CHAPTER 2

COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE

THE VOICE AND THE ECHO

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Human Communication :.............................................................2
2. The uses of Communication = the role of Communication..........................2
a) Communication helps fulfill interpersonal needs:.........................2
b) Communication assist with person perception.............................2
c) Communication establishes cultural and personal identities.........2
d) Communication has persuasive qualities.....................................2
3. Defining Human Communication:...................................................3
4. The Ingredients of Human Communication..........................................3
5. Components of Human Communication..............................................4
a) Communication is a dynamic process........................................................4
b) Communication is symbolic..................................................................5
c) Communication is contextual................................................................5
d) Communication is self-reflective.............................................................7
e) Communication is irreversible...............................................................8
f) Communication has a consequence..........................................................8
g) Communication is complex...................................................................9
h) Misconception about human communication...............................................9
6. Culture.................................................................................9
a. *Culture defined.......................................................................12
b) *Characteristics of culture.........................................................13
c) Elements of culture..................................................................20
g. Developing Intercultural Competence..............................................22
 1. HUMAN COMMUNICATION :

“Communication is powerful”: it brings companions to our side or

scatters our rivals, reassures or alerts children, and forges consensus or
battle lines between us” (Keating)

2. THE USES OF COMMUNICATION = THE ROLE OF

COMMUNICATION

A) COMMUNICATION HELPS FULFILL

INTERPERSONAL NEEDS:

allow us to share our feeling, seeking a support

Ex: people usually talk about their problems with close friends to
have reassurance and support from them

B) COMMUNICATION ASSIST WITH PERSON

PERCEPTION

(Communication is not only make a connect from human to human, but

also assist in collect data from the other)
Ex: when we meet a new person, most of us is automatically asking
information such as the name, the social media, hobby, where is
he/she come from.

C) COMMUNICATION ESTABLISHES CULTURAL

AND PERSONAL IDENTITIES

Ex: In US, people usually make an eye contact with the other when
talking

D) COMMUNICATION HAS PERSUASIVE

QUALITIES

This function mean that we can use communication to achieve the goal or
purpose we want

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 Ex: when someone get lost, they usually asking other for helping
directions.
In Marketing, the shop persuade customers buying their products

3. DEFINING HUMAN COMMUNICATION:

Communication is a dynamic process in which people attempt to

share their thoughts with other people through the use of symbols in
particular settings.

4. THE INGREDIENTS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION

First at first let go with some basic concept elements in Communication.

That you may heard before
1. The Source: A person who initiates has an idea to share with another
person.
1. Ex: your friend talk about her holidays
2. The encoding: The act of translating thoughts into verbal or
nonverbal messages.
Ex: Marry intends to greeting her friend when she accidently meet her.
the process of the speaker creates a message through verbal or
nonverbal symbols. (this process happens in your mind, chooses the word
or action before it becomes the message or speak out )
3. The message: is the meaningful content of communication.
Ex: It is the preference of verbal and non-verbal in communication that
have a meaning.
4. The channel: The intermediate that provides the message necessary
connection. It have many forms such as the social media apps (messenger,
zalo) ; the book - the words are printed in the page contain the message of
author

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Ex: Television, social media
5. The receiver: A person who receive the message from the source
source by listening
Ex: The audience listening the show
6. The decoding: the process of analyse the code or message from the
speaker
Ex: when I talk about the "international concert", your mind will decode it
into the the national celebration of military parade
7. The feedback: The perception of the response from another
Ex: the reply of your friend from the chat
8. The noise: anything that interfere the communication process
Ex: a noise from people who sitting behind you and talk loudly

5. COMPONENTS OF HUMAN COMMUNICATION

The process of Communication operates in real life.

(This process usually has eight interrelated activities.)

A) COMMUNICATION IS A DYNAMIC PROCESS

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 ▪ Communication is not static (tĩnh). The communication is an on
going activity, no beginning or end
▪ Communication can not be retracted (rút lại). It means once
something is spoken out, it cannot be taken back.
Ex: you can't unring the bell “Không thể thu hồi lời đã nói.”
▪ Communication involves variables: the phrase "dynamic process"
conveys the ideal of sending and receiving, all in operation at the same
time
Ex: If the speaker ask the receiver; did you enjoy your holiday, the
receiver may answer yes or no depend on their reaction, tone of
voice

B) COMMUNICATION IS SYMBOLIC

 Symbol:
o Is an expression that stands for or represents something else.
o Can be verbal and non-verbal
Ex: words (verbal), facial expression (non-verbal)
o Can be unintentional (không có chủ ý) (someone sneezes,
and you infer they have a cold) and intentional (có chủ ý)
(someone tells you they have a cold)
 Humans possess a special way of communication due to millions of
years of evolution (tiến hóa).
 In many ways, this act of attaching meaning to symbols is at the
core of human communication.
Ex: When we hear the words “kitten” and “cotton balls”, depends
on your culture that the mental image in your head is different.
 The symbols you use are discretionary (tùy ý) and subjective
(Language symbols are no more consistent or precise than the experience, values,
and belief systems of the people using them)
 Cultures also use symbols for different purposes

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 Ex: when Mandarin and Spanish people hear the words like dogs in
their own languages, the mental images formed in their heads
probably are different.
Symbols give you an opportunity to share your personal realities
without having to directly say them.

C) COMMUNICATION IS CONTEXTUAL

- It is influenced by the setting and environment where it occurs.

- Context determines acceptable behavior by influencing
clothes, verbal language, nonverbal language, topics of discussion,
and vocabulary choices.
- Different settings like a classroom, a church, a courtroom, a
funeral, a wedding, a sporting event, a hospital, or a nightclub,
require different behaviors and adaptations.
Ex: the way people dress and behave can vary greatly depending on
the context, such as wearing shirts at a university lecture but not in
a football stadium.
- Context involves 4 following aspects.
1. Number of participants
§ The number of people involved affects the flow of
interaction in many ways.
Ex: We change the way we speak and act when talking
to one person, a small group, giving a speech, talking in
front of a larger audience.
§ Internet redefines communication, from face-to-
face to communication without the idea of who we are
talking to and physical interaction.
2. Environmental context
§ Environmental context is about “where” of the
communication event.

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 § The location of your interaction provides guidelines
for your behavior.
Ex: noise level, room temperature, how furniture is
arranged influence how people relate to each other.
§ Either consciously or unconsciously, you know the
prevailing rules as a member of one culture or another.
Rules of classrooms
China Mexico
- Students - Students are encouraged to
remain in their seats move around for verbal and physical
- Group interaction with their classmates.
interactions are
limited
(2) In some cultures, it may be rude to speak loudly in
public, while in others, it may be perfectly fine.
3. Occasion
§ Each occasion asks for distinctly different forms of
behavior.
§ The type of event happening in a specific place
influences how people act in that situation.
American Protestant funeral Irish wake
Somberness, silence music, dancing, merriment
4. Time
§ The influence of time is subtle.
§ Every communication event takes place along a time–
space continuum, and the amount of time allotted.
Ex: In the US, there are schedule and time constraints
(ràng buộc). To them, appoinment-schedule time reveals
how people feel about each other, how significant their
business is, and where they rank in the status system.

D) COMMUNICATION IS SELF-REFLECTIVE

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 - Human beings have an ability to think about and reflect on
themselves – Emerson. This process happens during
communication.
- Human is the only species that can be participant and
observer simultaneously.
- Depend on your culture being group oriented or individual
oriented that we tend to care more about others or our own self.

E) COMMUNICATION IS IRREVERSIBLE

- You could not recover your message

Ex: An apology after an insult was uttered in anger could not
dismish your bad attitude.
Extension:
- “You cannot step twice into the same river; for other waters
are ever flowing on to you.”-Heraclitus
- A harsh word dropped from the tongue cannot be brought back
by a coach and six horses.” (Chinese proverb)

F) COMMUNICATION HAS A CONSEQUENCE

Our utterances can’t be retrieved as it comes with consequences.

- Your spoken words affect others and modifies your own
behaviors to some extent.
- Our responses in communication can come in many different
forms e.g thoughts, gestures

Picture 1.1. Communication responses

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 (The farther this continuum is the harder our responses to be
detected.)
- Responses doesn’t have to happen on the spot.
Ex: you become a vegetarian 20 years later as you remember words
from your elementary teacher about why we should throw rocks at
birds, because they are probably gathering food to feed their family.
In a word, communication produces change in people -> we should
consider the ethical consequences and be careful with what we say.

G) COMMUNICATION IS COMPLEX

Communication is complex as a result of

- It involves with various activities such as controlling,
informing, persuading and relating to others.
- Have thounsands of components in operation at the same
time (stimulation of your nerve endings, secretion of chemicals in
our brain, moving of our lips... )
- Cultural dimensions.
Ex: in terms of greeting, some cultures would smile casually,
another would bow formally, yet another would hug tightly.

H) MISCONCEPTION ABOUT HUMAN COMMUNICATION

1. Communication can solve all problems

Communication isn’t a cure-all for macro issues or personal
relationships. Because
- It has limits
- Its effectiveness depends on cultural contexts
2. Some people are born effective communicators
- It is not true that everyone is born with or without the ability to
be superior commuicators.
- Anyone can develop the basic skills to become successful
communicator.
3. The message you send is the message received

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 - Human are not computers which decode the message the
way the sspeaker encoded.
- There are variables such as background, memory, values,
beliefs, vocabulary, their preferences to be active or not in
communication, and especialy culture.

6. CULTURE

* As Hall points out, “Culture is communication and communication is

culture.”
* Communication is always connected strongly to culture. Here are some
examples:
- Dogs:
o In some cultures, dogs are considered food and are cooked for
meals.
o In contrast, in the United States and many Western countries: dogs
are treated as beloved pets, often allowed on couches and beds.
o This shows how cultural values shape how the same animal is
perceived and treated.
- Praying:
o Muslims in Kabul and Kandahar: pray five times daily while
kneeling on the floor.
o Jewish people in Jerusalem: pray standing and gently rocking back
and forth.
-> The act of worship differs according to cultural and religious traditions.
- Language:
o People in the Philippines may speak Tagalog
while people in other places speak English.
o Language differences highlight how culture creates distinct ways
of communicating.
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- Body decoration:
o Some cultures (like certain tribal groups): paint and decorate their
entire bodies.
o Modern cities: spend large amounts of money decorating only their
faces with makeup.
o Both practices reflect cultural ideas of beauty and self-expression.
- Greetings:
o In Western cultures: people often shake hands when meeting
strangers.
o In countries like Japan: people bow instead.
=> Both are culturally appropriate ways of showing respect and politeness.
*In summary: From how people treat dogs, to how they pray, speak,
decorate themselves, and greet others, every example demonstrates that
cultural traditions and values strongly shape human behavior and
communication.
- The influence of culture on human perception and actions: Culture
consists of how we relate to other people, how we think, how we behave,
and how we view the world.
- You’re born with the physical ability to live (body, brain, senses), but
you don’t automatically know: how to dress, what food to eat, how to play,
how to handle conflict, what life goals to pursue, how to use money or
time,…

 learned from the culture you grow up in.

- Culture is everywhere—it teaches us how to live, think, act, and

communicate. We aren’t born with these behaviors; we learn them by
living in a cultural environment.

* The basic function of culture is to make life easier by teaching people

how to live and adapt to their surroundings.

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  Avoiding mistakes through passed-down experiences
 Providing a predictable structure—a kind of “blueprint”—for how
to behave and what outcomes to expect.
 Without culture, daily life would be confusing, since culture guides
everything from work and economy to greetings, relationships,
health, and beliefs about life and death.
=> Culture gives us structure, direction, and shared knowledge,
making life more predictable and understandable.
To further explain the concept of culture and its impact on communication:
a. * CULTURE DEFINED
- What is culture?
 Complex and difficult to define
 Different meanings in different contexts
 Always changing, yet has enduring aspects
- Perspectives on “Culture”
 Academics →
o Psychology: “Programming of the mind”
o Sociology: “Human-made environment”
 Media → sophistication (art, music, fine dining)
 Popular culture → trends (fashion, K-pop, TikTok)
- Triandis’ Definition
“Culture is a set of human-made objective and subjective elements that
in the past have
increased the probability survival and resulted in satisfaction for the
participants in an ecological niche, and thus became shared among
those who could communicate with each other because they had a
common language and they lived in the same time and place.

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 *Ecological niche: the range of resources and conditions allowing the
species to maintain a viable population
- Key Features of Culture
1. Human-made
o Learned, not biological
o Example: table manners vs. crying
2. Subjective elements
o Values, beliefs, attitudes, norms and foundation behaviours
o Example: respect for elders, freedom, modesty
3. Worldview influence
o Shapes how we interpret reality
o Example: flag = patriotism; aging = wisdom (Asia) vs.
independence (West)
4. Language as a symbol system
o Medium for sharing and transmitting culture
o Example: English, Vietnamese, Japanese kanji
- Why Culture Matters
 Explains learned human behavior
 Influences how people think, act, and communicate
 Provides shared meaning within a group
 Allows traditions and values to be passed down

B) *CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

 All cultures share common traits

 Understand how culture influences human behavior.
 Shows connection between culture & communication

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 Example: Greeting styles differ, but all cultures have ways to greet
*Most experts agree: “The heart of culture involves language, religion,
values, traditions, and customs
- Why Study Culture?
 Reflect on your own culture
Example: You might not realize why removing shoes indoors is normal
in Vietnam, but unusual in the West
 Notice differences in culture with others
Example: Eating with chopsticks vs. forks
 Makes us more aware and more open to others.”
“The discovery of culture—the awareness that it shapes our behavior,
values, and ideas—can be a startling or illuminating experience.” –
Shapiro
*Culture is shared
 Distinctive personal experiences and genetics: culture helps unitings
people
 Culture is a group worldview, the way of organizing the world that a
particular society has created over time
 Example: Vietnamese culture emphasizes family; U.S. culture values
independence
What Shared Culture Provides
 Common fund of knowledge
Example: In Vietnam, everyone knows how to celebrate Tết (Lunar
New Year).
 Sense of identity
Example: Wearing an “áo dài” makes people feel connected to
Vietnamese identity.
 Shared traditions

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  Predictable behaviors
Example: If you say “chào” to an elder, you expect respect back.
How Culture Works
 Culture = shared ideas, values, perceptions, behaviors
 Makes actions understandable to others
Example: When someone bows in Japan, others understand it as
respect.
 Helps predict and respond to behavior
Example: If someone offers you food in Vietnam, the polite response
is to accept at least a little.
 Example: Knowing to bring gifts when visiting a host in some
cultures
Factors Influencing Human Behavior
1. Human nature – inherited traits
Example: crying, fear, hunger
2. Culture and groups – learned behaviors
Example: professional rules, traditions, co-cultures
3. Individual personality – unique to each person
* Culture Is Transmitted From Generation to Generation
 Shared across generations
Example: Thoreau said, “All the past is here.”
 Cultural inheritance → values, norms, behaviors passed down from
parents and society
Example: Culture defined what it means to be a husband, wife, child,
or colleague
 Role of communication → family + society reinforce culture
Example: Parents teaching respect; schools teaching national history

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  Everyday learning → starts in childhood, continues for life
Example: Children celebrating Lunar New Year or Christmas with
relatives, help them absorb traditions without realizing it.
 Importance of continuity → if not transmitted, culture may fade
Example: Indigenous languages disappearing when not taught to
children
* Culture Is Based on Symbols
 Without the capacity of humans to think symbolically and express
those symbols, culture could not be passed from generation to
generation.
 Media (books, films, digital storage) preserve cultural knowledge
 Language = most powerful symbol → share facts, beliefs, and even
abstract ideas like morality, religion, or philosophy.
 In conclution, symbols unite people and prevent loss of collective
memory
 Examples:
o National flag = identity & pride
o Wedding ring = love & commitment
o Books = Truyện Kiều by Nguyễn Du
Digital storage – Online archives and YouTube channels preserve hát
quan họ, ca trù, and other traditional music forms
*Culture is learned
Informal learning is any learning that happens outside a structured
educational setting, driven by the learner's interests and goals. It can take
place through interaction, observation and imitation. (bắt chước)
Examples:
Interaction: Good kids get candy when they do something right and learn
that their kind or helpful actions can earn rewards.

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Observation: In many Asian households, we learn cooking not through
recipes but through watching our mothers cook, how they season “by feel”
rather than measuring.
Imitation: Children play house, pretend to be an adult carrying out routine
domestic tasks or activities => cultural roles.
Formal learning is structured, intentional learning delivered in an
organized educational setting like a school or workplace.
Example: History lessons focusing on national identity, traditions, and
heritage.
Learning Culture through Proverbs
A proverb is a short statement that usually offers life advice, wisdom, or a
truth.
Examples:
“Honesty is the best policy” to teach people integrity.
“It takes a village to raise a child” to emphasize communal responsibility.
“Có công mài sắt, có ngày nên kim” to teach persistence.
Learning proverbs is learning about other cultures’ worldviews, beliefs,
values and communication patterns.
“God helps those who help themselves", “No pain, no gain” and “Pull
yourself up by your bootstraps” => emphasizing the idea that in the United
States, people must take action, work hard to achieve their goals.
“Nghèo rớt mồng tơi” = “As poor as a church mouse" => saying that one
is extremely poor.
Learning Culture through Folktales, Legends and Myths
Definitions:
Folktale is a story originating in popular culture, typically passed on by
word of mouth.
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Example: Cinderella teaching about resilience and hope, or Tấm Cám is a
lesson about virtues versus envy.
Legend is a traditional story sometimes popularly regarded as historical
but
unauthenticated.
Example: Lạc Long Quân and Âu Cơ tells us the origin of Vietnamese
people.
Myth is a traditional story, especially one concerning the early history of a
people or explaining some natural or social phenomenon, and typically
involving supernatural beings or events.
Example: Nüwa (Nữ Oa) from Chinese Myth, a mother goddess creating
humans from clay.
Built-in gender bias is a kind of prejudice between genders that is
ingrained within a system, culture, or structure.
Examples:
Women should be skilled in domestic arts, eg. Tấm Cám. Or girls are often
portrayed as submissive and docile, eg. Little Red Riding Hood.
Men are described to be tall, strong, or powerful, often the heroes or main
characters. Such as Đăm Săn in the Rade epic, or Sơn Tinh Thủy Tinh in
Vietnamese myth.
=> In conclusion, stories tell you what was and still is important to a group
of people, reminding you that they are found in every culture and deal with
ideas of what matter most to that culture.
Learning Culture through Art
Art is a part of each culture’s identity, people throughout the world feel a
great historical, emotional and spiritual attachment to their art forms. It has
always reflected how people live, think, and view the world. From early
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cave paintings to later works, it communicates daily life, values, and
worldviews, expressing something unique about each time and culture.
Examples: Prehistoric Art – Palm prints, Indian Painting of combined
gods of Shiva and Vishnu, The Battle of Rạch Gầm - Xoài Mút
Likewise, calligraphy is also a visual form of art related to writing. It is the
design and execution of lettering with a pen, ink brush, or other writing
instruments.
Chinese calligraphy
While Chinese art often portrays the beauty of nature, European and North
American art tend to emphasize people => different notions in culture of
two countries.
Learning Culture through Media
The media not only offers information and entertainment but also tells us
about our cultural identity and contributes to shaping our beliefs and
values.
However, it is hard to prove a clear cause-and-effect link between using
media
(like TV, blogs, Skype) and the cultural influence such messages have on
people.
Example: Imagine a teenager watches violent TV shows and later gets
into fights at school. While it can be the cause, other factors should be
considered as well; such as anger issues, influenced by friends or problems
at home.
Overabundance of media in daily life
The issue is not the amount of time spent watching TV or playing video
games but rather the content of the messages young people are receiving
from those outlets.

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Example: Watching 3 hours of educational documentaries can expand
your knowledge. But watching 3 hours of violent shows may normalize
aggression or desensitize empathy.
Culture is dynamic
Innovation: The discovery of new ideas, tools, or concepts within a
culture.
E.g.: The invention of the smartphone is a cultural innovation. It was
developed by companies within a specific cultural and technological
context, and it changed how people communicate, work, and live
Diffusion is a mechanism of change that is seen by the spread of various
ideas, concepts, institutions, and practices from one culture to another
E.g.: Sushi originated in Japan as a specific culinary tradition. Through
international travel, migration, and media, the practice of making and
eating sushi has spread all over the world, being adopted and adapted by
countless cultures
Popular culture: which includes consumer products—for example,
music, food, hairstyles, clothing, recreational activities and their
equipment, styles of cars, and furnishings—constantly change.
E.g.: people in Japan dressing like people in Paris is a surface-level,
"front-stage" behavior.
Backstage culture—the values, attitudes, and cultural dimensions that
have been learned from birth—change[s] very little and very, very
slowly. are the core values, attitudes, and beliefs that are deeply
ingrained and change very slowly.
- This includes things like religious practices, family values, and ethical
codes.
E.g.: The tradition to respect the elders in many Asian and Latin American
societies.

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Cultural boundary maintenance: the progress to resist changes that
threaten the core identity

C) ELEMENTS OF CULTURE

1. World view is the way people interpret reality and events, including
their images of themselves and how they relate to the world around them
- Worldview provides some of the unexamined underpinnings for
perception and the nature of reality as experienced by individuals who
share a common culture
2. Religion is used by people to help them understand the universe, natural
phenomena, what to die for, and how to dwell among other people.
E.g.: major world religions—Buddhism, Christianity spread to new
societies, they did not completely erase the local culture. Instead, the
societies insisted on adapting the new religions to their own cultural
traditions
3. History provides guidance in daily life and brings us tidings of antiquity
E.g.: Vietnamese people ourselves have Independence Day, which is a
memorable milestone in Vietnamese history, the motivation behind the
building of the Great Wall of China -> each one carries a unique meaning
for their respective cultures.
4. Values are people’s beliefs about the goals or ways of living that are
desirable for themselves and their society.
- Values have profound, though partly unconscious, effects on people’s
behavior.
- Values and the specific behaviors associated with them provide members
of a culture standards to live by.
E.g.: In Eastern countries, it is common for teenagers to live with their
parents and only move out when they get married >< In Western countries,
teenagers are expected to live on their own as soon as possible

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5. Social organizations are institutions such as family, government,
schools, tribes, and clans
- These social systems establish communication networks and regulate
norms of personal, familial, and social conduct
E.g.: The family unit is a social organization
6. Language is an element found in all cultures, as the words a young
child learns and what those words mean are directly related to culture
E.g.: In English, we have a simple word for "you." But in languages like
Vietnamese, there are different forms for "you" depending on whom you're
speaking to (someone older, a superior, or a friend. This shows how their
culture places a higher value on formality and social relationship)

G. DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE

What is Intercultural Competence? (năng lực)

 General: According to Spitzberg, intercultural communication
competence is “behavior that is appropriate and effective in a
given context”
 Specific: According to Kim, “the overall internal capability of an
individual to manage key challenging features of intercultural
communication: namely, cultural differences and unfamiliarity,
inter-group posture*, and the accompanying experience of stress”
(*Inter-group posture:
Inter-group: (Something) occurring between two or more groups of
people/things
Posture: The position in which someone holds their body; An approach or
attitude from someone
→ In this context, inter-group posture probably means the way in which
people from each group of different cultures present/express
themselves.)
→ Being an interculturally competent communicator means analyzing
the situation and selecting the correct mode of behavior.

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Ex : Mr. Adam is an American businessman. He's going to have a meeting
with his partner - Mr. Ibrahim, a man from Saudi Arabia. Although Mr.
Adam is impressed by the differences in their culture, he remains neutral
and nonjudgmental when he wears a suit, while Mr. Ibrahim wears a white
robe, a red and white ghutra. He acts calm and open when Mr. Ibrahim
makes small talks, even though in Mr. Adam's culture, businesspeople
often go straight to the point. He expresses his respect when they shake
hands: he holds Mr. Ibrahim's right hand with both hands.
The basic components of Intercultural Communication Competence
B.1. Motivation
To be motivated → find a positive reward in your intercultural
encounter, which you can achieve by accomplishing certain goals as a
part of that intercultural encounter.
A communicator who achieves his or her goals is effective,
therefore, more competent.
 Extrinsic: provide practical rewards, such as financial gain, respect,
or power → driven by external factors.
Ex : Linda is a Customer Service Advisor. Knowing that she will receive
an incentive of 2% bonus to her monthly salary by improving her
performance, she decides to increase her working hours. This motivation
also enhances her skills in assisting the customers more efficiently.
 Intrinsic: driven by personal factors.
Ex : Mai Anh, a Vietnamese 18-year-old, studies abroad in the United
States. She initially struggles to fit in due to her communication style
being different to how American students express themselves, but then a
sudden encounter with Justin has made Mai Anh develop an attraction to
him. Motivated by her feelings for Justin, Mai Anh strives to improve her
communication skills, which also lead to a better understanding of
American culture.
→ You must learn to go beyond personal boundaries and try to find
reasons to be motivated.
B.2. Knowledge
Often being referred to as cognitive flexibility: the ability to augment and
expand knowledge about people from cultures different from your
own.

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(*Cognitive flexibility: the mental ability to switch between different
thoughts or tasks in response to changing circumstances and
demands, allowing individuals to adapt their behavior and thinking in
dynamic environments.)
 Content knowledge: an understanding of topics, words,
meanings, and so forth required for the situation.
Ex : To learn the theories of the book Cross-cultural Communication, you
understand many topics and meanings related to the subject.
 Procedural knowledge: how to assemble, plan, and perform
content knowledge in a particular situation.
Ex : Based on what you learn about the culture of the British, you utilize
that knowledge and skill into the daily interaction with British people.
 Two methods:
Culture Specific: The culture-specific method assumes that the most
effective way to improve intercultural communication is to study one
culture at a time.
Ex : Assuming you will work and/or talk with an Arab person, you begin
to learn the culture of Arab in an in-depth way; like his or her beliefs,
behavioral standards, traditional food, etc.
Culture General: Aims to understand the universal influences of
culture on human behaviors through different learning methods.
Ex: The use of chopsticks is a universal culture for some Asian countries,
such as Japan, Korea, China, Vietnam.
→ it is important to have knowledge that enables you to adapt to any
culture.
B.3. Skills
 Intercultural Listening Skills: Listening involves being motivated,
having knowledge about your communication partner, and
possessing the specific skills to listen effectively.
 Standardized social behavioral protocols
Ex : Many other Asian cultures believe words can get in the way of
understanding, like the Japanese; so silence can be valued over words.
 How speakers present themselves and their ideas
Ex : In Japan, Thailand, and

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Cambodia, people tend to speak in soft voices, whereas in the
Mediterranean area, the appropriate volume is much more intense.
 Cultural nonverbal responses
Ex : In the United States and other Western cultures, a good listener is
seen as paying attention when having direct eye contact with the person
talking.
 Direct/Indirect communication style
Ex : Direct: France, Germany, and the United States, people listen
primarily for facts and concrete information.
Indirect: Finland, Japan, and Sweden, interruptions do not occur while the
speaker is talking, and politeness is a crucial part of the listener’s behavior.
 Accents
Ex : Most of the Indians; Vietnamese; British when speaking English.
 Open-mindedness
Ex : A Christian person believes in the concept of heaven and hell,
interacting with someone from India telling them about reincarnation.
 Communication Flexibility: Have a large range of behaviors you
can call on when presenting yourself to another person of a
different culture.
Ex : The instance when you - an American person who greets people with
handshakes, meets a Japanese who bows, you are expected to bow in
return - a flexible behaviour to express your respect.
 The Skill to Tolerate Ambiguity: The ability to respond correctly
to novel and ambiguous situations with minimal anxiety will
enable you to remain calm and will help in familiarizing yourself
with the new culture.
(*Ambiguity = Vagueness)
Ex : Your culture values competition and aggressive action and if you are
around someone from a culture that values cooperation and interpersonal
harmony, you should remain patient and calm, expressing your willingness
to be able to work with that person.
 Expect the unexpected, be nonjudgmental, and practice patience.

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