Introduction to Railway Engineering Track Loading

3
TRACK LOADING

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 3-2

2. VEHICLE/TRACK FORCES ............................................................................................................. 3-4

3. DYNAMIC IMPACT FACTOR (EISENMANN’S APPROACH) .............................................3-14

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Introduction to Railway Engineering Track Loading

TRACK LOADING

1. INTRODUCTION

A three-unit 4140 kW 11E locomotive consist weighing 517 Ton is moving around a 600
m radius curve at 90 km/h. The consist is being guided and supported by 61 m of track
made up of the following:

• 7.5 Ton rail

• 26.5 Ton sleepers and fasteners
• 176 Ton crushed rock ballast
which in turn is supported by the subgrade. This consist pulls 200 trucks weighing
approximately 20 800 ton. Even though the track components seem large in terms of
mass (210 ton) in comparison to the loads, it must sustain a relatively delicate, precisely
balanced system.

Vertical Component
Longitudinal Component

Lateral Component

Figure 1. Components of the Applied Forces on a Track Structure

The above example is described quite simply as the forces imposed onto a track in a
complex system consisting of a combination of mechanical, thermal and other
environmental factors. The forces acting on the track are conveyed through each wheel
set and are generally indicated as shown in Figure 1. The maximum vertical static axle
load is 30 Ton on the South African network (Transnet Freight Rail).

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Considering the mechanical loads, a train has a large number of degrees of freedom of
motion while moving over a track. Each vehicle in a consist is usually different due to
design or vehicle irregularities and has a different mode of movement over a track
section. This results in a spectrum of forces experienced by the track, which covers a
wide range of frequencies. The track in itself is rough and also comprises a complex set
of springs and damping devices that serves to distribute stresses and dissipate energy
imparted by the train through to the subgrade.

Because of the irregularities in the train movement and the imperfect geometry and
varying support stiffness of the track, the load environment to which a track is subjected
consists of complex dynamic loads superimposed over static loads. The vertical wheel-
rail forces are increased due to the following:

1. Rail running surface discontinuities such as:

• isolated irregularities in the rail running surface which occur by default and by
design
• periodic short wave irregularities on the rail surface such as corrugations or
repetitive effects of the sleeper spacing
• random geometrical deviations of the longitudinal profile
• random variation in sleeper support stiffness

2. Vehicle errors:
• wheel defects such as wheel flats and wheel eccentricity
• bogie defects
• vehicle miss alignments

The dynamic loading in both the vertical and transverse or lateral directions is further
aggravated by the fact that the dynamic loads increase with increasing train speed.

Criteria of failure and the economics of maintenance determine the limits of track
loading. As track deterioration occurs, it gives rise to a progressive increase in forces.
This accelerates the rate of deterioration of the geometry until the point is reached
where remedial maintenance is necessary. The maintenance interval cannot be allowed

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to become too short, thus the forces generated must be reduced or the resistance of the
track to deformation be increased.

Temperature changes induce thermal stresses in the rail, that cause expansion or
contraction of the steel. Any restraint to the change in length, as in continuous welded
rail, will set up internal stresses generally represented by a force acting in a longitudinal
direction in the rail. Without sufficient resistance, track buckling can occur in a vertical
or lateral direction due to the longitudinal compression forces in the rails, or rail breaks
can occur from tension forces.

2. VEHICLE/TRACK FORCES

2.1 Discontinuities (Dynamic response to geometry deviations)

The movement of an imperfect railway vehicle over an imperfect track gives rise to
dynamic effects that increase with speed. These will supplement the contact forces
which, on perfect track with perfect vehicles and wheels are the static wheel loads. In
this paragraph the effect of a steel wheel being forced to change its direction of
movement will be discussed. A distinction will be made between the influence of track
features, track defects and geometrical deviations. Track features refer to turnouts and
vertical and horizontal design geometry. Track defects refer to rail surface anomalies
and joints, while geometrical deviations refer to undulations formed in the track that
result in deviations from the design geometry. This section will concentrate on the effect
of geometrical deviations.

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Figure 2. Dynamic Force Caused by Discontinuity

When a freight truck encounters an isolated geometrical deviation in the track, the path
or trajectory of the wheel is altered from V1 to V2 as indicated in Figure 2. This
redirection changes the momentum of the wheel over a very short period of time ∆t.
The result is an energy-absorbing impulse between the wheel and the rail. The amount
of energy absorbed by the track depends upon the increment of time over which the
redirection occurs.

If the impulse occurs abruptly, such as at a rail joint, the wheel must move the rail aside
rapidly. The rail resists this movement through its inertia and the stiffness of the
system. Inertia is the resistance offered by the rail to a change of its state of rest or
motion. An impulse, that includes the associated dynamic load occurring over a very
short duration of time, is termed a high frequency impulse. The greater the inertia, the
more energy is absorbed in the wheel and the rail and the greater the dynamic loading.

In estimating the influence of different track geometry deviations, it is useful to define

the terms sprung and un-sprung mass. A sharp impulse is first felt by the wheel-sets, as
there is no protection from the redirection of this mass except for the natural resiliency
of the metal itself. The mass of the wheel-set, plus any axle-hung equipment such as
traction motors, is called the un-sprung mass of the vehicle. The remainder of the mass
of the bogie and the body of the vehicle with its load are isolated from the wheel-sets
through the primary suspension, consisting of spring nests. This isolated mass is termed
the sprung mass.

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Before the impulse can produce serious loading, it must have been transmitted through
the springs. The spring nests prevent the entire vehicle body reacting to a track defect.
The spring deflection allows the vehicle to pass over the track defect without interacting
directly with the very large car body mass.

The indirect reaction of the sprung mass is caused by the deflected springs pushed back
against both the wheel-set (and hence the track) and the vehicle body on a delayed
basis. This produces a delayed action from the vehicle body, which may increase
dynamic loading further down the track.

The wheels, rails and sleepers are composed of elastic materials that behave
dynamically like masses suspended on springs. The ballast and subgrade are less
uniform in their structure and behave as viscous springs, which rebound with a time
delay. The key parameter of spring systems is their stiffness. Similarly, the truck
suspension itself contains elements designed to extract energy from the vibration. This
extraction of energy occurs in direct proportion to the velocity of the vibration. This is
termed damping.

The equation for the movement of a mass vibrating on a spring is useful in

understanding the dynamic behaviour of track. The relationship is:

M u y&& + γ y& + k y = 0 (1)

where:

Mu = the un-sprung mass

y&& = the acceleration of the vibrating mass
γ = the damping coefficient
y& = the velocity of the vibrating mass
k = the spring stiffness (of the track support spring), dependent upon the time
duration (frequency) of the vibration
y = the instantaneous deflection of the spring

The dynamic force or loading set up by the wheel-set mass vibrating on the track as
indicated in Figure 2 is defined by the mass and acceleration term in Equation 1. This is

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seen to be related to the spring (track) deflection multiplied by the spring (track)
stiffness. A simple estimate of dynamic loads is complicated by the fact that track
stiffness is dependent upon the impulse frequency as well as the damping (energy
extraction).

The passage of a train over a track section subjects a track to a spectrum of loads at
different frequencies due to a wide range of different vibrating components. Some
components of this frequency spectrum may cause resonance in one or more track
components, further increasing strain in the component.

As an approximation, the relationship between the speed of travel of a train and the
length of the track error at which loaded track resonance will occur is:

L k
V= (2)
2π Mu

where:

k = the track stiffness at an individual sleeper

Mu = the un-sprung mass of the wheel set per rail
L = length of the track error
V = speed of travel

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Figure 3. Idealized Model

Figure 3 is a simplified model for estimating vehicle response to shorter wave length
track perturbations, such as low joints, miss-aligned welds and random geometrical
deviations in track profile. The track is modeled as an infinite beam on a damped, linear
elastic foundation. British Rail has made extensive use of such a model to investigate the
influence of speed, un-sprung mass and track stiffness on wheel-rail force.

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Figure 4. Impact Force Caused by Rail Surface Defects

If the geometrical deviation is idealized as a cusp shaped dip as shown in Figure 4(a),
the resulting force’s response at this location is characterized over distance and time as
indicated in Figure 4(b).

The P1 Force is the high frequency impact response and is of limited interest for the
development of geometrical deviation because the rail and wheel absorb the energy.

The P2 Force results from the delayed response of the vehicle following impact, and is
transmitted to the ballast and produces cumulative permanent deformation.

An approximate relationship for peak P2 force was obtained by British Rail as:

Mu  Ct π 
P 2 Force = Ps + 2αV 1 −  kM u (3)
Mu + Mt  4 k(M u + M t ) 

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where:

P2 = dynamic rail force (N)

Ps = vehicle static wheel load (N)
Mu = vehicle unsprung mass/wheel (kg)
V = train speed (m/s)
2α = total angle of geometrical error (rad)
k = equivalent track stiffness (N/m)
Mt = equivalent track mass (kg)
Ct = equivalent track damping (Ns/m)

When traversing a long wave length geometrical deviation, the rail is given a much
longer time to move away. The lower effective inertia of the rail produces a dynamic
loading that is much less severe than the dynamic load resulting from an equivalent
depth of short wavelength deviation. When the deviation is large or is in a repeated
pattern that sets up resonance, the dynamic load will be large, usually due to bottoming
out of the sprung mass. Because the P2 force occurs at low enough frequencies, the load
attenuation by the inertia of the superstructure is low, hence the dynamic effect can be
transmitted all the way to the subgrade.

At low frequencies (below 10 Hz), caused by long wave lengths, the vehicle suspension
plays the dominant role in determining the track loading. At intermediate frequencies
(20-100Hz) caused by shorter wave lengths, track properties (mass, stiffness, etc.) and
the vehicle un-sprung mass are the most important factors. At still higher frequency
responses, up to 2,000 Hz the dynamic loads are dissipated by the rail.

Railway vehicles generally have simple suspensions designed for various purposes. In
terms of track loading the most important factor is the control of momentum changes to
ensure that the large mass of the vehicle is isolated from responding to most
geometrical deviations. To do this, the suspension must be capable of dissipating the
energy imparted to the wheel-sets by momentum changes as the trajectory of the
vehicle is redirected by a geometric deviation. Any energy that is not dissipated is
returned to the track and to the vehicle components in the form of dynamic loads.

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Because of the various springs introduced into the vehicle suspension to isolate it from
responding to irregularities in track and wheels, and in spite of the various damping
elements, the vehicle is free to vibrate in one of several different modes. These are:

1. Body bounce (see Figure 5(a))

2. Body roll (see Figure 5(b))
3. Body pitch (see Figure 5(c))
4. Body yaw (see Figure 5(d))
5. Body twist (see Figure 5(e))
6. Run-in/run-out (see Figure 5(f))
7. Bogie hunting

(a)Body Bounce (b) Body Roll (c) Body Pitch

(d) Body Yaw (e) Body Twist (f) Run-In/Run-Out

Figure 5. Vehicle Vibration Modes

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d( odB)yawY oedB()yT (iswt unI-f/R) nO-ut

Such vibrations will occur alone or in combination in response to track irregularities,

variations in track stiffness and train handling. In a well maintained vehicle, the various
damping elements will minimize the amplitude and time duration of such oscillations (

(d
yu)Bdoa

ywY)daBo
cen yRo()dBb

yT()dBeo
l

s(wit
(cyP)dBo

Ru/-nI)f
cthi

-tnOu

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2.2 Vehicle Errors

Vehicle miss-alignments occur when the frame of the vehicle is twisted causing the load
distribution between the wheels to be uneven. This has the same effect as uneven
loading in the vehicle.

Figure 6. Bogie Miss-Alignment and Associated Forces

Bogie miss-alignment occurs when the 2 wheel-sets are not mounted parallel and in line
with each other. Figure 6 shows an exaggerated example of miss-alignment of 2 wheel-
sets in a bogie indicating the lateral load caused by the dragging of the wheel-set.

The most common occurrences of wheel defects are wheel flats and out of round
wheels. The flat spots (as indicated in Figure 7) on the wheel cause a high impact load
over a short period of time. The impact is a high frequency P1 force but it does not
generally excite the sprung mass. The dynamic load could be as high as 3 to 5 times the
static load.

An out of round wheel as indicated in Figure 7 has a similar effect except that the
frequency is lower due to the longer wheel circumference path.

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Figure 7. Wheel Defects and Associated Forces

2.3 Longitudinal Induced Forces

Due to the expansion or contraction of the rail caused by temperature changes and the
restriction in movement due to the anchoring of the rail to the ballast bed, large stresses
develop along the length of the rail. This effect of temperature changes has the largest
contribution to the longitudinal component of the loads. The braking and traction forces
of the rolling stock and locomotives also have a significant contribution.

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3. DYNAMIC IMPACT FACTOR (EISENMANN’S APPROACH)

This method adopts a statistical approach to determine the magnitude of the impact
factor. It is also the normal approach followed by Transnet Freight Rail to determine
design dynamic wheel loads. Eisenmann suggests that the rail bending stress and
deflection are normally distributed and that the mean values can be calculated from the
beam on elastic foundation model which is discussed in detail in the section on
Superstructure Requirements. This normal distribution is illustrated in Figure 8 for
both rail stress and rail deflection values, which are inter-related.
Distribution of Measured Values

ts

Mean x

60 km/h 200 km/h

Speed

Figure 8. Statistical Distribution Showing Effect of Speed

If measured rail stress or deflection values are not available the mean can be taken as
the static mean value denoted by x and the corresponding standard deviation of this
mean value s , can be expressed by:

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s = xδ η (4)

where:
δ = a factor dependent upon the track condition
η = a speed factor.
The value of δ is determined by the quality of the track, and the following values have
been suggested for use:

δ = 0.1 for track quality in very good condition,

δ = 0.2 for track quality in good condition,
δ = 0.3 for track quality in poor condition.

The value of 0 is determined by the speed of the vehicle, V (km/h), and the following
values have been suggested for use:

η = 1, for vehicle speeds up to 60 km/h,

V − 60
η = 1+ for vehicle speeds in the range of 60 to 200 km/h.
140
The product δ • η is referred to as the coefficient of variation. The corresponding
maximum rail stress (or rail deflection) is given by:

X = x + st (5)

where t depends upon the chosen upper confidence limits defining the probability that
the maximum rail stress (or rail deflection) will not be exceeded. The maximum rail
stress (or rail deflection), X can be defined by the simple relationship

X = ϕx (6)

where:
x = mean rail stress (or rail deflection) from beam on elastic foundation
model
φ = impact or dynamic factor relating to the track condition and train speed

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Combining equations (4) and (5) and equating to equation (6) the expression for the
impact factor reduces to:

ϕ = 1 + δηt (7)

where values of t for the chosen upper confidence limits (UCL) can be obtained from the
following:

t = 0, UCL = 50%,
t = 1, UCL = 84.1%,
t = 2, UCL = 97.7%,
t = 3, UCL = 99.9%.

REFERENCES

1. Jenkins, H. H, Stephenson, J. E., Clayton, G. A. Morland, G. W. and Lyon, D. (1974). The

Effect of Track and Vehicle Parameters on Wheel/Rail Vertical Dynamic Forces.
Railway Engineering Journal, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp 2-16.

2. Roney, M. (1993). Lectures on Rail/Wheel Interaction and Metallurgy. Special Post

Graduate Course at University of Pretoria, Department of Civil Engineering, Pretoria,
November.

3. Ebersöhn, W. (1994). Substructure Influence on Track Maintenance Requirements.

Ph.D Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Massachusetts at
Amherst, December.

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