CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter is the first part of the study and provides an overview of the research. It is

organized into several sections: the Background of the Study, Objectives of the Study,

Conceptual Framework, Hypothesis, Definition of Terms, Significance of the Study, and Scope

and Delimitation.

1.1 Background of the study

Self-medication, a component of self-care involves the use of medicines by individuals to

treat self-recognized illnesses or symptoms without consulting a healthcare professional. It

typically includes the reuse of previously prescribed drugs, using leftover medicines, or relying

on advice from family or friends. The World Health Organization (2019) emphasizes self-care

including self-medication as essential to improving health outcomes, reducing the burden on

healthcare systems, and promoting health literacy. However, improper self-medication may lead

to harmful consequences, including drug resistance, delayed diagnosis, and adverse drug

reactions (Zheng et al., 2017).

Globally, self-medication is a widespread practice. In countries like Ethiopia, studies

have reported varying prevalence rates, ranging from 12.8% to 77.1%, with associated factors

such as limited access to healthcare, poverty, lack of medical insurance, prior experience with

similar illnesses, and time constraints (Kassie et al., 2018). Similarly, in the Philippines,

self-medication is considered a common response to minor illnesses, especially in rural and

1
low-income areas. A scoping review by Loreche et al. (2022) identified common acute

conditions—such as colds, diarrhea, body pain, and stress—that prompt Filipinos to

self-medicate rather than seek professional help. This behavior is often compounded by the

country’s low health literacy levels (Tolabing et al., 2022) and the influence of drug

advertisements, cultural norms, and family advice.

The COVID-19 pandemic further intensified self-medication practices in the Philippines.

According to Cadorna and Ramos-Mortel (2020), 93% of rural Filipino households practiced

self-medication, especially for respiratory symptoms linked to COVID-19. The fear of infection,

movement restrictions, and health system limitations pushed many to rely on stored medicines or

OTC drugs. Despite this, self-medication during the pandemic raised concerns due to the risks of

inappropriate antibiotic and antiviral use, potentially worsening public health outcomes.

Local studies among students, such as Papasin et al. (2023), confirm a high prevalence of

self-medication among students, particularly with NSAIDs, influenced by accessibility,

familiarity, and cost-saving motives. The decision to self-medicate is often shaped by

socio-economic factors, the perceived severity of illness, availability of medicines, and previous

experiences. While these practices offer short-term relief, their improper use can lead to serious

long-term consequences if not guided by proper knowledge or healthcare supervision.

In Brgy. Maria Clara, Iloilo City, the growing accessibility of OTC medicines, limited

health services, and ingrained cultural practices may influence residents to self-medicate.

However, there is limited local research documenting the prevalence, reasons, and factors

associated with self-medication among adult household members in this community.

2
Understanding these factors is essential in addressing potential health risks and developing

educational initiatives to promote safe and responsible self-care practices.

This study aims to determine the relationship of self-medication and its associated factors

among adult household members in Brgy. Maria Clara, Iloilo City. The findings can help guide

local health officials, policymakers, and community health workers in crafting evidence-based

interventions that promote rational drug use and reduce the risks associated with improper

self-medication.

1.2 Theoretical Framework

3
 This study is anchored on the Health Belief Model (HBM), a widely used theoretical

framework that explains health-related behaviors based on individuals’ perceptions and beliefs.

The model proposes that a person’s decision to engage in a particular health behavior is

influenced by how they perceive a health condition and the actions available to them.

In this study, self-medication is viewed as a health behavior influenced by several key

components of the HBM. These include perceived susceptibility and perceived severity, which

refer to an individual’s belief about the likelihood of experiencing illness and the seriousness of

its consequences. When individuals perceive their condition as minor or not serious, they may be

more likely to practice self-medication rather than seek professional consultation.

The model also considers perceived benefits and perceived barriers. Perceived benefits

refer to the belief that self-medication can provide immediate relief, save time, or reduce

healthcare expenses. In contrast, perceived barriers include factors such as cost of consultation,

limited access to healthcare services, and long waiting times, which may discourage individuals

from seeking professional care and instead promote self-medication.

Furthermore, cues to action, such as previous experiences, advice from family or peers,

and the availability of over-the-counter medications, may trigger individuals to engage in

self-medication. Self-efficacy, or the confidence in one’s ability to properly use medications, also

influences this behavior.

In relation to this study, demographic factors such as age, sex, educational attainment,

and employment status may influence individuals’ perceptions and decision-making processes.

4
These factors can affect how individuals assess their health condition and whether they choose to

self-medicate.

By applying the Health Belief Model, this study provides a structured explanation of how

individual perceptions, together with demographic characteristics, influence self-medication

practices among adult household members. This framework supports the analysis of factors that

contribute to self-medication and helps explain variations in behavior within the community.

1.3 Conceptual Framework

1.4 Statement of the Problem

This study aims to assess the self-medication practices namong adult household members

in Brgy. Maria Clara, Iloilo City. Specifically, it seeks to address the following research

questions:

5
 1.​ What are the self-medication practices among adult household members in Brgy.

Maria Clara, Iloilo City?

2.​ Is there a significant relationship between demographic factors (age, sex, marital

status, educational attainment, and household income) and self-medication

practices?

1.5 Objectives

General Objective

1.​ To determine the relationship between self-medication practices among adult

household members in Brgy. Maria Clara, Iloilo City.

Specific Objectives

1.​ To determine the prevalence or level of self-medication practices among adult

household members in Brgy. Maria Clara, Iloilo City.

2.​ To examine the relationship between socio-demographic characteristics (age, sex,

marital status, educational attainment, and household income/employment status)

and self-medication practices.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study on self-medication among adult household members in Brgy. Maria Clara,

Iloilo City is significant in understanding why people self-medicate and its possible risks. The

results of the research findings may benefit the following:

6
 Community. This study will raise awareness among residents about the potential risks

and consequences of improper self-medication, such as drug resistance, side effects, and

incorrect treatment. It can encourage more responsible health-seeking behaviors.

Healthcare Providers. Findings will help local nurses, barangay health workers, and

other healthcare professionals understand the common reasons why people self-medicate. This

can help them design targeted health education programs to promote safe medication use.

Local Government and Policymakers. The results can guide local leaders in developing

community health interventions, policies, or regulations related to over-the-counter drug use,

pharmacy access, and public health campaigns.

Future Researchers. This study can serve as a baseline for future research in Iloilo City

or similar communities, especially studies focusing on community health practices and patient

education.

Nursing Education. As nursing students, this research will enhance understanding of

real-world community health issues, helping future nurses develop appropriate patient teaching

strategies in promoting rational drug use.

Students. This study may help students better understand self-medication, its potential

risks, and the factors influencing such practices. It may also help them develop a more

responsible attitude toward medicine use.

7
1.7 Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis (H₀) - There is no significant relationship between the

socio-demographic characteristics, environmental and personal factors, and reasons for

self-medication and the practice of self-medication among adult household members in Barangay

Maria Clara, Iloilo City.

1.8 Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study looks for self-medication practices among adult household members in

Barangay Maria Clara, Iloilo City. It focuses on understanding the influences surrounding the use

of medications without a doctor’s prescription among residents of the research locale — Brgy.

Maria Clara Iloilo, City.

This study includes (1) Male and female respondents aged 18 years and above; (2) Who

are permanent members of the household ; (3) Has lived in Barangay Maria Clara, Iloilo City for

at least six months. (4) Participants must also be willing to take part in the study with provided

informed consent.

This study did not include the following: (1) Respondents who are boarders or temporary

residents such as those living in boarding houses; (2) Individuals who are critically ill or

otherwise is not able to participate reliably in the survey; (3) This study is also delimited to Brgy.

Maria Clara, Iloilo City. The data were gathered through an adapted community-based survey

using structured questionnaires to explore self-reported medication practices and contributing

factors.
8
1.9 Definition of Terms

To further provide clarity and comprehension, the following terms were defined.​

Self-medication. Refers to the use of medicines or home remedies by individuals to treat

self-diagnosed conditions or symptoms without the advice or prescription of a healthcare

professional.

Practice. The habitual or customary performance or application of self-medication

behaviors by adult household members.

Adult Household Members. Individuals aged 18 years and above who reside

permanently in a household within Iloilo City Proper and are involved in health-related

decision-making.

Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. Medications that can be purchased without a prescription

and are commonly used in self medication practices.

9
 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter consists of five parts, elaborately: (1) Consequences and Outcomes of

Self-Medication (2) Reasons for Self-Medication (3) Environmental and Personal Characteristics

(4) Local Studies on Self-Medication Practices

2.1 Consequences and Outcomes of Self-Medication

Self-medication is increasingly recognized as a common form of self-care practiced

worldwide, wherein individuals select and use medicines to treat self-recognized illnesses or

symptoms without professional medical supervision. The reasons for this behavior are

multifactorial, including perceived familiarity with the medications, cost-saving motives,

convenience, and sometimes restricted access to healthcare services (Sridhar et al., 2018).

A study conducted among the general population in Ras Al-Khaimah, UAE, found that

more than half of the respondents (52.1%) practiced self-medication, primarily for conditions

such as headaches, fevers, and gastrointestinal complaints. The study highlighted that

information sources like advertisements and advice from friends strongly influenced

self-medication behavior. Despite many respondents perceiving self-medication as safe, a

proportion reported experiencing side effects or complications, underlining the inherent risks of

this practice (Sridhar et al., 2018).

The consequences of self-medication extend across positive and negative dimensions. On

the positive side, self-medication is often valued for saving time and expenses, enabling early

10
symptom relief and reducing the burden on healthcare facilities. This perspective was notably

expressed among nursing students, who identified time and cost-saving benefits and the

successful treatment of minor ailments as perceived positive outcomes (Khatony et al., 2020).

Conversely, the negative ramifications are serious and include risks such as antimicrobial

resistance, disease complications, drug toxicity, and even mortality. Improper use, particularly of

antibiotics, through self-medication fosters drug resistance, posing a global health challenge.

Moreover, masking symptoms with unregulated medication use can lead to misdiagnosis and

delayed presentation to healthcare providers, resulting in worsening health conditions (Khatony

et al., 2020; Sridhar et al., 2018).

When self-medication fails to resolve health issues, individuals often escalate care by

seeking professional medical consultation or resorting to alternative remedies, including

traditional treatments or other non-prescribed drugs. This transition reflects a critical decision

point but also signifies potential exposure to further risks if inappropriate medications are used

consecutively (Sridhar et al., 2018). The World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes

self-medication as a common practice and supports responsible use under regulated

circumstances, emphasizing the role of pharmacists in advising patients on safe medication use

and the importance of public education to prevent irrational drug consumption (Sridhar et al.,

2018).

2.2 Reasons for Self-Medication

Self-medication, defined as the use of medicines without professional consultation, is a

widespread practice globally and in the Philippines. While it may provide benefits such as
11
convenience, affordability, and autonomy in managing health, it also poses significant risks

including delayed diagnosis, inappropriate drug use, and drug resistance. Several studies in the

Philippine context have examined the underlying reasons why individuals, particularly

vulnerable groups, resort to self-medication.

Española, Magtibay, and Mendoza (2023), in their study on elderly residents of San Jose

del Monte City, Bulacan, emphasized that familiarity with past illnesses strongly influences the

decision to self-medicate. Many respondents reported that if current symptoms resembled

previous conditions, they reused medicines that had worked before. Another key motivator was

the perception that the illness was mild, which discouraged individuals from consulting health

professionals. The elderly also cited time-saving needs, high healthcare costs, and long waiting

lines in clinics and hospitals as reasons for resorting to self-treatment. Additionally, the

accessibility of pharmacies and the belief that self-medicating is cheaper reinforced this practice.

Age and income were found to significantly affect these decisions, underscoring the role of

socio-economic constraints.

A related study by Carabeo, Cortez, Manalo, and Meniado (2022) on adults in Cavite

during the COVID-19 pandemic provided further evidence of these motivations. The researchers

reported that minor symptoms and the perceived ease of treatment were the most common

reasons for self-medicating. Fear of worsening conditions, however, was the top reason cited

against it. Notably, the Cavite study highlighted the mediating role of knowledge: individuals

with higher awareness of both COVID-19 and medications were more likely to engage in

self-medication, particularly with paracetamol (60.8%), nasal decongestants (39.5%), and cough

12
medicines (35.1%). Complementary and Alternative Medicines (CAMs) such as vitamins, steam

therapy, and gargling with salt water were also frequently used. These findings indicate that

self-medication practices were not only driven by convenience and cost but also by individuals’

perceived understanding of their illness and remedies.

Together, these studies underscore that self-medication is largely influenced by perceived

mildness of illness, prior experience, accessibility of drugs, and socio-economic limitations, with

knowledge and health literacy emerging as important mediating factors. Both elderly populations

and general adult groups demonstrate similar patterns: when faced with minor or familiar

symptoms, coupled with barriers to formal healthcare, individuals are more likely to

self-medicate. These insights reinforce the need for targeted health education campaigns,

particularly emphasizing safe practices and the risks of inappropriate drug use, to address the

rising prevalence of self-medication in Philippine communities.

2.3 Environmental and Personal Characteristics

Environmental and personal factors can greatly impact how people manage their

illnesses, particularly in a setting where there is resource-limitation. In a community-based study

by Jember et al. (2019) in Gondar Town, Ethiopia, it was found that individuals who had easier

access to pharmacies were more than twice as likely to engage in self-medication. This suggests

that the closer or more available a pharmacy is, the more likely individuals are to bypass health

facilities and treat themselves instead.

13
 In addition, peer influence can significantly impact self-medication practices. As more

than half of the respondents according to Jember [Link] (2019) are influenced socially and the

self-medicating practice is thrice more than those who have not been pressured.

Kassie [Link] (2018) provided similar findings in their study conducted in Meket District,

where having medications stored at home was significantly associated with increased

self-medication behavior. The result showed that individuals who have access to medications at

home are twice more likely to self-medicate compared to those who don’t have such access. This

reflects a common household practice where individuals store over-the-counter medicines

leading to repeated self-treatment without professional consultation.

2.4 Local Studies on Self-Medication Practices

During the COVID-19 pandemic, a study conducted by Cadorna and Ramos-Mortel

(2024) examined the self-medication behaviors of rural community members in the Philippines

who believed they had severe respiratory ailments. The study found that a large percentage of

rural persons self-medicated, and that the behavior was strongly correlated with access to health

providers, reported symptom intensity, and real sources of health information. Due to mild

symptoms, many respondents chose to self-treat even though they trusted medical professionals

for health information. This suggests that self-medication behaviors in rural Filipino

communities are influenced by both personal perceptions and outside factors (Cadorna &

Ramos-Mortel, 2024).

14
 Carabeo et al. (2022) investigated the factors and perceived efficacy of self-medication

among Cavite adults in order to prevent or treat COVID-19 symptoms. The results revealed that

over 75% of respondents said they self-medicated, with the most commonly used medications

being cough remedies, nasal decongestants, and paracetamol. The study also discovered that

respondents' knowledge of symptoms and medications had an impact on their self-medication

behaviors, underscoring the importance of awareness in influencing self-medication practices. To

increase community awareness of safe medication usage, the authors recommend public health

education initiatives (Carabeo et al., 2022).

2.5 Research Gap

While existing Philippine studies have explored the prevalence and determinants of

self-medication in both rural and urban settings, there remains limited research specifically

focusing on adult household members beyond pandemic contexts and common symptoms. Most

local studies have been conducted during the COVID-19 period or within specific demographic

groups (e.g., rural communities or regional populations). There is a need for research that

examines how broader socio-demographic variables, knowledge levels, and attitudes toward

healthcare services interact with self-medication practices outside pandemic conditions. This gap

underscores the importance of comprehensive community-based studies that include multiple

predictors of self-medication behavior to better inform public health interventions and policies.

15
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the methodology of the study. Specifically, it discusses the research

design, sampling plan, sources of data, data gathering procedures, and statistical data analysis.

3.1 Research Design

This study employed a community-based cross-sectional research design to determine the

relationship of self-medication practices and their associated factors among adult household

members in Brgy. Maria Clara, Iloilo City. A cross-sectional design is appropriate because it

allows data on self-medication behaviors and influencing factors to be collected at a single point

in time, providing a snapshot of the situation within the community.

A structured, interviewer-administered questionnaire tailored to the local context of

Barangay Maria Clara, Iloilo City, was used to collect information on socio-demographic

characteristics and associated factors influencing self-medication practices. The instrument

includes items on personal behaviors, knowledge-related aspects, and reasons for engaging in

self-medication. It was administered directly to the selected respondents to ensure accuracy,

reliability, and completeness of responses.

This design is particularly suited for the study as it allows the researchers to determine

the frequency and percentage of self-medication practices and to analyze relationships between

variables such as demographic characteristics, proximity to healthcare resources, and

self-medication behaviors without manipulating conditions or observing participants over time.

16
3.2 Research Locale

The study was conducted in Barangay Maria Clara, Iloilo City, Philippines, a residential

community under the Iloilo City Proper district. The barangay consists of several households

with access to pharmacies, sari-sari stores, and a Barangay Health Station, making it an

appropriate setting for assessing the relationship and associated factors of self-medication

practices among adult household members.

3.3 Estimated Number of Population

The respondents of the study were adult household members (≥18 years old) residing in

Barangay Maria Clara, Iloilo City. Based on the most recent barangay listing, the community has

an estimated 575 residents distributed across 197 households. The official household roster

served as the sampling frame for selecting study participants.

3.4 Sample Sizing

Given time, resource, and logistical constraints, the study sampled households

systematically and Interviewed one eligible adult per selected household. The sample size was

determined using Slovin's Formula, which is commonly used when the total population is

known. Barangay Maria Clara has a total of 197 households, which served as the sampling frame

𝑁
of the study. Using Slovin's Formula n= 2 and applying a 7% margin of error, the sample
1+𝑁𝑒

197 197 197

size was calculated as follows: n = 2 = 1+197(0.0049)
= 1.9653
=100.2. The value was
1+197(0.07)

rounded to 100 households, which served as the final sample size for the study. The households

17
were selected through systematic random sampling, and from each selected household, one

eligible adult respondent was Interviewed to participate in the study.

3.5 Sampling Technique

The research study employs systematic random sampling to select households in

Barangay Maria Clara, Iloilo City. From the total of 197 households, 100 were chosen based on

the calculated sample size. A complete household list was first obtained, after which a random

starting point was selected. From there, every household was chosen at a fixed sampling interval

(≈197/100 ≈ 1.97, operationalized as selecting nearly every household) until the target of 100

was reached. In each selected household, one eligible adult respondent was interviewed using a

structured questionnaire. This probability-based approach ensures that every household had an

equal chance of selection, minimizes sampling bias, and provides a representative sample of the

study population.

The incorporation of the systematic random sampling technique for this study has its key

points, which the researchers found necessary to achieve the goals and objectives of the research.

The researchers believe that the straightforward and unbiased approach of this technique ensures

adequate acquisition of results, and at the same time, represents the general or otherwise the

greater majority of the population.

3.6 Data Gathering Instrument

The researchers prepared a structured, interviewer-administered questionnaire. This

questionnaire has been customized to fit the local context of Barangay Maria Clara, Iloilo City,
18
and was utilized to gather data on self-medication practices and associated factors among adult

household members.

The questionnaire was divided into two main parts, consisting primarily of closed-ended

questions using a four-point Likert scale and a few categorical variables to capture

socio-demographic characteristics related to self-medication. Respondents are assured of

confidentiality, and their participation is voluntary. Only one household member aged 18 years

and above, who is responsible for the household and has lived in Barangay Maria Clara for at

least six months, was randomly selected through a lottery method to participate.

Part 1: Associated Factor (Socio-Demographic Variables)

This section gathers information about the respondents’ background characteristics,

which served as the basis for subgroup analysis and helps identify patterns related to

self-medication practices. The variables include:

●​ Age

●​ Sex

●​ Marital status

●​ Educational attainment

●​ Employment status

●​ Proximity to the nearest pharmacy

These variables provided an overview of the participants’ demographic and social

profiles, which may influence their self-medication behaviors.

19
Part 2: Self-Medication Practices

This section examines the different factors related to self-medication practices among adult

household members. It consists of 25 statements rated on a four-point Likert scale ranging from

1 (Never) to 4 (Always). These items assess the frequency and pattern of self-medication

behaviors, such as taking medications without professional consultation, using leftover or

over-the-counter drugs, adjusting dosages independently, and relying on non-professional advice.

Questionnaire Design and Structure

The questionnaire is designed using a combination of categorical and scaled questions to

ensure clarity, logical flow, and ease of administration. The Likert scale format allows

quantification of respondents’ frequency of self-medication practices, while categorical questions

enable descriptive demographic analysis. The instrument underwent expert validation to ensure

content relevance, clarity, and cultural appropriateness.

The collected data was utilized to determine the frequency and percentage of

self-medication practices and to identify associated socio-demographic factors among adult

household members in Barangay Maria Clara, Iloilo City.

3.7 Validity and Reliability

In this study, the researchers used a structured questionnaire designed to assess the

relationship of self-medication practices and the factors associated with them among adult

household members in Brgy. Maria Clara, Iloilo City. To establish validity, the instrument

20
undergoes content validation by a panel of experts. These experts evaluate whether each item in

the questionnaire is relevant, clear, and aligned with the objectives of the study. Their feedback

helps ensure that the tool accurately measures the constructs being studied, such as patterns of

self-medication, and socio-demographic influences. By securing expert review, the researchers

aim to confirm that the questionnaire captures the full scope of the topic and avoids any bias or

misleading questions.

To establish reliability, the researchers conducted a pilot test with a small group of

households outside the chosen sample but sharing similar characteristics. This pilot testing

helped determine whether the instrument consistently produces stable results when applied in

similar conditions. Responses from the pilot test were examined to identify unclear items and to

check the internal consistency of the tool. Necessary revisions were then made to improve the

precision and clarity of the questions. Once refined, the final questionnaire was used in the actual

study. Ensuring reliability guarantees that the results are dependable and that any patterns

observed reflect true practices rather than random variations.

By thoroughly validating and testing the reliability of the instrument, the researchers aim

to strengthen the credibility of the study findings, allowing them to provide an accurate and

meaningful picture of self-medication practices within the community.

3.8 Data Gathering Procedure

Preparations began by securing approval and permission from the Department of Nursing

and the Dean of the College of Allied Medical Health Sciences. A formal letter of request was

21
submitted before conducting the data collection, signed by the Dean, the subject adviser of

Nursing Research 2, and other concerned authorities. Permission from the Barangay Captain and

council of Barangay Maria Clara, Iloilo City was also sought to ensure cooperation and support

during the data collection process.

Once approval was granted, the researchers obtained the complete household list of

Barangay Maria Clara. Using systematic random sampling, 100 households were selected from

the total of 197 households. A random starting point was identified, and every household was

chosen at a fixed interval until the target sample was reached. In each selected household, one

eligible adult respondent (≥18 years old, living in the barangay for at least six months) was

chosen. If more than one adult is available, the lottery method was used to ensure fairness.

Before conducting the interview, the researchers explained the purpose of the study and

secured informed consent from each respondent. Participation was voluntary, and respondents

have the right to decline without penalty. Upon agreement, the respondents were interviewed

using a structured questionnaire, guided by the researcher to ensure completeness and accuracy

of responses. The data gathering was carried out personally by the researchers to ensure

uniformity and minimize bias.

After completion, the questionnaires were retrieved immediately. All responses were

treated with strict confidentiality, ensuring that no identifying information is disclosed.

3.9 Statistical Data and Analysis Procedure

The data gathered from the study were processed and analyzed using the:
22
 Descriptive Statistics. Descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean, and

standard deviation, used to summarize and describe the socio-demographic characteristics of the

respondents (age, sex, marital status, educational attainment, household income, and

employment status).

Bivariate Analysis. Bivariate analysis was performed to determine the relationship

between the independent variables (socio-demographic characteristics) and the dependent

variable (practice of self-medication). A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically

significant with 95% Confidence Intervals (CI).

3.10 Ethical Considerations

The researchers recognize the importance of upholding ethical standards in conducting

this study on self-medication practices among adult household members in Barangay Maria

Clara, Iloilo City. The welfare, rights, and dignity of the participants were safeguarded

throughout the entire research process.

Privacy and Confidentiality. All information gathered remains strictly confidential and

was used solely for academic purposes. Respondents were not identified by name in any report

or publication. Codes were used in place of personal identifiers, and all responses were secured

in a password-protected file accessible only to the research team. After the study is completed,

data were properly disposed of to ensure continued privacy.

Voluntary Participation and Autonomy. Participation in the study was completely

voluntary. Respondents were informed that they have the full right to decline or withdraw from
23
the study at any stage without facing any form of penalty or disadvantage. The researchers

respect their decisions and ensure that no coercion is involved in securing responses.

Informed Consent. Before data collection, participants were provided with a clear

explanation of the study’s objectives, procedures, and expected contributions. They were also

informed about the potential benefits and minimal risks associated with the study. Written

informed consent was then obtained prior to participation.

Safety and Dignity. The researchers ensure that no physical, psychological, or emotional

harm comes to the respondents as a result of their participation. The questions were framed

respectfully, avoiding sensitive or offensive language. Each participant was treated with the

highest regard for their dignity and individuality.

By following these ethical safeguards, the researchers aim to uphold integrity in the

conduct of the study.

24
 CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

This chapter presents the results of the data gathered on self-medication practices and

associated factors among adult household members in Barangay Maria Clara, Iloilo City. The

findings are organized according to the study’s specific objectives and analyzed using

descriptive, bivariate, and multivariate statistical techniques. The presentation includes tables

and narrative interpretations supported by relevant literature.

4.1 Socio-Demographic Profile of Respondents

Table 1 presents the socio-demographic characteristics of the 100 adult household

respondents from Barangay Maria Clara, Iloilo City. The data show that most participants were

female (64.4%), while 35.6% were male, indicating that women were more represented in the

study. This may reflect women’s active participation in household health decisions and

community-based studies.​

​ In terms of age, the majority of respondents belonged to the 51–70 age group (34.7%),

followed by those aged 31–50 (28.7%) and 18–30 (27.7%), suggesting that most participants

were middle-aged to older adults who are typically household decision-makers and more

experienced in managing minor illnesses. Regarding marital status, a large proportion were

married (39.6%), indicating that most respondents are family heads or caregivers, which may

influence their engagement in self-medication practices.​

​ Furthermore, 39.6% of respondents had reached the college level, showing a generally

educated population capable of understanding basic health information. In terms of employment,

25
35.6% were employed and 29.7% were unemployed, reflecting a mixed economic background

typical of urban communities. Notably, most respondents (89.1%) lived within one kilometer of a

pharmacy, indicating high accessibility to over-the-counter medicines, which may contribute to

self-medication tendencies.​

​ Overall, the demographic profile suggests that respondents are predominantly educated,

middle-aged females with easy access to pharmacies—characteristics that may influence their

health-seeking behaviors and likelihood of practicing self-medication.

26
Table 1.

27
4.2 Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Self-Medication Practice

Table 2 presents the self-medication practices of the respondents. Results show that

28.7% reported practicing self-medication, while 71.3% did not. This indicates that less than

one-third of the participants engage in self-medication, suggesting a relatively low prevalence

within the sample. Although the majority refrain from self-medicating, the presence of this

behavior among some respondents highlights the need for continued education on the proper use

of medications and the risks associated with unsupervised treatment.

Table 2.

4.3 Bivariate Analysis of Socio-Demographic Factors Associated with Self-Medication

Practices

The results revealed that age was not a significant predictor of self-medication practices

(p > 0.05). However, respondents aged 18–30 years showed higher odds of engaging in

self-medication (OR = 2.50, 95% CI = 1.10–5.68, p = 0.028) compared to older age groups. This

suggests that younger adults may be more likely to self-medicate, possibly due to easier access to

drug information, convenience, and familiarity with over-the-counter medications. Older adults,

on the other hand, may be more cautious and reliant on professional healthcare services.
28
 Sex was not found to be a significant factor in self-medication behavior (p = 0.912).

Although females had slightly higher odds (OR = 2.53, 95% CI = 1.49–4.30) compared to males

(OR = 0.95, 95% CI = 0.38–2.36), this difference was not statistically significant. This implies

that both men and women exhibit similar tendencies toward self-medicating, suggesting that

gender does not strongly influence this practice.

Marital status showed no significant association with self-medication practices (p > 0.05).

Married and widowed participants demonstrated slightly lower odds compared to single

respondents, indicating that single adults may be more likely to self-medicate, possibly due to

greater independence in health decision-making. The coefficient for separated individuals was

unusually high due to limited data in that subgroup, and thus should be interpreted with caution.

No significant relationship was observed between educational attainment and

self-medication (p > 0.05). While higher education levels could suggest greater health literacy

and awareness, the findings indicated inconsistent patterns across categories. This implies that

education alone does not determine the likelihood of self-medication and that other contextual or

behavioral factors may play a more important role.

Employment status was not significantly associated with self-medication (p > 0.05).

Although unemployed individuals showed slightly higher odds (OR = 1.67, 95% CI = 0.53–5.28)

than those who were employed, the difference was not statistically significant. This may suggest

that economic constraints could influence self-medication decisions, but the effect is not strong

enough to establish a clear relationship.

29
 The proximity of respondents to the nearest pharmacy did not show a significant

association with self-medication practices (p > 0.05). Respondents residing less than 1 km from a

pharmacy had higher odds (OR = 2.71, 95% CI = 1.70–4.33) of self-medicating compared to

those living farther away, possibly due to easier access to medicines. However, since the result

was not statistically significant, it cannot be concluded that distance directly influences

self-medication behavior.

In summary, none of the socio-demographic variables—including age, sex, marital status,

educational attainment, employment status, and distance to the nearest pharmacy—showed a

statistically significant association with self-medication practices (p > 0.05). Although younger

adults (18–30 years) had slightly higher odds of self-medicating, this trend was not consistently

observed across other age groups. Overall, the findings suggest that self-medication behavior is

not strongly influenced by demographic factors, indicating that other variables—such as

accessibility, personal beliefs, and health-seeking attitudes—may play a more substantial role.

30
Table 3.

31
4.4 Descriptive Statistics of Self-Medication Practice Items (Q1-Q25)

Table 4.1 presents the descriptive statistics of self-medication behaviors among the

respondents. The overall mean score of 2.26, interpreted as rarely, indicates that self-medication

is not a commonly practiced behavior among the participants.

Despite this general trend, certain self-medication practices were reported with higher

frequency. Respondents indicated that they always self-medicate when experiencing minor

ailments such as headaches and colds (M = 3.25) and when using over-the-counter medications

(M = 3.31). Furthermore, safety-related practices such as checking the expiry date of medications

(M = 3.73), knowing the correct duration of medication use (M = 3.51), and considering

potential side effects (M = 3.47) were consistently interpreted as always. Awareness of correct

dosage (M = 3.18) and the use of supplements (M = 3.03) were also reported as often. These

findings suggest that while respondents occasionally engage in self-medication, they demonstrate

a high level of responsibility and awareness in ensuring safe medication practices.

Conversely, respondents reported rarely engaging in potentially harmful behaviors. These

include taking medications without consulting a healthcare professional (M = 1.97), adjusting

medication dosages independently (M = 1.89), using leftover medications from previous

treatments (M = 1.72), and using herbal or traditional remedies without professional guidance (M

= 1.86). Notably, the use of antibiotics without consulting a physician (M = 1.32) and

recommending medications to others without professional advice (M = 1.57) were interpreted as

never. These results indicate a cautious approach among respondents, particularly in practices

that may pose greater health risks.

32
 With regard to the reasons for self-medication, the results reveal that such motivations

were generally minimal. Factors such as avoiding consultation costs (M = 1.97), inaccessibility

of healthcare facilities (M = 1.77), saving time (M = 1.91), and reliance on advice from family or

friends (M = 1.98) were all interpreted as rarely. Additionally, respondents’ belief in having

sufficient knowledge to treat their condition (M = 2.30) was also rated as rarely, suggesting

limited confidence in self-diagnosis and treatment.

External influences were found to have negligible impact on self-medication behaviors.

Respondents never relied on advertisements (M = 1.55) or social media platforms (M = 1.44) as

sources of information for medication use. Moreover, practices such as trusting pharmacists

without formal consultation (M = 1.91) and using previous prescriptions as guides (M = 1.92)

were also reported as rarely.

In summary, the findings indicate that while self-medication is not a prevalent practice

among the respondents, it is selectively performed for minor health conditions using accessible

medications. Importantly, respondents exhibit a strong adherence to safe medication practices

and demonstrate caution in avoiding behaviors associated with higher health risks.

33
Table 4.1 Descriptive statistics of self-medication practice items (Q1-Q25)
Self-Medication Statements Mean Interpretation

1. I take medication without consulting a healthcare professional. 1.97 rarely

2. I use leftover medications from previous treatments. 1.72 rarely

3. I self-medicate when experiencing minor ailments (e.g., headache, cold). 3.25 always

4. I adjust medication dosage on my own (increase or decrease). 1.89 rarely

5. I recommend medications to others without professional advice. 1.57 never

6. I use over-the-counter drugs (e.g., paracetamol, ibuprofen) without a prescription 3.31 always

7. I use antibiotics without consulting a doctor. 1.32 never

8. I use herbal or traditional remedies without professional guidance. 1.86 rarely

9. I use supplements (e.g., vitamins, energy boosters) without consulting a healthcare
provider. 3.03 often

10. I use topical medications (e.g., creams, ointments) without professional advice. 2.73 often

11. I self-medicate to avoid consultation costs 1.97 rarely

12. I self-medicate due to inaccessible health facilities 1.77 rarely

13. I believe I have enough knowledge to treat my condition 2.3 rarely

14. I prefer self-medication to save time 1.91 rarely

15. I self-medicate for privacy or to avoid embarrassment 1.52 never

16. I rely on advice from family or friends 1.98 rarely

17. I search for information on the internet before self-medicating 1.75 rarely

18. I follow advertisements or commercials when selecting medication 1.55 never

19. I trust guidance from pharmacists without formal consultation 1.91 rarely

20. I use previous prescription labels or instructions as guides. 1.92 rarely

21. I use social media (e.g., Facebook, TikTok, Instagram) as a source of information before
self-medicating. 1.44 never

22. I am aware of the correct dosage before self-medicating. 3.18 often

23. I know the correct duration for using the medication. 3.51 always
24. I consider potential side effects before self-medicating. 3.47 always
25. I check the expiry date before using any medication. 3.73 always
Overall Mean 2.2624 rarely

34
 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter presents the discussion, conclusions, and recommendations based on the

findings of the study on self-medication practices among adult household members in Barangay

Maria Clara, Iloilo City. It interprets the results in relation to the study objectives and relevant

literature, and provides recommendations to promote safe and responsible medication use within

the community.

5.1 Summary

This study was conducted to determine the self-medication practices among adult

household members in Barangay Maria Clara, Iloilo City. Self-medication, defined as the use of

medicines by individuals to treat self-diagnosed conditions without professional consultation, is a

widespread practice both globally and locally. While it can serve as a convenient and

cost-effective way to manage minor illnesses, improper self-medication poses serious health

risks such as drug resistance, adverse reactions, and treatment delays. The study aimed to

provide a clearer understanding of this practice within the community context of Barangay Maria

Clara, where easy access to over-the-counter (OTC) drugs and limited healthcare resources may

influence medication behaviors.

Specifically, the study sought to: (1) determine the self-medication practices; and (2)

assess the relationship between demographic characteristics (age, sex, marital status, educational

level, and household income) and reasons influencing self-medication practices.

35
 A community-based cross-sectional research design was employed to examine the factors

associated with self-medication practices within the study area. The study involved adult

household members aged 18 years and above who were permanent residents of Barangay Maria

Clara, Iloilo City, and had lived there for at least six months. Using systematic random sampling,

a total of 100 households were selected from the 197 total households in the barangay, ensuring

that each had an equal chance of participation.

Data were collected through a structured, interviewer-administered questionnaire divided

into two major parts: associated factors (socio-demographic) and self-medication practices. The

questionnaire utilized a combination of categorical and Likert-scale items, which allowed for

both descriptive and inferential analyses. Content validity was established through expert

evaluation, and reliability was ensured through pilot testing in a comparable population outside

the study area.

The collected data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequency, percentage,

mean, and standard deviation) to summarize respondent characteristics and general patterns of

self-medication. To determine associations between variables, bivariate analysis was used, with a

significance level set at p < 0.05.

5.2 Findings

1. Socio-Demographic Profile of the Respondents

The demographic profile of the respondents in Table 1 showed that most participants

were female (64.4%), indicating that women were more involved in household health decisions
36
and more represented in the study. In terms of age, the majority were 51–70 years old (34.7%),

followed by 31–50 years old (28.7%) and 18–30 years old (27.7%), suggesting that most were

middle-aged to older adults who often serve as household decision-makers. Regarding marital

status, 39.6% were married, reflecting their active roles as family caregivers. For educational

attainment, 39.6% reached the college level, showing that most respondents were capable of

understanding basic health information. In terms of employment, 35.6% were employed and

29.7% were unemployed, representing a mixed economic background. Moreover, 89.1% lived

within one kilometer of a pharmacy, showing easy access to over-the-counter (OTC) medicines

that may influence their self-medication behaviors.

2. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Self-Medication Practices

The findings in Table 2 revealed that 28.7% of the respondents practiced self-medication,

while 71.3% did not. This indicates that less than one-third of the participants engaged in

self-medication, showing a relatively low prevalence in the community. Although most

respondents avoided self-medicating, the presence of this behavior among some individuals

highlights the importance of continuous health education on the safe and responsible use of

medicines.

3. Bivariate Analysis of Socio-Demographic Factors Associated with Self-Medication Practices

As presented in Table 3, none of the socio-demographic factors age, sex, marital status,

educational attainment, employment status, and proximity to a pharmacy were significantly

associated with self-medication practices (p > 0.05). While younger adults (18–30 years old) had

37
slightly higher odds of engaging in self-medication compared to older adults, this difference was

not statistically significant. The results suggest that self-medication behavior is not strongly

influenced by demographic characteristics, but rather by other factors such as convenience,

accessibility, and personal health beliefs.

4. Descriptive Statistics of Self-Medication Practice Items (Q1-Q25)

Table 4.1 presents the descriptive statistics of self-medication practices among the

respondents across twenty-five indicators. The computed overall mean of 2.26, interpreted as

rarely, suggests that self-medication is generally not a common practice among the participants.

In terms of frequently observed behaviors, respondents reported that they always engage

in self-medication when experiencing minor ailments such as headaches and colds (M = 3.25)

and when using over-the-counter medications (M = 3.31). Additionally, safety-related practices

yielded the highest mean scores, including checking the expiry date before medication use (M =

3.73), knowing the correct duration of medication intake (M = 3.51), and considering potential

side effects (M = 3.47), all interpreted as always. Awareness of correct dosage (M = 3.18) and

the use of supplements (M = 3.03) were also reported as often. These findings indicate that while

respondents may engage in self-medication for minor conditions, they exhibit responsible

behavior by adhering to safe medication practices.

Conversely, potentially unsafe self-medication behaviors were reported less frequently.

Respondents rarely took medications without consulting a healthcare professional (M = 1.97),

adjusted dosages independently (M = 1.89), reused leftover medications (M = 1.72), or used

38
herbal and traditional remedies without professional guidance (M = 1.86). Moreover, the use of

antibiotics without medical consultation (M = 1.32) and recommending medications to others

without professional advice (M = 1.57) were both interpreted as never, indicating a high level of

caution toward practices that may pose health risks.

With respect to motivating factors, respondents rarely reported engaging in

self-medication due to reasons such as avoiding consultation costs (M = 1.97), inaccessibility of

healthcare facilities (M = 1.77), saving time (M = 1.91), or relying on advice from family and

friends (M = 1.98). Furthermore, the perception of having sufficient knowledge to manage one’s

condition (M = 2.30) was also interpreted as rarely, suggesting that respondents generally do not

rely heavily on self-assessed competence in making medication-related decisions.

External influences were found to have minimal impact on respondents’ practices. The

use of advertisements (M = 1.55) and social media platforms (M = 1.44) as sources of

medication information were both interpreted as never. Similarly, relying on pharmacists without

formal consultation (M = 1.91) and using previous prescription labels or instructions as guides

(M = 1.92) were reported as rarely.

Overall, the results demonstrate that while self-medication is occasionally practiced,

particularly for minor and manageable conditions, respondents maintain a cautious and informed

approach. The consistent emphasis on safety measures and the avoidance of high-risk behaviors

reflect a generally responsible pattern of self-medication among the participants.

39
5.3 Conclusion

The findings of the study indicate that self-medication among adult household members

in Barangay Maria Clara, Iloilo City, was generally infrequent and cautious. Most respondents

possessed good knowledge and awareness regarding the safe use of medicines, particularly

avoiding unsafe practices such as antibiotic misuse and dosage alteration

No significant relationships were found between socio-demographic factors and

self-medication, suggesting that the practice is influenced more by situational elements such as

accessibility, affordability, and informed self-care behaviors.

5.4 Implications

The findings of this study have several important implications across different sectors.

1. For the Community and Households:

There is a need for greater awareness about the risks associated with self-medication,

including drug resistance, improper dosing, and delayed medical care. Promoting responsible

self-care practices and encouraging consultation with healthcare professionals can help improve

medication safety and reduce potential health complications within the community.

2. For Healthcare Providers:

Health education campaigns should focus on correcting misconceptions about

over-the-counter (OTC) drugs, providing guidance on when professional medical advice is

40
necessary, and improving health literacy at the household level. Healthcare providers play a vital

role in guiding patients toward the safe and appropriate use of medicines.

3. For Local Government and Policymakers:

There is a need to implement and enforce stricter regulations on the sale and promotion

of non-prescription medicines. Policymakers can use the study results to develop

community-based programs that address the underlying socio-economic and environmental

factors contributing to self-medication, such as limited access to healthcare facilities and the high

cost of medical consultations.

4. For Nursing Education and Practice:

It is important to integrate topics on rational drug use and community-based medication

management into nursing curricula. Nursing students and practitioners can apply these insights to

strengthen patient education strategies, promote medication adherence, and design interventions

that encourage safe self-care behaviors among families and communities.

5. For Future Research:

The study’s results can serve as a baseline for further investigations into medication

behaviors in other barangays or cities. Future studies may explore qualitative aspects of

self-medication to gain a deeper understanding of cultural beliefs, health-seeking behaviors, and

perceptions of medicine use. Expanding the scope and methodology can provide a more

41
comprehensive understanding of the issue and contribute to evidence-based public health

strategies.

5.5 Recommendations

1. Community and Households:

Residents are encouraged to consult licensed healthcare professionals before taking any

form of medication, whether prescription or over-the-counter. Community members should be

made aware of the potential risks of self-medication, such as incorrect dosage, adverse drug

reactions, or delayed medical consultation. Regular community-based health education programs

may be organized to promote proper medication practices and ensure that individuals make

informed decisions regarding their health.

2. Healthcare Providers​

Healthcare professionals, including nurses, physicians, and pharmacists, are encouraged

to strengthen health education campaigns focusing on the safe and appropriate use of

over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. They should take a proactive role in counseling patients about

medication safety, proper dosage, and possible side effects. Collaborations with local health

offices and community organizations can also enhance the dissemination of accurate information

regarding drug use.

3. Local Government and Policy Makers:​

​ Local government units and policy makers should enforce existing regulations

42
concerning the sale and advertisement of non-prescription drugs to prevent misuse and promote

safe medication practices. Implementing stricter monitoring systems and requiring pharmacy

compliance with dispensing guidelines can help control inappropriate access to medications.

Moreover, public health policies should support awareness campaigns addressing the dangers of

unsupervised self-medication.

4. Future Researchers:​

​ Future studies are recommended to include larger and more diverse samples to improve

the generalizability of findings. Researchers may also consider utilizing qualitative methods,

such as interviews or focus group discussions, to explore deeper behavioral and motivational

factors influencing self-medication practices. Longitudinal studies may also be conducted to

examine changes in self-medication behavior over time.

5. Nursing Education:​

​ Nursing education institutions should emphasize the importance of community-based

strategies that promote responsible medication use. Integrating topics on self-medication, rational

drug use, and patient education into the nursing curriculum can help prepare future nurses to

effectively address medication-related issues in various health care settings.

6. Students:​

​ Students, particularly those in health-related courses, are encouraged to actively

participate in community awareness campaigns and outreach programs that aim to reduce unsafe

self-medication practices. Through volunteer activities and peer education, students can help

43
spread accurate health information and advocate for responsible health-seeking behaviors within

their communities.

44
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 APPENDICES

APPENDIX A. CONSENT FORM

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48
APPENDIX B. RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

49
50
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52