Fundamentals of Health Principles
Theory and Practice
Chapter 4: Systems in the Human Body | Food, Nutrition and Health
Study Notes & Practice Questions
PART 1: SYSTEMS IN THE HUMAN BODY
Overview: Systems of the Human Body
The human body is made up of several systems which work together to keep the body functioning.
System Major Organs Primary Function
Circulatory Heart, blood vessels, blood Transports nutrients and gases to
cells and tissues
Digestive Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, Breaks down food into smaller
stomach, intestines, salivary molecules for energy
glands, pancreas, liver,
gallbladder
Endocrine Hypothalamus, pituitary, Maintains growth and homeostasis
thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal,
pancreas, pineal, ovaries,
testes
Immune White blood cells, lymph Defense against foreign invaders;
vessels, spleen, thymus forms white blood cells
Integumentary Skin, nails, hair, sweat glands Protects body, prevents dehydration,
stores fat
Muscular Muscles Enables movement of the body
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves Monitors and coordinates internal
organ function
Skeletal Cartilage, bone, ligaments, Support, protection, and movement
tendons, joints
Reproductive Testes/penis (M); ovaries, Production of gametes; childbearing
uterus, vagina (F)
Respiratory Nose, pharynx, lungs, Provides oxygen via gas exchange
trachea, bronchi
Urinary/Excretory Kidneys, urethras, bladder, Removes wastes, maintains water
urethra balance
1. Nervous System
The nervous system controls voluntary and involuntary actions and transmits signals for communication
with different parts of the body.
• Nerves are bundles of fibers starting at the brain/spinal cord that branch out to all body parts.
• Neurons are specialized conductor cells that send electrochemical nerve impulses via thin fibers
called axons.
• The brain is surrounded by the meninges (tissue layer); the skull (cranium) protects it from
injury.
Functions of the Nervous System
• Collecting information from sensory receptors monitoring internal and external
[Link]:
• Processing sensory signals in the CNS — evaluating, comparing, decision-making,
[Link]:
• Stimulating efferent (motor) neurons that carry signals from CNS to effector [Link]:
Two Major Divisions
i. Central Nervous System (CNS)
The integration and command center of the body consisting of the brain and spinal cord. Controls the
body through processing, memory, and regulation. Responsible for language, creativity, expression,
emotions, and personality.
ii. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Consists of cranial and spinal nerves, ganglia, and sensory receptors connecting the rest of the body to
the CNS. Has two subdivisions:
• Voluntary efferent neurons; consciously controlled; stimulates skeletal [Link]
Nervous System (SNS):
• Involuntary efferent neurons; controls visceral muscles, cardiac tissue, glandular tissue.
Subdivided into:Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):
– Sympathetic Nervous System
– Parasympathetic Nervous System
– Enteric Nervous System
2. Digestive System
The digestive system comprises the alimentary canal, associated glands, and organs that produce
enzymes to bring about digestion. It breaks down food for use by body cells.
Organs of Digestion (in order)
Mouth (Oral Cavity)
• Present in both jaws; help masticate (chew) [Link]:
• Secreted by three pairs of salivary glands — Parotid, Sublingual, and Submandibular.
Contains salivary amylase (digests starch) and antibacterial agents. Main products:
polysaccharides and maltose (disaccharide).Saliva:
• Muscular; has taste papillae and taste buds. Four basic tastes: Sweet/Salty (front), Sour
(sides), Bitter (back).Tongue:
Pharynx
Connects nose and mouth to the trachea. The epiglottis blocks the airway during swallowing, directing
food into the esophagus.
Esophagus
A muscular organ conducting food to the stomach. Uses peristalsis (rhythmic muscle contractions) to
push food downward. A person can swallow even upside down due to this mechanism.
Stomach
An expansible muscular sac holding 2-4 liters. Two sphincters control food entry and exit. Three major
functions:
• Storage chamber — allows gradual release to small intestine.
• Mechanical breakdown of food.
• Secretes substances that facilitate digestion.
Small Intestine
Digestion is completed here; nutrients are absorbed. Three regions: Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum.
• Finger-like absorptive structures increasing surface area for nutrient [Link]:
• Glucose and amino acids diffuse into blood capillaries.
• Fatty acids and monoglycerides form triglycerides, then chylomicrons, entering lymph vessels.
• Also absorbs water and minerals: Na, P, Ca, Fe, Cu, Zn.
Large Intestine (Colon)
About 1.2 metres long. The ascending colon goes up on the right, transverse cuts across, descending
goes down the left. Absorbs water from undigested food, concentrating it into feces. Dietary fiber
prevents constipation. Food takes about 1.5 days to pass through entirely.
Appendix
Small, narrow projection from the caecum. No known digestive function but contains lymphatic tissue
(body defense). Can become infected — appendicitis — and if ruptured, bacteria can spread causing
serious abdominal infection.
Spleen
Largest lymphoid organ; associated with the circulatory system. Not essential to life in its natural state.
Absorption Details
Absorptive Cells (in villi)
• Cover surface of villi; participate in nutrient absorption.
• Lie beside goblet cells and endocrine cells.
• Constantly replaced by newly formed cells from crypts.
Types of Absorption
• No energy expenditure; e.g., water, most fats, [Link]:
• Uses a carrier molecule; e.g., galactose, amino acids, [Link]:
• Uses carrier and requires energy; e.g., glucose, amino [Link]:
• Cell forms an indentation engulfing particles (phagocytosis) or fluids
(pinocytosis).Endocytosis:
Portal and Lymphatic Circulation
• Water-soluble nutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, B vitamins) go to blood via portal vein to liver.
• Fat-soluble nutrients follow lymphatic vessels.
3. Endocrine System
A collection of glands that produce hormones to regulate metabolism, growth, development, and
maintenance of tissues and organs.
Gland/Organ Location/Description Hormones / Function
Hypothalamus Lower central brain; links TRH, GHRH, GHIH, GnRH, CRH,
endocrine and nervous Oxytocin, ADH
systems
Pituitary Gland Below hypothalamus; Controls several other endocrine glands
'master gland'
Thyroid Butterfly-shaped; front lower Calcitonin, T3 (Triiodothyronine), T4
neck around trachea (Thyroxine)
Parathyroid Four tiny glands functioning PTH — calcium ion homeostasis
together
Adrenal Cortex Outer layer of adrenal gland Corticosteroids — salt/water balance,
(on kidneys) reduce inflammation, enhance sexual
development
Adrenal Medulla Inner layer of adrenal gland Epinephrine/Adrenaline, Catecholamine
— fight-or-flight response
Pineal Gland Middle of brain Melatonin — regulates sleep-wake
(circadian) cycle
Pancreas Abdominal cavity, Insulin and Glucagon — regulate blood
inferior/posterior to stomach glucose
4. Reproductive System
A collection of internal and external organs in both males and females that work together for
procreation. Two sex cells (gametes) are involved: sperm (male) and egg/ovum (female).
Male Reproductive System
• Located in the scrotum; regulate temperature for sperm production. Kept cooler than the
rest of [Link]:
• Made of shaft and glands; semen and urine exit through a small opening. Interior is
spongy expandable [Link]:
• Seminal vesicles and prostate gland — lubricate the duct system and nourish sperm.
Prostate surrounds ejaculatory glands at the urethra [Link] Glands:
• Male sex hormone: Testosterone
Female Reproductive System
i. Vagina
Muscular hollow tube 7-12 cm long. Lined with mucous membranes. Connects to uterus at the cervix
(strong thick walls). During childbirth, the cervix expands up to 50 times its normal width.
ii. Uterus
Shaped like an upside-down pear with thick muscular walls. Holds the developing baby for nine
months. Contains the strongest muscles in the female body — can expand 10-20 times during
pregnancy. Each month: builds endometrium (inner lining), then sheds it if conception does not occur
— this is menstruation.
iii. Fallopian Tubes
Two tubes (oviducts) attached to the upper corners of the uterus. About 10 cm long. Tiny hairs inside
push the egg toward the uterus. Sperm travels through the cervix and uterus to reach the egg here — if
sperm meets egg, conception occurs.
iv. Ovaries
Two oval-shaped organs (1.5-2 inches) on the upper right and left of the uterus. Produce, store, and
release eggs (ovulation). Part of the endocrine system — produce estrogen and progesterone. At 20
weeks fetal development: 6-7 million potential egg cells; at birth: 1-2 million; at puberty: ~300,000.
Across a reproductive lifespan, roughly 300 mature eggs are produced.
The female reproductive system enables a woman to: produce eggs (ova), have sexual intercourse,
protect and nourish the fertilized egg until fully developed, and give birth.
When sperm fertilizes an egg, the result is called a zygote, which develops into an embryo and then a
fetus.
PART 2: FOOD, NUTRITION AND HEALTH
Nutrients
Nutrients are substances in food needed for body growth, energy, and function. Divided into two
categories:
• Needed in large amounts (grams) — carbohydrates, proteins, [Link]:
• Needed in small amounts (milligrams) — vitamins and [Link]:
Proteins (Growth and Body-Building Nutrients)
Complex organic nitrogenous compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
sulphur. Broken down into amino acids — the building blocks of protein. Key roles:
• Major builders and repairers of cells.
• Can serve as energy source when carbohydrates are exhausted.
• Very important for building tissues such as muscles.
Table 4: Functions and Sources of Vitamins
Vitamin Functions Food Sources
A Night vision; healing epithelial Breastmilk, tomatoes, cabbage, lettuce,
cells; normal development of pumpkins, mangoes, papaya, carrots, liver,
teeth and bones kidney, egg yolk, milk, butter, cheese
D Needed for calcium Ultra violet light (sun), eggs, butter, fish,
absorption from small fortified oils, fats, cereals
intestines; calcification of the
skeleton
E Prevention of catabolism of Vegetable oils, cottonseed, sunflower seed,
polyunsaturated fats; egg yolk, butter
protection of cells against
ageing and cancer
K For blood clotting Green leafy vegetables, fruits, cereals, meat,
dairy products
B Complex Metabolism of carbohydrates, Milk, egg yolk, liver, kidney, heart; whole grain
proteins, and fats cereals, meat, whole bread, fish, bananas
C Prevention of scurvy; aiding Fresh fruits (oranges, banana, mango,
wound healing; assisting grapefruit, lemon, potatoes) and vegetables
absorption of iron (cabbage, carrots, pepper, tomatoes);
breastmilk
Minerals
Minerals are inorganic compounds needed in small amounts. Vital for growth, repair, and regulation.
Two groups: Major minerals (calcium, phosphorous, sodium, potassium, magnesium) and Trace
minerals (iron, iodine, fluorine, zinc, cobalt, chromium, copper, selenium, silicon, manganese).
Table 5: Minerals, Functions and Food Sources
Mineral Function Food Sources
Calcium Gives bones and teeth rigidity Milk, cheese, dairy products; foods fortified
and strength with calcium (flour, cereals, eggs, fish,
cabbage)
Iron Formation of haemoglobin Meat and meat products, eggs, bread, green
leafy vegetables, pulses, fruits
Iodine For normal metabolism of Iodised salt, sea vegetables, yogurt, cow's
cells milk, eggs, cheese, fish; plants grown in
iodine-rich soil
Zinc For children to grow and Maize, fish, breastmilk, meat, beans
develop normally; for wound
healing
Fluorine Helps to keep teeth strong Water
Table 6: Nutrients and Food Power Chart
Food Type Nutrients Present Powers
Cereals and millet Major carbohydrate source; also Energy giving, Body building
provides fat
Peas, lentils and Major protein source; also provides Body building, Energy giving
legumes fat and carbohydrate
Milk and its Major protein source; also provides Body building, Energy giving
products fat and carbohydrate
Nuts and oilseeds Major fat source; also provides Energy storing, Body building
protein
Fats and oil Major fat source Energy storing
Vegetables Major source of vitamins and Protective and regulatory
minerals
Fruits Major source of vitamins and Protective and regulatory
minerals
Herbs, condiments Phytochemicals Protective and regulatory
and spices
Meat, poultry and Major protein source; also provides Body building, Energy storing
seafood significant fat
PART 3: PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Section A: Short Answer Questions
Nervous System
1. What are the three functions of the nervous system?
2. Differentiate between the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS).
3. What is the difference between the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems?
4. Name the three subdivisions of the Autonomic Nervous System.
Digestive System
5. List the organs involved in digestion in the correct order.
6. What is peristalsis and where does it occur?
7. Name the three salivary glands and describe the role of saliva in digestion.
8. What are the three regions of the small intestine? What is the role of villi?
9. What is appendicitis and what causes it?
10. What are the three major functions of the stomach?
Endocrine System
11. Why is the pituitary gland called the 'master gland'?
12. Name the seven hormones secreted by the hypothalamus.
13. What are the three hormones produced by the thyroid gland?
14. Explain the role of insulin and glucagon from the pancreas.
15. What hormone does the pineal gland secrete, and what does it do?
16. What is the function of the adrenal medulla? Name its hormones.
Reproductive System
17. List the four internal female reproductive organs and briefly describe each.
18. What is the process of ovulation?
19. What is menstruation? Describe the uterine cycle.
20. Name the three parts of the male reproductive system and their functions.
21. What are the sex hormones for males and females?
22. What is a zygote? How does it develop?
Nutrition
23. Differentiate between macronutrients and micronutrients. Give examples of each.
24. What is the function of Vitamin C? Name four food sources.
25. Why is iron important? What foods are rich in iron?
26. What vitamin is needed for calcium absorption and bone calcification?
27. What mineral helps to keep teeth strong? What is its main food source?
Section B: Fill in the Blank
28. The ______________ gland is called the master gland because it controls several other
endocrine glands.
29. The muscular action used by the esophagus to push food to the stomach is called
______________.
30. The male sex hormone is ______________, while the female sex hormones are
______________ and ______________.
31. The three regions of the small intestine are ______________, ______________, and
______________.
32. Melatonin is produced by the ______________ gland and regulates the ______________ cycle.
33. The ______________ and ______________ are produced by the pancreas to regulate blood
glucose.
34. The appendix can become infected in a condition called ______________.
35. The fight-or-flight hormone produced by the adrenal medulla is ______________.
36. Vitamin __ prevents scurvy, while Vitamin __ is needed for blood clotting.
37. The fertilized egg is called a ______________, which develops into an ______________ and
then a ______________.
Section C: Answer Key
Fill in the Blank Answers
38. Pituitary
39. Peristalsis
40. Testosterone; Estrogen and Progesterone
41. Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum
42. Pineal; circadian (sleep-wake)
43. Insulin and Glucagon
44. Appendicitis
45. Epinephrine / Adrenaline
46. C; K
47. Zygote; embryo; fetus