control its operation. Most
personal computers have a mouse and keyboard, but laptop systems typically use a touchpad instead of a
mouse. Other input devices include webcams, microphones, joysticks, and image scanners.

 Output Devices – displays information in a human-readable form. Such devices could include printers,
speakers, monitors or a braille embosser.

 Storage Devices – is any computing hardware and digital media that is used for storing, porting and
extracting data files and objects. It can hold and store information both temporarily and permanently and
can be internal or external to a computer, server or any similar computing devices. Data storage is a core
function and fundamental component of computers. Examples: hard disk, DVD’s, CD’s, Magnetic Tape,
Flash Memory (USB memory sticks).

Two types of Input Devices

1. Keyboard Entry – data is inputted to the computer through keyboard.
 Keyboard – the first input devices developed for the PC. Data is transferred to the PC over a
short cable with a circular 6-pin Mini-din connector that plugs into
the back of the motherboard. The QWERTY keyboard layout was
patented by Sholes and his partner James Densmore in 1878 and still
the most popular keyboard layout on devices of all types in English
speaking world.
2. Direct Entry – A form of input that does not require data to be keyed by someone sitting at a keyboard.
Direct-entry devices create machine-readable data on paper, or magnetic media, or feed it directly into
the computer’s CPU.

Three Categories of Direct Entry Devices

1. Pointing Devices – an input used to move the pointer (cursor) on screen.

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  Mouse – the most common pointing device used in PC’s. Every mouse has two buttons and most
have one or two scroll wheels. The mouse was invented by Douglas
Engelbart in 1964 and consisted of a wooden shell, circuit board, and
two metal wheels. 8 years later in 1972, Bill English developed that
design further by inventing the “ball mouse”. In 1988, the US patent
was issued for an optical mouse invented by Lisa M. Williams and
Robert S. Cherry.

 Touch Screen – A display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a finger

or stylus. Used in myriad applications, including ATM machines, retail
point-of-sales, car navigation, and industrial controls. The touch screen
became widely popular for smartphones and tablets.

 Light Pen – a light-sensitive stylus wired to a video terminal used to draw pictures or select
menu options. The user brings the pen to the desired point on the
screen and presses the pen button to make contact.

2. Scanning Devices – A device that can read text or illustrations

printed on paper and translates the information into a form the
computer can use.

3. Voice-Input Devices – Audio input devices are also known as speech or voice recognition systems that
allow a user to send audio signals to a computer for processing, recording, or carrying
out commands. Audio input devices such as microphones allow users to speak to the
computer in order to record a voice message or navigate the software.

4. Web Camera – a small camera which images can be accessed through the
internet, instant messaging or video conferencing. This webcam is attached to
our desktop computer or already built-in our laptop computer.

Output Devices
1. Computer Display Monitor – it displays information in visual form, using text and graphics. The
portion of the monitor that displays the information is called the screen or video display terminal.
Types of Monitor

a. LCD Monitors Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) technology has been used in laptops for some time. It
has recently been made commercially available as monitors for desktop PCs.

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 b. CRT Monitors Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) are the only type of displays for use with desktop PCs.
They are relatively big (14” to 16” deep) and heavy (over 15 lbs).

c. LED Monitors (Light Emitting Diode) – A display and lighting technology used in almost every
electrical and electronic product on the market, from a tiny on/off light to digital readouts, flashlights,
traffic lights, and perimeter lighting.

2. LCD Projectors – utilize two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between them.
An electric current passed through the liquid crystal to align so that light
cannot pass through them. Each crystal, therefore is like a shutter, either
allowing light to pass through or blocking the light.

3. Printer – A device that prints text or illustrations on paper

4. Speaker – it is used to play sounds. They may be built into the system unit
or connected with cables. Speakers allow you to listen to music and hear
effects from your computer.

5. Headset – it is a hardware device that connects to a

telephone or computer that allows the user to talk and listen while keeping their
hands free. Headsets are commonly used in technical support and customer
service centers and allow the employee to talk to a customer while information
into a computer.

Types of Storage Devices

 Floppy Diskette – a random access, and removable data storage medium that can be used with
personal computers. The term usually refers to the magnetic medium housed in a rigid plastic
cartridge measuring 3.5 inches square and about 2 millimeters thick.

 Compact Disk (CD) – it is also called optical disc is a nonmagnetic polished metal disk used to
store digital information. The disc is read by the CD-ROM. A standard 120mm CD can hold about
700 MB.

 Jump Drive and USB Flash Drive – it is a plug-and-play portable storage device that uses flash
memory and is lightweight enough to attach to a key chain. A USB drive can be used in place of
floppy disk, zip drive disk, or CD. Flash Drives capacity can be 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, 16GB, 32GB, etc.

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  Hard Drive – the main, and usually largest, data storage device in a computer. The operating
system, software titles and most other files are stored in the hard disk drive.

Hard drives can be grouped into 4 types:

1. Parallel Advance Technology Attachment (PATA) – these refer to as Integrated
Drive Electronics (IDE) and Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE). PATA
drives were introduced by Western Digital back in 1986. They provide a common
drive interface technology for connecting hard drives and other devices to
computers.

2. Serial Advance Technology Attachment (SATA) – these hard drives have replaced the
PARA drives in desktop and laptop computers. SATA drives can transfer data faster than
PATA types using serial signaling technology.

3. Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) – they are quite similar to IDE hard
drives but they make use of the Small Computer System Interface to connect to the
computer. These are well –adapted for storing and moving large amounts of data.

4. Solid State Drive (SSD) – these are the largest in drive technology. They do not
consist of moving parts, do not store data in magnetism. Instead, they make use of
flash memory technology. They make use of integrated circuits or semiconductor
devices to store data permanently.
Different Types of Software’s
 Application Software – an application program (app or application for short) is a computer program
designed to perform a group of coordinated functions, tasks, or
activities for the benefit of the user. Examples of an application
include a word processor, a spreadsheet, an accounting
application, MS Office, a web browser – Google chrome,
Mozilla Firefox, a media player, an aeronautical flight
simulator, a console game or a photo editor – Photoshop.

 System Software -It is any program that controls the computer’s hardware or that can be used to
maintain the computer in some way so that it runs more efficiently. It serves as the interface between the
user, application software and computer hardware.

Three Basic types of System Software

 Operating system – An operating system (OS) is a system

software that manages computer hardware and software resources
and provides common services for computer programs. All
computer programs, excluding firmware, require an operating
system to function. Example of operating system are DOS (Disk
Operating System), Windows, Linux, Macintosh, etc.

 Networking Operating System - It allows computers to communicate and

share data across a network while controlling operations and overseeing the
network’s security.

 Utility A program that makes the computer system

easier to use or perform highly specialized functions.

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  Peopleware - The one who design, maintain and uses the computer system.
Computer Programmers typically do the following:

 Write programs in a variety of computer languages, such as C++ and Java.

 Update and expand existing programs.
 Debug and use computer-assisted software engineering (CASE) tools to automate the writing of some
code.
 Use code libraries, which are collections of independent line of code, to simplify the writing.

User is a person who uses a computer or network service. Users generally use a system or a software
product without the technical expertise required to fully understand it. Power users use advanced
features of programs, though they are not necessarily capable of computer programing and system
administration.

CHAPTER 2 – COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer Hardware Revolution
One of the best ways to understand computer hardware is to its history and how it evolves all
throughout years. The progression of its evolution is as important as the present hardware technology in
itself. This will give you a glimpse of the past, and how and when the computer hardware started.

Hardware Revolution: Timeline (in the 1980s)

In 1981, the first portable computer called Osborne I (see figure 1.1) was introduced. The
Osborn I was developed by Adam Osborne (see figure 1.5) and designed by Lee Felsenstein (see figure
1.6). It has two floppy drives and no hard disk. It has pre-installed software – an operating system called
CP/M (Control Program/Monitor), later called (Control Program for Microcomputers) (see figure
1.2), word-processing software called WordStar and spreadsheet software called SuperCalc. Gary
Kildall (see figure 1.3) was the developer of CP/M.

Osborne 1 Screenshot of CP/M-86

Gary Kildall

In August 1981, IBM Corporation introduced its first IBM PC running an operating system called DOS
(Disk Operating System) (see figure 1.4) provided by Microsoft Corporation and Bill Gates (see figure
1.7) as the CEO. It ran a speed of 4.77 MHz, 16 KB of RAM with two floppy disk drives and an 8-bit
microprocessor with a model number of 8088 designed and developed by Intel or Corporation.
At the same year, Xerox Corporation introduced Xerox Star computer with the use of a mouse. This was
the first time; the mouse was used as an input device and as an alternative (partially) to the keyboard of
navigation of the PC’s screen.
In 1982, the Sun Microsystem, Inc. was established (founded) and introduce its first workstation
called Sun 1 (see figure 1.8). At the same year Intel Corporation introduced its 16-bit 80286
microprocessor.

Figure 1.10 32-bit 803686

Figure 1.9 Compaq
Microprocessor
Logo
Figure 1.8 Sun 1
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 In 1983, Compaq (see figure 1,9) Computer Company released the first successful 100 percent
IBM-PC compatible.

In 1985, Intel Corporation introduced its 32-bit 80386 microprocessor (see figure 1.10). Another
giant computer company Hewlett-Packard released the Laser let laser-printer with its main feature is a
300 dpi (dot per inch) resolution.

In 1986, IMB Corporation introduced its first laptop computer (see figure 1.11). At the same
year, CD-ROM technology (see figure 1. 12) was being introduced as a promising storage device in an
international conference held and Seattle, Washington, U.S.A.

Figure 1.12 CD-ROM

Figure 1.11 IBM PC Convertible 5140

In 1988, the Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) bus design was introduced by a
group of independent computer manufactures to compete with IBM’s proprietary bus design – the
Micro-Channel Architecture (MCA). At the same year, the Video Graphics Array (VGA) Interface card
was introduced by IBM Corporation that offers 256 colors at 320x200 resolution. Hewlett-Packard (HP)
Corporation released the first inkjet printer called HP Deskjet.

In 1988, Next Inc. a computer company established by Steve Jobs (see figure 1.15) after he left
Apple Computer (see figure 1.13) company which he co-founded, introduce the first PC to use Object-
Oriented Programming (OOP) in its operating system and uses CD-ROM drive instead of a floppy disk
drive.

In 1989, Apply Computer introduced its laptop computer called PowerBook (see figure 1.14). At
the same time the Apply Computer together with the IBM and Motorola companies signed a cooperative
agreement to design and produce a RISC-based (Reduce Instruction Set Computing) chips, object-
oriented operating system, and develop common multimedia standards. Their collaborate efforts resulted
in the invention of the microprocessor called PowerPC.
Hardware Revolution: Timeline in (in the 1990s)
 In 1992 IBM Corporation released this ThinkPad laptop computer.

 In 1993, IBM Corporation introduced its first RISC-based workstation, the RS/6000, powered by
PowerPC 601 microprocessor chip.

 In 1994, Apple Computer followed IBM by introducing its own RISC-based computer powered by
PowerPC microprocessor chip.

 In 1995, Intel Corporation introduced the Pentium microprocessor. Power computing company
released its first-ever Apple-Macintosh clones. It is called Power 100.

 In 1996, the U.S Robotics company introduced the PalmPilot (see figure 2.1). This was the start of the
world-renowned Personal Digital Assistant (PDA). At the same year, Sun Microsystem introduces its
first workstation with a 64-bit microprocessor called Sun Ultra.

15 | P a g e Figure 2.2 Pentium II Figure 2.3 Pentium III

Figure 2.1 PalmPilot
  In 1997, Intel Corporation introduces its Pentium II microprocessor (see figure 2.2). At the same time,
they introduced MMX (Multi-Media Extension) technology that increased the multimedia capabilities of
the designed microprocessor. It was also in the same year, the Digital Video Disk (DVD) technology
was introduced in the market, which has more storage capacity than the VCD technology. The DVD is
predicted to become standard CD-ROM technology in PC and home entertainments system, (replacing
the VCD), such as used in our TV and stereo players.

 In 1998, Intel Corporation released the Pentium II Celeron microprocessor which offered slower
performance but with the reduce price. Ideal for home-user or for companies whose users do not need a
fast PC. Intel Corp. names their new Pentium II as “Xeon” which is designed for high-performance
network servers and workstations used by companies or universities who need fast PC’s.

 As the same year, Apple Computer introduced its colorful iMac. It featured the new G3 microprocessor
and USB connections but without a floppy disk drive. Its microprocessor is faster than Intel’s Pentium
II.

 In 1999, Intel released its Pentium III microprocessor (see figure 2.3) which featured an enhancement
for Website’s graphics Application. In the same year, the Advance Micro
Devices (AMD) Corp, a premier competitor of Intel Corp. introduced its Athlon
microprocessor (see figure 2.4) that competed with Pentium III’s Xeon and
Celeron market. Apple Computer at the same time released its iMac computer
with a G4 microprocessor, faster than Intel’s Pentium III or AMD’s Athlon
microprocessor.
Figure 2.4 AMD Athlon
Microprocessor

Hardware Revolution: Timeline in (In early 2000)

 In 2000, both AMD and Intel Corp. announced to release the world’s first microprocessor to run in
1GHz speed.

 In 2001, Apple Computer introduced the iPod (see figure 3.1), the first music player with an internal 5
GB mass storage device that can store 1,000 CD songs. The 3 general categories of Apple iPods are iPod
Shuffle (the smaller one with 1Gb capacity), iPod Nano (8 GB capacity), and iPod Video (with 160 of
capacity). The iPod Shaffle was designed and introduced to the market late, compared to the Nano and
Video version.

 In 2003, another supercomputer was

operating system. At the same year Intel and AMD released its respective 64-bit
microprocessor, as well as Apple Computer with their Power Macintosh- a G5-64-
bit microprocessor. We saw also around this year, the emergence of the Intel
Centrino technology for laptop computers which are commonly known as
“wireless” technology. This means that you can surf the internet with your laptop
without wires. Bringing your Laptop to Starbucks and Robinsons Shopping Center
will give you free access to the Internet Connection.
Figure 3.2
Mike Showerman (Top)
Craig Steffen (Bottom)
 In 2005, the Bluetooth-enabled device allowed sharing of text, pictures, videos, music or files, across a
broad range of devices such as on your cell-phone, PDA, or iPod. The Intel’s dual-core processor (also
known as Core Duo) are hot in the market.
 In 2006, Intel’s Core 2 Duo was the emerging microprocessor technology in the market. It boasted an
increase of 40 percent more performance to its predecessor, the core duo microprocessor.
 In 2007, Intel’ Quad Core is now in the market for Desktop computers. We are waiting excitedly for the
Quad Core CPU that will also be used to power up the laptop computers.

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  In 2008, Intel released the Core 2 Quad processor Q9300 and the Core 2 Quad processor Q9450. AMD
also released the first Phenom X3 processor (2m cache, 2.1 GHz to 2.5 GHz, 1066 MHZ FSB).
 In 2009, the SATA-OI (Serial ATA International Organization) announced Mini-SATA technology.
USB 3.0 was also released.
 In 2010, Apple introduce the iPad.
 In 2011, the Chromebooks with Chrome OS began shipping.
 In 2012, Google released Google Drive online file storage.
 In 2013, Google Glass was first introduced. Sony also officially announced the PlayStation 4, a
replacement for the PS3 gaming console.
 DDR4 specification for Random Access Memory was released in September 2014.
 A drone from Flirtey made a medical delivery on July 17, 2015, and become the first government
approved drone delivery.
 On June 20, 2016, the Sunway TaihuLight supercomputer from China topped the list of world’s most
powerful computer. The computer can perform around 93,000 trillion calculations per sound.
 Intel introduce the intel Core i9 in May 2017 and AMD released its Ryzen Threadripper workstation
CPUs in August 2017.

In April 2018, AMD introduced and upgraded version of Zen, named Zen+.

The Computer Sub-System and Peripherals

System Unit – The main part of a microcomputer, sometimes called the chassis (see figure 4.0). It includes the
following parts: Motherboard, Microprocessor, Memory Chips, Buses, Ports, Expansion Slots and Cards.

1. Motherboard / Mainboard / System Board – The main circuit board of a computer. It contains all the
circuits and components that run the computer (see figure 5.0).

2. The CPU (Central Processing Unit) – The CPU is also called microprocessor. It is considered as the
brain of the computer. The CPU interprets and carries out the instructions or commands in each program
or software. Moreover, it does arithmetic and logical data manipulations, and communities with all the
other parts of the computer system. This may be the reason why the microprocessor is considered as the
brain since it has these capabilities to think and to decide on its own when given a task, situations or
alternatives.

The speed of the microprocessor to perform its task is measured in units called megahertz (MHz). So, a
CPU with 300 MHz means its speed to accomplish a task is 300MHz. Today’s computer runs in 2GHz
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 or more. We have to remember that Mega is an engineering term which means – million while the term
Giga is an engineering term that refers to the meaning of a billion. So, in other words, 2 GHz means two
billion hertz. Many software applications that use intensive graphics (such as pictures, images, and
drawing) and large number calculations (in over ten digits) require faster CPU speed.

The performance of the microprocessor is dictated mainly by its internal design, or commonly known in
the computer engineering field as “architecture”, and the number of bits of data it can process at any one
time. For example, some microprocessor design or architecture is based on Complex Instruction Set
Computing (CISC). The computer you owned now is based on this microprocessor (unless you are
holding a supercomputer right this time which is impossible if not improvable), since IBM-compatible
PC’s are design with CISC. The other microprocessor architecture is called reduce instruction set
computing (RISC). Most of the UNIX-based computers (such as the high-end servers and workstations)
are RISC-powered and as well as other Apple Macintosh computers too. Today’s Macintosh is powered
by Intel Core Due and Quad Core microprocessor technology, which means that the new breed of
Macintosh computers is CISC microprocessor designed.

Another microprocessor designed technology is emerging in the present time (though it is not a new
idea, historically-speaking). Its hype is so overwhelming. It is popularly known as parallel processing
microprocessor design. This system has multi-processing capability. We have to remember also that the
microprocessor’s architecture has the biggest influence on how many transistors it has. And in
microprocessor designed, the more transistors a microprocessor has, the faster and powerful it is.

Intel’s model microprocessors are the following:

 Pentium for Personal Computers (PC’s)
 Celeron for Budget PCs
 Centrino for Laptops
 Itanium for Server Computers
 Xeon for High-end Workstation and Server PCs
AMD’s model of microprocessors and their primary use are the following:
 Athlon for Personal Computers
 Duron for Budget PCs
 Opteron for Server computer
 Turion or Laptops
The other factor that effects the performance of a computer is its capability to process the number of bits of data
at any one time. For example, the older Intel 8088 microprocessor can only move data in 8-bit chunks. Then
followed by the Inter 80286 microprocessor that can move data in 16-bit chunks. The succeeding Intel
microprocessor can move data in 32-bit. And presently, AMD and Intel are producing microprocessor that can
move data in 62-bit. So, the higher than data bit-rate transfer, the faster the microprocessor. So if we compare
the data to vehicles running in the road, then the bit-rate transfer can be compared to road lanes. An 8-bit could
be one lane, and 16-bit could be two lanes, 32 bits are four lanes, while 64-bits could be 8 lanes. The more lanes
in the road, the more vehicles can run. The same thing with a bit-rate transfer in the computer. The more bit-rate
transfer, the faster the computer.

Intel Dual-Core Technology

The Intel Dual-Core microprocessor (see figure 6.1) technology is designed for
energy-efficiency performance. It also boosts multitasking power with improved
performance for highly multi-thread and calculation-intensive applications. It improves
multi-media applications such as intense network-gaming.

Core 2 Duo Technology

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 The Intel Core 2 Duo Technology (see figure 6.2) increases the performance of Dual-Core technology
by 40 percent. The shared L2 cache is increased by 4 MB. It has five more features compared to its
predecessor, the Dual-Core.

And here are the summary features:

 Advance Smart Cache – provides more cache system, thus, delivers higher processing
performance.
 Smart Memory Access – calibrates optimization of the available data band width, thus,
improves system performance.
 Advance Digital Media Boost – accelerates a broad range of applications, including engineering
and scientific applications, video, image, photo, and audio processing, data encryption, and
financial applications.
 Intelligent Power Capability – delivers more energy-efficient smarter battery performance.
 Wide Dynamic Execution – delivers more instruction per clock cycle to improve execution
time.
Intel Quad Core Technology
The Intel Quad Core Technology (see figure 6.3) is an integration of two Core 2 dual-
core microprocessors on a single substrate for a total of 4 CPU cores in a single LGA 775
socket, with 8 MB L2 Cache. The land Grid Array (LGA) is a new designed technique
wherein the pins of the LGA socket are directly built into the socket, not on the CPU. This
total reversal of earlier designed resulted in better power distribution, thus increasing the
speed of the Front Side Bus. The front side bus on a computer connects the processor to
the north side bridge, which comprises the memory bus, PCI (Peripheral Component Interface) bus and AGP
(Accelerated Graphics Port) bus. In general, a faster front-side bus means higher processing speeds and a faster
computer. The PCI bus is a computer bus used for attaching peripheral device to a computer motherboard.
While the AGP bus is the specifications for a type of dedicated video card interface over which the card can
access system memory (RAM) at a very high transfer rate (up to 2.1GB per second at the 66 MHz PCI bus
clock speed). This provides up to eight times the bandwidth of the PCI bus. AGP is one part of the solution to
the memory requirements of accelerated 3D video.
Video cards use on board memory for storing image, textures, and geometry data, which allows the
video hardware direct, rapid access to it. The amount of data is very large, and the speed at which it must be
transferred from the system memory is too high for the PCI bus. The high bandwidth capability of the AGP
allows data to move rapidly from main memory to video RAM (Random Access Memory).

Intel Core i3
Intel intended the Core i3 (see figure 6.4) as the new low and of the performance
processor line from Intel, following the retirement of the Core 2 band. The first Core i3 was
launched on January 7, 2010.

Intel Core i5
The first Core i5 (see figure 6.5) using Nehalem microarchitecture was introduce on
September 8, 2009, as a mainstream variant of the earlier Core i7, the Lynnfield core.

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Intel Core i7
Intel Core i7 (see figure 6.6) as an intel brand name applies to several families of desktop
and laptop 64-bit x86-64 processor using the Nehalem, Westmere, Sandy Bridge, Ivy
Bridge, Haswell, Broadwell, Skylake, and Kaby Skylake microarchitectures. The Core i7
brand targets the business and high-end consumer markets for both desktop and laptop
computers, and it’s distinguished from the core i3 (entry-level consumer), Core i5
(mainstream consumer), and Xeon (server and workstation) brands.

Intel Core i9
The Intel Corer i9 (see figure 6.7) brand microprocessors were introduced in May 2017.
With the high number of cores, high power draw, high thermal output, high performance
and unique desktop socket. LGA 2066, they are intended to be used by enthusiasts.

AMD Turion 64 x 2 Dual-Core Mobile Technology

The archival of Intel is the Advanced Micro Device (AMD) Corporation has its
own version of Intel’s Dual Core technology called the AMD turion 64 x 2. The
AMD Turion 64 (see figure 6.8) delivers exceptional multi-threading and multi-
tasking performance for both 32-bit and 64-bit environments. It boosts long battery
life and better system security with Enhanced Virus Protection features.

Here are the other features:

 HyperTransport Technology – delivers system agility that makes the application more responsive.
 AMD Digital Media Xpress – enables stellar performance and playback quality on digital
entertainment such as streaming audios and videos, music, DVDs, and intense network-gaming.
 AMD PowerNow! Technology – extends battery life up to 65 percent.
Central Processing Unit
Arithmetic & Logic
Unit

Input Unit Control Unit Output Unit

Memory Unit

Figure 6.9 Relationship between the elements of the CPU, input, output and storage
Components of a CPU
 The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – performs arithmetic and logical operations.
 Control Unit (CU) – extracts instructions from memory and decodes and execute them, calling on the
ALU when necessary.
 Register – one of a small set of data holding places that are part of the computer processor. A register
may hold an instruction, a storage address or any kind of data (such as a bit sequence of individual
characters).

Cache Memory
This type of memory is extremely fast. It is placed inside the computer’s microprocessor (brain) or
directly on the motherboard circuity. This memory is represented through levels, such as Level 1 (L1), Level 2
(L2), or Level 3 (L3).

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 3. The RAM and ROM - the RAM (Random Access Memory) is the computer’s main memory RAM’s
are integrated circuits (IC) or chips that can be used to store program instructions and data temporarily.
The computer accesses information through this main memory randomly by using a unique memory
address number for each data stored. This unique address (memory location) scheme is applied so that
the computer would easily find where to retrieve the data or information needed. Remember that the
RAM is capable of holding millions of data temporarily. In other words, to make easier to search the
data needed, the computer used this memory address scheme to locate it.
RAM is a volatile type of memory because whatever we store into it during the time we use the computer,
would vanish completely once we turn off the computer’s switch. The RAM has a tremendous impact on the
speed, power, and performance of your PC. Generally speaking, the higher the bytes of RAM in your computer,
the more it can perform certain tasks faster and better. So, you better upgrade your computer’s RAM to enjoy
some higher speed and better performance.

The ROM (Read only Memory) is a non-volatile type memory because the program and data stored into it are
permanent. Like RAM, the ROM is also a chip. The computer can only read information or instructions from it,
but it can never write or store any new information or program on it. The ROM is used to check the basic
subsystems of the computer hardware, in order to ensure that all basic parts are working and in good condition.
Otherwise, the ROM won’t let the computer to function. In short, the ROM holds the instructions (programs or
software, technically speaking – a firmware) that the PC needs to operate.
Types of RAM
 Static RAM (SRAM)
SRAM requires a constant power flow in order to function.
Because of the continuous power, SRAM doesn’t need to be
refreshed to remember data being stored. This is why SRAM is
called static – no change or action.

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM requires a periodic refresh of power in order in function.
The capacitors that store data in DRAM gradually discharge
energy; no energy means the data becomes lost. This is why
DRAM is called dynamic – constant change or action is needed
to keep data intact.

 Synchronous Dynamic RAM (SDRAM)

SDRAM is a classification of DRAM that operates in sync with
the CPU clock, which means that it waits for the clock signal
before responding to data input. By contrast, DRAM is
asynchronous, which means it responds immediately to data
input.

 Single Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM (SDR SDRAM)

SDR SDRAM is the expanded term for SDRAM – the two types
are one and the same,
But most frequently referred to as just SDRAM. The single data
rate indicates how the memory passes one read and one writes
instructions per clock cycle.

 Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM (DDR SDRAM)

DDR SDRAM is the expanded term for SDR SDRAM, only
twice as fast. It is capable of processing, two reads and to write
instructions pre clock cycle. DDR SDRAM has 184 pins and a
single notch on the connector while SRD SDRAM has 168 pins
and two notches on the connector.

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 DDR2 SDRAM is the evolutionary upgrade to DDR SDRAM. DDR2 SDRAM is
faster because it can run at higher clocker speeds, DDR memory modules top out
at 200 MHz whereas standard DDR2 memory modules top out at 533 MHz.

DDR3 SDRAM improves the performance over DDR2 SDRAM through

advanced signal processing (reliability), greater memory capacity, lower power
consumption (1.5 V) and a higher standard clock speed up to 800 MHz.

DDR4 SDRAM improves performance over DDR3 SDRAM through more

advanced signal processing (reliability), even greater memory capacity, even lower
power consumption (1.2 V) and higher standard clock speeds up to 600 MHz.

 Graphics Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM (GDDR SDRAM)

A type of DDR SDRAM that is specifically designed for video
graphics rendering, typically in conjunction with a dedicated GPU
(graphics processing unit) on a video card.

Flash Memory
This type of non-volatile memory is often used in digital camera, MP3/MP4 players,
and USB (Universal Serial Bus) Flash Drive to store voluminous of data, information,
software, music, video, and pictures. Flash memory is so small that it can be transported
and carried in your wallet or pocket.
Note:
MP4 technology works like MP3. The MP3 compresses music audio files without affecting its quality,
while MP4 compresses video or movie files. MP4 is also known as MPEG-4 AVC (Advance Video Coding).

4. The CMOS
The CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide-Semiconductor) chip
(see figure 7.0) is used to hold and record all the basic setups of the
computer system such as the number of hard disks installed, the
system date and time, and if other computer peripherals are
connected to its such as modem, sound card, and others. The CMOS
is a type of semiconductor designed technology that consumes less
electrical energy.

In the desktop personal computer, this chip is powered by a battery. That is the reason why your
computer has an update time clock and date, even if you had switched it off for a day or week. All settings of
hardware and software are recorded on the CMOS chip.

Once we boot-up our computer, all the settings will be read and stored so that the computer can
function properly. In this way, the computer would know what are the hardware peripherals are installed or
connected to the computer’s main system, the exact date and time, and its software and hardware
configurations.

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 5. Computer Ports

The computer ports allow the user to connect to the input and output device or other peripherals into the PC or
Laptop. These ports are usually can be found at the back of our PC or in some cases, in front of it (see figure
8.0)
 Keyboard and Mouse ports – as the name implies, can we plug our PC’s keyboard mouse into them.

 Monitor Port – the LCD monitor is plugged into computer port.

 Network Port – connect our PC or Laptop to the company or school’s Local Area Network (LAN),
this is the port we use, as well as to connect to the Internet via the company or school’s LAN. Presently,
we call this port as RJ-45 port, the standard port use in LAN technology. RJ stands for Reference Jack.

 Modem port – this is the port we use to connect our PC to a phone line in order to access the Internet.
We usually call this port as RJ-11 port.

 Parallel port – the older model printer should be connected to this port for hardware compatibility. The
newer model of printers is using the USB (Universal Serial Bus) ports to connect them.

 Serial port – this port is the one we use to connect our external modern. This is mostly applied if we
want to connect our PC or Laptop to the Internet via phone line and by using open source software such
as Linux operating system (O.P). The external modern is a small box with light-emitting diode (LED) on
it that indicates if the data are transmitted, received or a signal is on. Microsoft Windows-based OS such
as Windows XP or Vista is using an internal modern that is directly installed and plugged inside our
computer’s motherboard and central processing unit (CPU) case.

 USB Port – the universal serial bus (USB) is a newly designed port for computer devices or peripherals
to connect to, such as the printers, USB flash drive, iPod, and digital cameras.

 Audio Port – there is color coding or symbols (sometimes called an icon) used and applied to this port
to distinguish it from one another. The yellow speaker out port is designed to connect to home stereos,
while the green speaker out is for desktop speakers od headphones. The pink microphone port is for
small microphone we use in chatting over the Web.

Note:
Some laptop most especially the Acer has a color coding like the way we can fine in our PC. But some
Laptop use only two ports, without any color-code. In this case, the icon or symbol is used. The icon for the

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audio port is used to connect your speaker or sub-woofer on it, while the icon for the microphone port is used to
connect your small microphone on it.

6. Computer Bus

The computer bus (see figure 9.0) is a group of parallel wires that is path or route between the different
interconnecting components of a computer system. The two main buses in a computer are the internal or system
bus and external bus.

The expansion bus (see figure 5) connects external device such as mouse, printer, keyboard or modem
to the CPU, while the system bus connects the CPU to other devices that reside on the motherboard (main board
of a computer). The system bus has two parts. They are called data bus can transfer two bytes is equivalent to t
8 bits, then a 16 bits data bus can transfer two bytes of data at a time, while a 32-bit data bus can transfer four
bytes of data, and 64-bit data bus can transfer 8 bytes of data. Like the microprocessor, the speed of bus is
measured in megahertz (MHz). The address bus connects inly the RAM and CPU and carries only memory
location address.

Bus Standards
 Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus is used in many computers to connect slower
devices such as modem and other input devices.
 Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a hot-swappable bus which means that a computer user can
connect, the n disconnects a USB device without affecting the PC or Laptop.
 Local Bus is designed to attach faster device to the CPU.
 Accelerated Graphics Bus or Port (AGP bus) allows the video card to access the RAM
directly, thus increasing the speed of graphics performance for 3-D (Dimensional) and full motion
video applications.
 PC Card Bus is used exclusively on Laptop computer and is used as network cards, external
modem WiFi card, thumb scanner, and biometric security system.
 FireWire (IEEE 1394) is use to connect digital and video cameras. We can use the firewire bus
to transfer data at a high-speed rate.

7. Expansion Slot
Through expansion slots (see figure 10.0), we can increase the capability of our computer. Like
for example, you can add a new high-end video card to your PC so that you can enjoy playing
your computer games that demand higher video graphics display resolution. If your PC is older
and it has no internal modem attached to it, you can buy and internal modem adapter card and
plug it in- in one of the available expansion slots of your PC. In that way, you can connect your
PC to the telephone lines to suffer the internet. The expansion slot are but just an extension of the
computer bus that we have discuss earlier.

 Sound Card – A sound card or audio card is an expansion card for

producing sound on a computer that can be heard through speaker or
headphones.
 Video Card – A video card or graphics card is an expansion card
that connects to a computer motherboard. It is use to create a picture
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 on a display. It deals with processing the image and video, along with some of the tasks normally
handled by the CPU. Video cared are used by gamers in place of integrated graphics to their
extra processing power and video RAM.

8. Power Supply Unit (PSU) – installed in the back corner of the PC case, next to the motherboard. It
converts 120vac (standard house power) into DC voltage that are used by other components in the PC.

9. The UPS
The Uninterruptible Power Supply – is a standby battery backup for your
computer or company’s server. The UPS provides temporary and limited electrical
energy while your computer and company’s server is experiencing electrical
brown-outs or any electrical power failure or when electrical current fluctuates
abnormally.

Note:
The surge suppressor
conditioner that protects the PC with line noise which came from high-demand
electrical equipment that operates near your PC.

10. Adapters – printed-circuit boards (also called interface cards) that enable the computer to use a
peripheral device for which it does not have the necessary connections or
circuit boards. They are often used to permit upgrading to new different
hardware.

11. Hard Disk Drive (HDD) – Also known as a hard drive, is a magnetic storage device that is installed
inside the computer. The hard drive is used as permanent storage for data. In a Windows computer, the
hard drive is usually configured as the C: drive and contains the operating system and applications.

12. Optical Drive – An optical drive is a storage device that uses lasers to read data on the optical media.
There are three types of optical drives: Compact Disc (CD), Digital Versatile Disk (DVD), and Blu-
ray Disc (BD).

13. System Fan – it is located inside a computer, attached to the front or back of its case. It helps bring cool
air into and blow hot air out of the case.

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CHAPTER 3 – COMPUTER SOFTWARE

The Software Is the one that drives the hardware (the computer) to do amazing things. Without it, a
computer is just a box, nothing but a lifeless box. Software truly brings the computer to life. Basically, the
software enables a computer to perform a specialized task. In other words, the software contains a set of
instruction for a computer to follow willingly, like a servant following his or her master’s commands.
Generally, the software is categorized into two. The first one is system software, while the other is the
application software.
Operating Systems such as Microsoft Windows and Linux and utility software such as anti-virus
program and anti-spyware are belonged to the system software category. While Microsoft Office, database
software, graphics software, computer games, multimedia authoring software, entertainment, and education
software, are under the application software category.

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