Comprehensive Study Guide

Biology · Chemistry · Physics · English · Maths

1. Biology

Cell Biology
• The cell is the fundamental unit of life. Cells are classified as prokaryotic (no nucleus – bacteria) or
eukaryotic (nucleus-bound DNA – plants, animals, fungi).
• Cell organelles and functions: Nucleus (genetic control), Mitochondria (ATP production via
respiration), Ribosome (protein synthesis), Endoplasmic Reticulum (transport & protein processing),
Golgi apparatus (packaging & secretion), Chloroplast (photosynthesis – plants only), Cell membrane
(selective permeability).
• Cell division: Mitosis produces two identical daughter cells for growth and repair. Meiosis produces
four genetically unique haploid cells for sexual reproduction.
• Cell transport: Diffusion (high → low concentration, passive), Osmosis (water across semi-permeable
membrane), Active transport (low → high, requires ATP).

Genetics
• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) carries genetic information in a double-helix structure made of
nucleotide base pairs: Adenine–Thymine and Guanine–Cytosine.
• Genes are segments of DNA that code for specific proteins. A chromosome is a tightly coiled DNA
strand; humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
• Inheritance: Dominant alleles mask recessive ones. Mendel's laws – Law of Segregation and Law of
Independent Assortment – explain how traits are passed from parents to offspring. Punnett squares
predict offspring genotype ratios.
• Mutations are changes in DNA sequence; they can be beneficial, neutral, or harmful. Natural
selection acts on variation, driving evolution over generations.

Ecology
• Ecology studies relationships between organisms and their environment. Key levels: individual →
population → community → ecosystem → biosphere.
• Food chains and webs: Producers (autotrophs/plants) → Primary consumers (herbivores) →
Secondary consumers → Tertiary consumers → Decomposers. Energy is lost (~90%) at each trophic
level.
• Nutrient cycles: The Carbon, Nitrogen, and Water cycles recycle matter through ecosystems.
Photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and nitrogen fixation are key processes.
• Biodiversity measures species variety in an ecosystem. Threats include habitat destruction, pollution,
invasive species, climate change, and over-exploitation.

Human Anatomy
• Circulatory system: The heart pumps oxygenated blood (via arteries) and returns deoxygenated
blood (via veins). Double circulation in humans separates pulmonary and systemic loops.
• Digestive system: Mouth (mechanical + amylase) → Oesophagus → Stomach (protease/HCl) →
Small intestine (absorption, villi) → Large intestine (water reabsorption) → Rectum/Anus.
• Nervous system: Central nervous system (brain + spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system.
Neurons transmit electrical impulses; synapses use neurotransmitters between neurons.
• Respiratory system: Air enters via nasal cavity → trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli. Gas
exchange: O■ diffuses into blood, CO■ diffuses out.

Plant Structure
• Photosynthesis equation: 6CO■ + 6H■O + light energy → C■H■■O■ + 6O■. Occurs in
chloroplasts; chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light.
• Plant organs: Root (anchorage, water/mineral absorption), Stem (transport, support), Leaf
(photosynthesis, gas exchange via stomata), Flower (reproduction).
• Transport: Xylem carries water and minerals (root → leaf) via transpiration pull. Phloem transports
dissolved sugars (source → sink) via translocation.
• Reproduction: Sexual reproduction involves pollination (insect or wind) and fertilisation forming seeds.
Asexual reproduction (runners, bulbs, cuttings) produces genetically identical offspring.
2. Chemistry

Atoms & Atomic Structure

• An atom is the smallest unit of an element. It consists of a nucleus (protons + neutrons) surrounded by
electrons in shells/orbitals.
• Atomic number = number of protons (defines the element). Mass number = protons + neutrons.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
• Electron configuration: Shell 1 holds max 2, Shell 2 holds max 8, Shell 3 holds max 8 (at lower
levels). The outermost shell determines chemical behaviour.
• Ions form when atoms gain or lose electrons: cations (+, lost electrons), anions (–, gained electrons).
Ionic bonding involves electron transfer; covalent bonding involves electron sharing.

Mole Concept
• The mole is the SI unit for amount of substance. One mole contains 6.022 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro's
number).
• Molar mass is the mass in grams of one mole of a substance (equal to its relative formula mass in
g/mol).
• Key formulae: Moles = Mass (g) ÷ Molar mass (g/mol). For gases at STP: 1 mol = 22.4 L.
Concentration (mol/L) = Moles ÷ Volume (L).
• Stoichiometry: Balanced chemical equations give mole ratios between reactants and products,
enabling calculation of theoretical yields and limiting reagents.

Acids & Bases

• Acids donate H■ ions (proton donors); bases accept H■ ions (proton acceptors) – Brønsted-Lowry
definition. Strong acids/bases fully dissociate; weak ones partially dissociate.
• pH scale (0–14): pH < 7 = acidic, pH = 7 = neutral, pH > 7 = alkaline. pH = –log[H■]. Each unit change
represents a 10× change in concentration.
• Neutralisation: Acid + Base → Salt + Water. Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H■O. Used in titrations
to determine unknown concentrations.
• Common indicators: Litmus (red in acid, blue in alkali), Phenolphthalein (colourless → pink at pH 8.2),
Universal indicator gives a range of colours across the pH scale.

Organic Chemistry
• Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds,
enabling chains, rings, and complex molecules.
• Homologous series: Alkanes (C■H■■■■, single bonds, saturated), Alkenes (C■H■■, double bond,
unsaturated), Alcohols (–OH group), Carboxylic acids (–COOH).
• Key reactions: Combustion (alkanes → CO■ + H■O), Addition reactions (alkenes + Br■ → dibromo
compound), Fermentation (glucose → ethanol + CO■), Esterification (alcohol + acid → ester + H■O).
• Polymers: Addition polymerisation (ethene → polyethene) and condensation polymerisation (amino
acids → proteins, glucose → starch).

The Periodic Table

• Elements are arranged by increasing atomic number. Periods (rows) indicate the number of electron
shells. Groups (columns) contain elements with the same number of outer electrons and similar
chemical properties.
• Key groups: Group 1 (alkali metals – very reactive, form +1 ions), Group 7 (halogens – form –1 ions,
reactivity decreases down group), Group 0 (noble gases – full outer shells, inert).
• Trends across a period: Atomic radius decreases, ionisation energy increases, metallic character
decreases (metals left, non-metals right).
• Trends down a group: Atomic radius increases, ionisation energy decreases (easier to lose
electrons), reactivity increases for metals and decreases for non-metals.
3. Physics

Motion
• Kinematics describes motion without reference to forces. Key quantities: displacement (m), velocity
(m/s), acceleration (m/s²), time (s).
• SUVAT equations: v = u + at, s = ut + ½at², v² = u² + 2as, s = ½(u+v)t. Used for uniformly accelerated
motion.
• Newton's Laws: 1st – object stays at rest or moves in a straight line unless acted on by a force. 2nd –
F = ma. 3rd – Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
• Momentum: p = mv. The law of conservation of momentum states total momentum is constant in a
closed system. Impulse = Ft = ∆p.

Light & Optics

• Reflection: Angle of incidence = angle of reflection (measured from the normal). Plane mirrors produce
virtual, upright, same-size images.
• Refraction: Light bends when passing between media of different densities. Snell's Law: n■ sin θ■ =
n■ sin θ■. The refractive index n = c ÷ v (speed in vacuum ÷ speed in medium).
• Total internal reflection occurs when light hits a boundary at an angle greater than the critical angle;
used in optical fibres and periscopes.
• Lenses: Convex (converging) lenses focus parallel rays to a focal point; used in magnifying glasses,
cameras, eyes. Concave (diverging) lenses spread light; used in spectacles for short-sightedness.

Electricity
• Electric current (I, amperes) = charge flow per second: I = Q/t. Voltage (V, volts) is the energy per unit
charge. Resistance (Ω) opposes current flow.
• Ohm's Law: V = IR (valid for ohmic conductors at constant temperature). Power: P = IV = I²R = V²/R.
Energy: E = Pt.
• Series circuits: Same current throughout; resistances add; voltages split. Parallel circuits: Voltage is
the same across each branch; currents split; total resistance decreases.
• Electromagnetic induction: A changing magnetic field induces an EMF (Faraday's law). Generators
convert kinetic energy to electrical energy; transformers change voltage: V■/V■ = N■/N■.

Energy
• Forms of energy: Kinetic (½mv²), Gravitational potential (mgh), Elastic potential, Thermal, Chemical,
Nuclear, Electrical, Light, Sound.
• Conservation of energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. Total energy input
= useful energy output + wasted energy (usually heat).
• Efficiency = (useful energy output ÷ total energy input) × 100%. Improving efficiency reduces energy
waste.
• Specific heat capacity (c): Q = mc∆T. The energy needed to raise 1 kg of a substance by 1°C. Water
has a very high SHC (4,200 J/kg°C), making it ideal for cooling systems.

Measurement & Units

• SI base units: metre (m) – length, kilogram (kg) – mass, second (s) – time, ampere (A) – current,
kelvin (K) – temperature, mole (mol) – amount of substance.
• Prefixes: nano (10■■), micro (10■■), milli (10■³), centi (10■²), kilo (10³), mega (10■), giga (10■).
• Significant figures and errors: Random errors affect precision (reduce by repeating); systematic
errors affect accuracy (require calibration). Percentage error = (uncertainty ÷ measured value) × 100%.
• Graphs in physics: gradient = rate of change (e.g. velocity on displacement-time graph = speed).
Area under a velocity-time graph = displacement.
4. English

Reading Comprehension
• Comprehension is the ability to understand and interpret written text. Active reading strategies include
skimming (getting the gist), scanning (finding specific information), and close reading (detailed
analysis).
• Identifying main idea: Look for the topic sentence (usually first or last in a paragraph) and supporting
details. Distinguish facts (verifiable) from opinions (subjective views).
• Inference: Reading 'between the lines' – drawing conclusions from implied information not directly
stated. Use evidence from the text to support inferences.
• Author's purpose and tone: Purpose can be to inform, persuade, entertain, or describe. Tone reflects
attitude: formal/informal, positive/negative, serious/humorous.

Synonyms & Antonyms

• Synonyms are words with the same or similar meaning. Using synonyms avoids repetition and
enhances vocabulary range. E.g., happy → joyful, content, elated, pleased.
• Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. E.g., ancient ↔ modern; generous ↔ miserly;
transparent ↔ opaque.
• Connotation vs denotation: Denotation is the literal dictionary meaning; connotation is the emotional
or cultural association. 'Slim' and 'skinny' are synonyms but carry different connotations.
• Word families share a root word: describe, description, descriptive, indescribable. Recognising roots,
prefixes, and suffixes helps decode unfamiliar vocabulary.

Grammar
• Parts of speech: Noun (person/place/thing), Pronoun (replaces noun), Verb (action/state), Adjective
(modifies noun), Adverb (modifies verb/adjective), Preposition (position/time), Conjunction (joins
clauses), Interjection (exclamation).
• Sentence types: Simple (one clause), Compound (two main clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction), Complex (main + subordinate clause), Compound-complex.
• Tenses: Present simple/continuous/perfect, Past simple/continuous/perfect, Future (will/going to).
Consistency in tense is essential for coherent writing.
• Common errors to avoid: Subject-verb disagreement, dangling modifiers, run-on sentences, comma
splices, incorrect apostrophe use (it's = it is; its = possessive).

Lexis (Vocabulary & Word Choice)

• Lexis refers to the vocabulary of a language and the way words are used in context. A wide lexical
range demonstrates language proficiency.
• Formal vs informal register: Formal language avoids contractions, colloquialisms, and slang (e.g.
academic essays, official letters). Informal language is conversational and flexible.
• Figurative language: Metaphor (direct comparison – 'life is a journey'), Simile (using 'like/as' – 'brave
as a lion'), Personification (human qualities to non-human), Idiom (fixed expression – 'under the
• weather').
• Collocations are word pairs that naturally go together: make a decision (not 'do a decision'), strong
coffee, heavy rain. Learning collocations improves naturalness in writing and speaking.
5. Maths

Algebra
• Algebra uses letters (variables) to represent unknown values. Expressions (e.g. 3x + 2) are simplified;
equations (e.g. 3x + 2 = 11) are solved by finding the value of the variable.
• Solving equations: Perform the same operation on both sides to isolate the variable. For quadratics:
factorise, complete the square, or use the quadratic formula x = (–b ± √(b²–4ac)) / 2a.
• Expanding and factorising: Expanding removes brackets (e.g. 3(x+2) = 3x+6). Factorising reverses
this (e.g. x²+5x+6 = (x+2)(x+3)).
• Inequalities: Solved like equations but reverse the inequality sign when multiplying/dividing by a
negative. Solution sets can be shown on a number line or using set notation.

Ratios & Proportions

• A ratio compares two or more quantities: written as a:b or as a fraction. Ratios should be simplified to
their lowest terms (e.g. 12:8 → 3:2).
• Direct proportion: As one quantity increases, the other increases proportionally (y = kx). The constant
of proportionality k can be found from any corresponding pair of values.
• Inverse proportion: As one quantity increases, the other decreases (y = k/x). E.g. more workers →
fewer hours to complete a task.
• Dividing in a given ratio: Add ratio parts, find the value of one part, then multiply. E.g. Share £120 in
ratio 3:2:1 → total 6 parts, one part = £20, shares = £60, £40, £20.

Percentages
• Percentage means 'per hundred'. To convert: fraction → decimal (÷100), decimal → % (×100). To find
x% of a value: multiply by x/100.
• Percentage increase/decrease: % change = (change ÷ original) × 100. A multiplier can be used: 20%
increase → multiply by 1.20; 15% decrease → multiply by 0.85.
• Reverse percentage: If a value after a % change is known, divide by the multiplier to find the original.
E.g. £85 after 15% discount → original = 85 ÷ 0.85 = £100.
• Compound interest: A = P(1 + r/100)■ where P = principal, r = rate (%), n = number of periods.
Compound growth applies to population, investment, and depreciation problems.

Statistics
• Measures of central tendency: Mean (sum ÷ count), Median (middle value when ordered), Mode
(most frequent value). The mean is sensitive to outliers; the median is more robust.
• Measures of spread: Range (max – min), Interquartile Range (IQR = Q3 – Q1), Standard deviation
(measures average distance from the mean).
• Data representation: Bar charts (categorical data), Pie charts (proportions), Histograms (continuous
data, area = frequency), Scatter graphs (correlation), Box plots (five-number summary).
• Probability: P(event) = favourable outcomes ÷ total outcomes. P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B) for
independent events. P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B). Tree diagrams and Venn diagrams aid
calculation.

Basic Geometry
• Angle facts: Angles on a straight line sum to 180°. Angles in a triangle sum to 180°. Angles in a
quadrilateral sum to 360°. Vertically opposite angles are equal. Corresponding angles (parallel lines)
are equal.
• Shapes and area formulae: Rectangle: l × w. Triangle: ½ × b × h. Circle: πr². Trapezium: ½(a+b)h.
Parallelogram: b × h.
• Pythagoras' theorem: In a right-angled triangle, a² + b² = c² (c = hypotenuse). Used to find missing
side lengths. The converse confirms whether a triangle is right-angled.
• Trigonometry (SOH CAH TOA): sin θ = opposite/hypotenuse, cos θ = adjacent/hypotenuse, tan θ =
opposite/adjacent. Used to find angles and sides in right-angled triangles.

End of Study Guide · Good luck with your studies!