CONTOURING
Representation of Three Dimensions:
The way in which the conformation of the ground may be presented on the plan
is by presentation of the surface slopes on some conventional system of shading,
intended, merely to convey an impression of relative relief. In plans for location
or construction work, vertical dimensions should be represented at least as
accurately and clearly as horizontal references, and this points to two
requirements in delineation
The reduced levels of numerous points in terms of a known datum should be
shown. These should be arranged in a manner that the form of the surface can
be readily interpreted
Terminologies used in contouring
Contour line: line in which the surface of the ground is intersected by a level
surface. it follows that every point on a contour has the same elevation. It is an
imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal elevation
Contour interval: this is a constant vertical distance between contours. Before
a contour interval is arrived at, the following points are put into consideration
1. Time and expanse of field and office work
2. Purpose and extent of the survey
3. Nature of the country
4. Scale of the plan or map.
Contour gradient: the lying throughout on the surface of the ground, and
preserving a constant inclination is called a contour gradient. The path of such a
line can be traced in the plan or on map, if is inclination is known, and jt is
required to pass through a given point
Horizontal equivalent: The least horizontal distance between the consecutive
contours, is called horizontal equivalent. It is different for different contours and
is dependent on the slope of the ground. It is comparatively less in the hills than
in the plains.
Spot heights: is the altitude of a point, especially as shown on a map.
Whenever ground is flat, there is hardly any difference in elevation of different
points. On the other hand, if contours are drawn at larger vertical difference,
slight variation in heights cannot be depicted, in such cases, the relief is
indicated by sharing spot levels. Generally, they are obtained by spirit levelling
for accurate maps and with ordinary instruments for less accurate maps.
Characteristics of Contours:
A contour map with constant interval portrays element of configuration in a
characteristic manner. The following items should be kept in view in map reading
and plotting:
1. Two Contours of different elevations do not cross each other except in the
case of an Overhanging cliff.
2. Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one contour except in
the case of a vertical cliff.
3. Contours drawn closer depict a steep slope and if drawn far apart,
represent a gentle slope.
4. Contours equally spaced depict a uniform slope. When contours are
parallel, equidistant and straight, these represent an inclined plane
surface
5. Contour at any point is perpendicular to line of the steepest slope at the
point
6. A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the
limits of the map itself.
1
7. A set or ring contours with higher values inside, depict a hill whereas a set
of ring contours with lower values inside depict a pond or a depression
without an outlet.
8. When contours cross a ridge or V-shaped valley, they form sharp V-shapes
across them. Contours represent a ridge line, if the concavity of higher
value contour lies towards he next lower value contour and on the other
hand they represent a valley if the concavity of the lower value contour,
lies towards the higher value contour.
9. The same contour must appear on both the sides of a ridge or valley.
[Link] do not have sharp turnings.
Methods of Contouring
Fieldwork for locating contours may be executed in various ways according to
the instruments used. The' various methods of locating contours, may be divided
into two main classes:
(i) Direct Method
(ii) Indirect Method
Direct Method
In this method, contours to be plotted are actually traced out in the field by
locating and marking a number of points as surveyed on a plane table section
and the appropriate contours are drawn through them. This method is
comparatively slow and is generally not adopted on large surveys unless a
superior accuracy is demanded. It is suitable 1or contouring of small areas where
better accuracy is required. The whole field work may be divided into two steps:
(a) The location of the points on the contours i.e. vertical control
(b) Plotting of the points on the plane table section i.e. horizontal control.
Two operations may be carried out simultaneously if one surveyor is employed to
locate the points and the other for surveying their locations by plane tabling.
Vertical Control:
instruments required:
leveling staff
plane Table with Accessories
procedure
1. establish a permanent benchmark of known elevation above mean sea level,
in the area of the project or accept any level with arbitrary value say 500
metres.
2. Set up level on any commencing position A from where a reading on the staff
placed on the bench mark can be made easily. -
3. Read the level staff at the bench mark. Assume that its middle wire reading is
1.523m.
2
4. Calculate the height of the line of collimation of the level i.e. 500+ 1.523 =
501
5. To locate the 500 metre contour on the ground, direct the staff man to the
points where Staff reading is 501.523 500.000= 1.523m, and locate their
positions by inserting Wooden pegs. For locating the 501 metre contour, the staff
should be directed to the points where the staff reading is 501.523 - 501.000 =
0.523m. It may be noted that from this setting of the level, 502-meter contour
cannot be located as the elevation of the line of collimation is only 501.523m as
the shown in the figure but the lower value contours 1.e. 499m, 498m, etc can
be located depending upon the length of the leveling staff i.e. whether it is 4m,
4.5m or 5m. It is necessary that the line of collimation should intersect some
portion of the staff for locating he contour.
3
6. Establish a forward station F on a pakka mark and read the levelling staff held
on it, let its value be 3.426m. The reduced level of the F is 501.523-3.428=
498.097m.
[Link] the level to another commanding station say B and read the back staff on
the point F. Let the reading be 0.852m.
8. Calculate the height of the line of collimation of the level at B i.e. 498.097 +
0.852 498.949m.
9. The points on the contours of. lower values i.e. 497, 496, 495m, etc. can be
further located from this setting of the level.
10. Proceed in a similar manner till entire area is contoured.
Horizontal Control:
Instruments required
A plane-table with its accessories, chairs etc.
Procedure
In case of small areas, the locations of the points on each contour are surveyed
on the plane table section by radiation method. If the area is large and all the
contours cannot be plotted from one setting, the plane table is shifted to another
commanding station B to which a long radial line AB js drawn.
Reading the station B, the plane table is set by Back Ray Method' and the
measured distance between the two station is plotted on the scale of plane table
section. The points of different contours are surveyed by radial line method and
the process continued till all the contours are plotted. It may be appreciated that
the contours are drawn through the points on the table. Hence, sufficient number
of points at close interval are required to be located for accurate contouring.
When locating contours with this method, the following points should be kept in
mind. The positions of the consecutive points on any contour are simply joined
by straight lines on the plane table
4
Ridge contour Valley contours
Locating highest and lowest points
These a, b, c, d, e and f are the points on a 500 metre contour located on the
ground. Points a and b are on one side of a ridge and points c, d, e and f on the
other side as water shed line is shown by a dotted line. It should be ensured in
such cases that e contour must be located on the ridge line otherwise by simply
joining the point b and c the contour will be seriously in error as shown by a
dotted line joining b and c is equally applicable to locate contours in stream beds
and valleys.
Indirect Method:
In this method sufficient number of points are given spot levels. The locations of
such points can be conveniently plotted on plane table section as these generally
form a pattern of a well-shaped geometrical figure i.e. squares, rectangles,
triangles etc. it is also possible to have exact spot level of any point on exact
value of the contour. The levels of important features which represent hill tops,
ridge lines, bed of streams and depression are also taken, to depict their correct
features while drawing contour lines. The contours in between spot levels are
interpolated and drawn. This method of contouring is sometimes known as
contouring by spot levels. Indirect method of contouring is commonly employed
in small Scale surveys of extensive areas. This method is cheaper, quicker and
less tedious as compared with direct method.
Indirect method of contouring can be employed in three different ways detailed
below.
1. By Squares Method
2. By Cross-sections Method
3. By Tacheometric Method.
Tacheometric Method
In this method, a number of radial lines known on the ground and the positions
of the points at equal distance are marked. Salient points of the ground are also
located in the field by observing the vertical angles and the staff readings of the
bottom, middle and the top values
5
Locating contours by tacheometric method
Salient points of the ground are located in the field by observing the vertical
angles and he staff readings of the bottom, middle and the top wires.
Calculations of the reduced levels and the horizontal distances of the points from
the instrument position are done using the tacheometric formulae. The radial
lines, and the positions of the points on each line are plotted on the desired scale
and their spot levels entered. Now interpolation of required contours can be done
with respect to the spot levels - figure above. Similarly, the instrument is set up
at other commanding tacheometric stations such as B, C, D etc. and he entire
area is covered.
Suitability of tacheometric method
The method is suitable for contouring the area of long strips with mountainous
and undulations where direct chaining is difficult.
Interpolation of Contours:
Is process of drawing contours proportionately between the plotted ground
points or in between plotted contours. Interpolation of contours between points is
done assuming that the slope of the ground between any two points is uniform. It
may be done by one of the following methods:
1. Estimation
2. Arithmetical Calculations
3. Graphical Method
[Link] Estimation
This method is very damn rough & is taken for small scale work only. The
positions of contour pts between the guide points are located by estimation
2. By Arithmetic Calculations
The method, though precise, is time consuming. The positions of contour pts
between the guide points are located by arithmetic calculations.
6
The contours are interpolated as under:
Example- Suppose A and B are two points at a distance of 30 m and the reduced
level of A and B are 25.45m and 27.54m respectively Taking the contour interval
as 1 m. 26 and 27 contours may be interpolated in between A and B. The
difference of level between A and B is [Link] difference of level between A
[Link] A and 27m is 0.55mand 1.55 m respectively. Therefore, the
horizontal distance between A and 26 m contour =0.55/2.09 x 30m ((Diff of
A&20m /Diff of A &B *Dist. AB) and Between A and27 m contour 55/2.09*30m
These distances are then plotted to scale on the map
[Link] Method of interpolation:
In this method, several lines are drawn parallel to each other on a piece of
tracing paper
Let the distance between the lines be 2mm. Every fifth line may be drawn
heavier to facilitate easy counting, see figure.
First method of graphical interpolation
Suppose we have to interpolate contours at 2-meter vertical interval,
between two points A and B whose elevations are 112.5m and 127.5m. Let
the bottom line on the tracing paper represent every two metres.
Place the tracing paper on the plan on which heightened points have been
plotted in such a way that the line representing 112.5m (in this case a
point in between the two lines 112m and the 114m and at the 0.5mm from
112m and line.) passes through the point A. Now rotate the tracing paper
about the point A till the line representing 127.5m (in this case a point in
between the 126m and 128m line) is made to pass through the point B.
Prick through the points of intersection of the ruled lines on the line joining
the points A and B to get the required positions of the desired contours.
It may be noted the same set of ruled parallel lines may be utilized to
interpolate contours between other points so long as the distance between
them is greater than the perpendicular distance between lines
representing 112.5m and 127.5m. In case the distance is less then
another set of values are to be given. Assume that each line thereafter
represents 3m so that the bottom line and every fifth line thereafter
represents 110, 125, 140m etc. now the distance between points which
was less in earlier case is more than the perpendicular distance between
the lines representing 112.5m and 127.5m
7
Rotate the tracing paper so that 127.5m line is made to pass through the
point of 127.5m.
Similarly, interpolation between other points of different heights may be
made by assigning different values to the ruled lines. After interpolation
between the points has been done, the contour lines are drawn through
the points of equal elevations.